Educational disadvantage

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Under educational disadvantage is understood that a group of children or adults in the education system has fewer ways to achieve an educational goal than others. When using this term, it is usually about the fewer opportunities for people of different sexes or with fewer personal, social, financial and cultural resources to acquire education that is available despite formal equality of opportunity. One speaks of educational disadvantage regardless of whether the cause comes about through deliberate or conscious discrimination or not. The statistically verifiable disadvantages of these groups in achieving educational goals are decisive.

In the past, education and the expansion of the education system were often associated with the hope of reducing social inequalities. The French sociologists Pierre Bourdieu and Jean-Claude Passeron showed in the 1960s that equal opportunities were not created .

Causes and consequences of educational disadvantage

Social background

Members of the so-called "lower" social classes:

  • From the age of two they develop their language and intelligence differently than people from "privileged" classes,
  • have fewer requirements to acquire school knowledge,
  • attend less demanding schools with the same basic skills in countries with a structured school system.

language

Bernstein compared language samples from middle-class and working-class people. Even if the intelligence was kept constant, there were differences in sentence length, word length and pause length. Workers' sentences were shorter, they used shorter words and left shorter pauses between two words (presumably because the smaller vocabulary offered fewer choices and therefore faster word choice).

Workers talk less about space, time and causal contingency - that includes discussions about possible cause-effect relationships of events in the workers' world. Workers' language is socio-centered, which means that they talk about the things that are relevant to the social groups to which they belong. Academics, on the other hand, tend to talk about abstract things with no personal reference. It is noticeable that these differences are not so pronounced in early childhood. However, they become more and more pronounced as development progresses, and they are most pronounced in adulthood.

It was also shown that a word can have different meanings for people from different backgrounds. Oerter examined students of teacher training colleges and found that - depending on which class their parents belonged to - they understood very different things under one word. There was a big difference here between two groups:

  • 1st group: children of craftsmen and self-employed people without a high school diploma
  • 2nd group: children of civil servants and employees.

Students from these two groups of origin imagine very different things under one word. The differences were greatest when it came to the word “efficient”. Craftsmen children usually thought of qualities that have to do with cosmopolitanism and dominance. The children of employees and civil servants, on the other hand, thought of qualities that had to do with physical performance and strength of character. The following answers were most frequently given to the question of what good means:

Students were asked, "What does 'capable' mean?"
Children of craftsmen * said Children of employees and officials said
They said: "'Efficient' means ..." * friendly * polite * sociable * skillful in dealing with other people * daring * assertive * ambitious * strong * robust * healthy * honest * orderly * upright
Rolf Oerter: Modern Developmental Psychology . Verlag Ludwig Auer, Donauwörth 1970, p. 488

* Craftsman's children = children of craftsmen and self-employed people without a high school diploma

Cognitive development

Children from all social classes show the same development of language, mind and social behavior in the course of the first 15 months. There is a small difference: at the age of 15 months, working-class children are a little further in their motor development. The reasons for this are not clear. Oerter concludes: “On average, children from all occupational classes and social groups showed the same level of intelligence at all measured times within the first 15 months [...]. The result is all the more astonishing when you consider that there are already serious group differences at the age of six. ” At the age of 24 months, differences in favor of children from the middle classes are already evident. With these a larger vocabulary can now be measured. At the age of three, the vocabulary of middle-class children is already three times as large as that of children from the lower classes.

Motivation to learn

In his book Modern Developmental Psychology, Oerter assumes that children from the lower class react more strongly to praise and recognition in their learning behavior than children from the middle class. Middle-class children, on the other hand, have an intrinsic motivation and enjoyment of the task itself and less of the recognition, according to Oerter.

It also depends on how a child is praised. Edward Zigler and Paul Kanzer report that working-class children were more likely to respond to personal praise, while academic children were more likely to respond to performance-related praise. Personal praise applies e.g. B. “good!” (In the original examination: “good!”) And “excellent!” (Original examination: “fine!”). “Correct!” And “correct!” Apply as performance-related praise.

Poor children in school

Ruby Payne argues that growing up in poverty has important character effects. To survive in poverty, poor children would have to be non-verbal and respond immediately to sensations. In school, however, this is a disadvantage for them. The school is a middle-class institution: here it is important to be able to verbalize thoughts, to be able to abstract them and to plan ahead - skills that poor children first have to learn. According to Walter Mischel , poor children have less self-control and are more likely to seek immediate satisfaction of their needs. This is bad because self-regulation plays an important role in the middle-class institution of schools.

Donna Beegle believes that poor families and wealthier families live in different cultures. Oral culture prevails in poor families . For members of the oral culture, sensory experiences are important. Oral culture is characterized by spontaneity, focus on the present, emphasis on emotions and the ability to see the “big picture”. In wealthy families, on the other hand, the written culture prevails . It values ​​self-discipline, the ability to withstand delayed payments, the ability to act strategically and plan, the ability to set goals and take steps to achieve them, technical skills and analytical skills.

For various reasons, members of the lower classes of the population have disadvantages when it comes to acquiring education. These include:

  • The family background: educational level of the parents, their experience in the educational system, motivation to learn, passive vs. active lifestyle. Of central importance is the acquisition, incorporation ( incorporation ) and possession of cultural capital .
A special role in the emergence of social differences in the acquisition of education is played by the different use of language in the different social classes. In the first years of life, children from the middle class acquire a much larger vocabulary than children from the lower class . The complexity of children's language increases with the number of words heard. In addition, middle-class children receive more praise and encouragement from their parents than lower-class children, who are more likely to receive prohibitive and discouraging statements from their parents. The development of the children's intelligence quotient correlates closely with their vocabulary, which in turn correlates less with the average family income and more with the number of words that parents speak to their children. This creates a close connection between social background and intellectual growth.
  • Social segregation : Due to increasing social segregation, children and young people from the socially disadvantaged milieus who live in the city hardly encounter members of other educational classes. The quality of educational institutions correlates with the social composition of the population of certain districts, etc. In fact, urban segregation is less than segregation in classrooms.
In rural areas there is less segregation and there is also less educational disadvantage. Overall, children from families in the upper class (e.g. children of top managers) go to grammar school 6.06 times as often as children from skilled workers' families, and children from the lower class (e.g. children of professors or doctors) go 3.64 times as often to grammar school as children of skilled workers (ibid .; see evaluation of the PISA studies: Influence of social background ).

The chances of skilled workers' children are worst in cities with over 300,000 inhabitants. There, the chances of a child from the upper class of attending grammar school are 14.36 times as high as that of the skilled worker and the chances of a child from the lower class are 7.57 times as high as that of a skilled worker (ibid.). So you can see that the chances of the skilled worker child in the city are particularly bad.

  • Unequal income distribution : In low-income or poverty there is little possibility of tuition to take advantage of, or in poor performance in private schools to avoid having more individual support. In addition, there is the need to become self-employed early on and earn your own money, finance tuition fees, etc.
  • Discrimination : Even with equally good performance, children with a low social background are less likely to receive a recommendation for high-quality educational institutions. Cultural and institutional discrimination are intertwined here.
A study by the Institute for Sociology at the University of Mainz, which was carried out at primary schools in Wiesbaden, found that with the same average grade (2.0), 97% of all children of parents with a high social status received the recommendation for high school, while 76% of children of parents received it low social status. On average, children with low social status are about one grade lower than children with high social status. The study leaves it open, however, whether this difference is due to discrimination or to the fact that parents of the upper class more often want the high school recommendation for their children and communicate it to the teachers. The study also comes to the conclusion that there is no discrimination against migrants. Although these more often have a low social status, there are no differences in the school recommendations compared with locals of the same social status . However, since the study was carried out in a major West German city and in a conservatively governed federal state, it remains questionable whether it can be considered representative for the rest of Germany.
Rindermann and Rost deviate from this interpretation. From comparable English studies, they conclude that there is no discrimination against the lower classes, only privileged upper classes. In other words: Eliminating this injustice would not lead to an increased educational advancement of poorer children, but to an increased educational decline among wealthier children.
  • The Pygmalion Effect : If a teacher already has an (anticipated) assessment of the students (e.g. stupid, clever, etc.), this view will also be confirmed later on. Most of the time, the teacher will consider a middle-class child a better student than a lower-class or working-class child.
  • Lack of mother tongue competence: In immigration countries (this also includes the Federal Republic of Germany), many of the students grew up under the influence of two or three languages ​​(e.g. German, Turkish, Kurdish). Competent use of their mother tongue enables children to put their thoughts and feelings into words. The situation of being able to speak many languages ​​only partially and not being able to speak the mother tongue through which they were socialized leads to negative restrictions. If the mother tongue competence is not encouraged in the classroom, the starting conditions deteriorate and the educational development of the learners suffers. In the FRG this has been established by the Conference of Education Ministers since 1996.

“For whoever has it will be given that he may have abundance; but whoever does not have what he has will be taken from him. "

- Mt 25,29  LUT

Colloquially, this phenomenon is also expressed with the proverbs “Whoever has, is given”, “It always rains where it is already wet” or “The devil always shits on the biggest pile”.

In school research, this means that the school fails to compensate for any delays. If one observes students over a longer period of time, it is noticeable that the school even intensifies existing performance differences in some cases. For example, there are already differences in performance between children from educationally related families and children from educationally disadvantaged families. But these differences are nowhere near as great as the differences at the age of 15. In all countries that participated in both PISA and IGLU , it was found that the performance differences between children from different social classes are greater in adolescence than in childhood. This applies to the countries New Zealand, Germany, France, Hungary, Norway, USA, Sweden, Canada, Greece, the Czech Republic, Iceland, the Netherlands, Italy, Latvia and the Russian Federation.

gender

At the beginning of the 1960s, in the course of the expansion of education and against the background of rising feminism, the unequal educational content and educational opportunities of girls and boys were discussed. Educational disadvantage was seen, for example, in the fact that girls in some cantons of Switzerland had no opportunity to attend grammar school until 1967. In addition, the curricula provided for different lesson content for girls and boys: compared to schoolchildren, female pupils had fewer lessons in subjects such as arithmetic, algebra and geometry because they had to attend manual and home economics classes during the compulsory school years. According to a report by the Education Directors' Conference from 1971, this created "significant disadvantages for girls when they transfer to higher schools and when choosing a career".

In the 1990s, the debate about the relationship between education and gender changed in several western industrialized countries . In Germany, especially since the publication of the results of the PISA studies , which found that girls had a significant head start in reading and boys in mathematics, there was talk of a “boy crisis” and boys portrayed as losers in education.

In 2007, Spiegel Online reported that boys were disadvantaged when it came to grades and stated that they were referring to the results of a report by the Federal Ministry. According to the Süddeutsche Zeitung, an evaluation of the IGLU study from 2005 showed that primary school students mostly had better grades in German than primary school students. The German IGLU coordinator said that boys were “slightly disadvantaged” in the subjects of German and specialist knowledge, and that this was due to “better behavior or greater conformity” of the girls. A study by Maaz, Baeriswyl and Trautwein on behalf of the Vodafone Foundation Germany from 2011 showed that girls achieve better or equally good school grades, although boys do slightly better in school performance tests. Data from the study indicate that girls are more conscientious in class and that this explains at least part of the better grades, with the data obtained being based on self-attribution. With the same performance in the tests, boys were rated more strictly than girls.

Niederbacher, Textor and Zimmermann (2009) object that a difference between school grades and results in standardized school achievement tests cannot be interpreted as evidence of a disadvantage for boys because school achievement tests such as For example, the IGLU study does not query all competencies that are taught in lessons and that are incorporated into the awarding of grades. If girls perform significantly better than boys in areas not covered by school performance tests, a better grade would be appropriate. According to Valtin, Wagner and Schwippert (2006), the better average marks given by girls can at least in part be explained by the fact that girls do homework more reliably and participate more actively in class. Hannover (2004) attributes the lower average school success of boys also to their social behavior. B. that boys reacted more often to frustrations in everyday school life with inappropriate behavior. Other explanations for the higher average marks of girls are the girls' higher motivation and greater self-discipline.

A study by Rieske on behalf of the Education and Science Union comes to the conclusion that boys are not disadvantaged: “Boys as a group in German educational institutions are not disadvantaged compared to girls. In view of the complexity of social conditions and the multidimensional nature of education, one cannot speak of a simple educational disadvantage of a gender group. "At most, one can speak of disadvantage due to unfavorable constructions of masculinity:" Boys are disadvantaged insofar as certain social constructions of masculinity conflict with certain requirements bring from educational institutions. In particular, an orientation towards the idea of ​​male hegemony with its claims to superiority and resistance to adaptation, supposedly male talents and the rejection of hard work, self-confidence and a lack of awareness of the need for help seem to prevent (some) boys from obtaining formal qualifications in educational institutions. "

Budde (2008), Phoenix and Frosh (2005) as well as Francis (1999) also explain the average poorer grading of boys by the fact that boys orient themselves towards dominant ideals of masculinity ( hegemonic masculinity ) and devalue school success as unmanly. Kimmel (2011) sees the problem with the fact that “a certain ideology of masculinity, especially among working-class boys and boys belonging to social minorities, persists, namely that it is contrary to the rules of masculinity to take school seriously.” Morris (2008) found in a study that students who tried to get good grades were more often viewed as feminized and referred to as " pussy " and " gay ". Students constructed masculinity through risky and aggressive behavior and the devaluation of academic efforts as feminine. Morris describes boys' poor academic performance as an ironic consequence of the pursuit of male dominance. Other researchers see the different educational successes of boys and girls as an expression of gender socialization. Figueroa (2004) and Cobbett and Younger (2012) analyze the underachievement dabatte in Jamaica and other Caribbean countries and each argue that boys and girls are treated differently from birth. For example, boys have to do less household chores (e.g. cooking, cleaning) than girls, and maladjusted behavior by boys is tolerated (“Boys will be boys”), while girls are expected to behave appropriately. When they start school, boys are therefore less prepared for the school requirements and have more difficulties in performing subjectively uninteresting tasks and in behaving appropriately. These socialization effects are not the result of a disadvantage for the male population, but an expression of the historical preference for boys and men.

Since the rise in the number of female teachers in many Western countries, public concerns have been expressed about the so-called "feminization" of the school system. The assumption that female teaching staff negatively impact boys' school performance has led to efforts in several countries to increase the proportion of male teaching staff. The thesis has hardly been scientifically confirmed so far. Empirical studies using data from several countries have found no association between the gender of the teacher and the academic performance of boys. For example, the data collected in 2006 and 2007 from over 146,000 schoolchildren from 21 EU and OECD countries, including Germany, were analyzed in a study. It was found that male teachers do not improve boys' performance compared to female teachers. In some of the countries examined, however, a positive correlation was found between the performance of girls and teachers. In contrast, a 2007 study showed that a teacher's gender has a significant impact on performance and teacher evaluation. The study analyzed data collected in a nationally representative longitudinal study in American schools in 1988. According to this study, girls score significantly better with teachers in history than with teachers, and boys achieve significantly better results with teachers than with teachers in reading.

A longitudinal study in New Zealand with 940 participants showed that women who had attended mixed schools had a significant lead on five measures of educational achievement (number of school exams passed, scholarships obtained , university attendance , university degree, highest professional qualification). In comparison, the men who attended separate-sex schools had a performance advantage in terms of two of the five measures of educational success (university attendance and graduation). For Germany, a disadvantage due to an alleged feminization of education could not be shown.

According to some educators and sociologists, the public discourse on the educational disadvantage of boys represents a “ moral panic ” that reinforces a deficit-oriented view of boys and ignores the part of boys who show high skills and good grades. Scientists criticize the fact that boys are portrayed as a homogeneous, disadvantaged group in the media discussion and that performance differences within the boys' group, e.g. B. between boys from educationally disadvantaged backgrounds and boys from academic families, lost sight. In addition, it is not reported that the overrepresentation of boys is not only evident in negative, but also in positive extreme groups and that, according to statistics, boys are more often deferred, but also more frequently than girls among class skippers and more often receive talented support.

Attitudes and behaviors of teachers

Many teachers do not reflect sufficiently on the conditions under which their students (fail) to perform or display certain behaviors. In 1982 z. For example, the “ Spiegel ” classifies homework for schoolchildren as “trespassing” as it is a constant source of harassment from parents (who are expected to help their children) and domestic dissatisfaction . Many teachers do not see the fact that many parents are unable to help their children as the school expects due to a lack of previous education or a lack of time; at least they don't take it into account when assessing student performance.

In her dissertation published in 2017, Ilka Benner explains that it is particularly significant that there is a trend in German elementary schools to want to "compensate" for poor student performance by creating a good learning atmosphere. Parents from “educationally disadvantaged” milieus often do not know and they are not given enough help by teachers to recognize that their children are permanently threatened by competitive disadvantages or even by inability to compete, if they are not helped early and efficiently.

Educational disadvantage in individual states

Germany

Austria

The problem of the lower access of young people with “uneducated” to “educated origin” seems to be structurally similar to that in the Federal Republic of Germany. According to the latest social survey study, the effects of universities and technical colleges overlap. On the one hand, the overall recruitment rate is increasing, i. In other words, the trend towards higher education is unbroken and has been at a higher level since 2004 than before the introduction of tuition fees , which led to a decline. On the other hand, for the entire higher education sector, the recruitment rate for educationally-oriented classes has been constant for more than ten years, while the corresponding quota for non-educated classes has increased slightly but steadily. The overrepresentation of educated classes has therefore been reduced in the last 15 years. The main reason for this is the expansion of the FH sector , whose social composition is more balanced than at universities. At the universities of applied sciences, the recruitment rate for the educationally-oriented classes is twice as high, at the universities three times as high as that of the less-educated classes.

United States

One-on-one support for a preschooler
in the USA as part of Head Start

A group called Workingclass Academics has existed in the USA since 1995 . Once a year, she holds the WCA conference on the subject of discrimination against students with low social backgrounds. In 2003 this meeting took place in Great Britain . Working-class children who rise despite the educational disadvantage are also referred to in English as straddlers (from English: to straddle = spreading), since they have one leg in the working class ( blue collar ) and the other in a higher one Layer ( white collar = white coat). There is a lot of autobiographical literature on this in the USA.

In order to curb the social disadvantage that initiated Bush administration campaign No Child Left Behind Act . However, this law criticizes the fact that more money is now flowing into private instead of public schools. The 21st Century Community Learning Centers were also launched as part of the No Child Left Behind Act . The 21st Century Community Learning Centers provide elementary and middle school students with a variety of after-school activities. This includes, for example, sports, theater, but also homework supervision. You will be looked after by educators and social workers. Often there is a meal together. The centers are open four to five days a week for three hours after school.

In addition, Career Academies have existed in the USA for some time . A career academy is a special class within a state high school that prepares particularly well for college. Academic skills are particularly encouraged here. Career academies often have special “topics” such as health sciences or business administration. It has been proven that Career Academies students have better chances in life.

United Kingdom

In the UK there is a sharp division between private schools (called independent schools) and public schools. There are over 2,500 private schools with 615,000 students. The private schools are of varying quality. Rugby School , Winchester , Eton , Roedean and Harrow are considered the best .

Good universities prefer to accept graduates from private schools. In 2005, 43.9 percent of the students who accepted Oxford and 38 percent of those who accepted Cambridge had been to an elite boarding school called an independent boarding school . The students at these boarding schools make up only 7 percent of the English population.

84.5 percent of all English judges were trained in private schools. Many politicians have been to private schools. This is the case, for example, with Clement Attlee , Hugh Gaitskell and Tony Blair . Former students from elite schools form networks. These students refer to themselves as "old boys" and try to give other "old boys" advantages.

France

In books such as The Misery of the World, the sociologist Pierre Bourdieu complained about the discrimination against working-class children and migrants in France. The teachers' union SNALC also repeatedly points out educational disadvantages in France.

Bourdieu laments educational inflation in France. The Abitur has lost value. The Abitur of the literary high school ( Série L Littéraire ) and the economics and social science high school ( Série ES Économique et Sociale ) would no longer be recognized at many universities. Schools in bad neighborhoods would prepare their students for university entrance exams less well than schools in good neighborhoods. The so-called Grandes Ecoles are elite universities in France. They are almost exclusively visited by children from the middle and upper classes. When working-class children go to university, they often have to get by with poorer universities.

India

Due to the caste nature of India, access to education is very differently distributed. In May 2006 the government decided to introduce a quota system to make it easier for members of the lower castes to access universities. Then there were protests from the upper class.

Japan

In Japan, paid tutoring schools ( Juku , actually Japanese 学習 塾 gaku shūjuku) play a major role. In spite of this, most of the working class children in this country graduate from high school. Although compulsory schooling ends with middle school, over 95 percent of students attend three-year high school (高等学校 kōtōgakkō or 高校 kōkō). The completion of the secondary school formally qualifies for entry into a university and is therefore equated with the German Abitur. The university entrance is not acquired by the pure completion of the secondary school, but by the entrance examination at a university. In addition, only some of the secondary schools are classified as secondary schools (shingakkō 進 学校), but these are not statistically recorded separately. Graduates from other secondary schools are not expected to transfer to a university, although it is theoretically possible. However, there are no Abitur exams as in Germany, but you acquire the degree more or less automatically if you regularly attend classes and pass the classwork. 92.7 percent of the Japanese population have a high school diploma. In order to pass the entrance examination at a desirable university, which promises not only good career opportunities, but also marriage opportunities and social standing, the formal passing of the secondary school is de facto less sufficient, but it is achieved through previous attendance at certain elite secondary schools or by Facilitates secondary schools that are part of the substructure of the corresponding university. However, the burakumin in Japan still have poor odds.

Latin America

In Latin America, too, there are few educational opportunities for the lower class. Nicaragua is one of the poorest countries in Latin America. The situation of the farmers is so precarious that they often have no money to educate their children.

Even those who grow up as a child in the slums of Costa Rica's capital San José hardly have a future. Many of the children there don't go to school.

In Brazil , the public school system is underfunded and poor. The middle and upper classes send their children to paid schools.

Worldwide

In 2002 there were 800 million illiterate people . 70 percent of them live in just nine countries, most of which are in sub-Saharan Africa and Southeast Asia.

According to current figures from UNESCO, the average number of school years that a person receives in his life is 12 years (not weighted according to population size). There is no difference between women and men. In the majority of countries, the average number of years in school is higher for women than for men.

See also

Portal: Education  - Overview of Wikipedia content on education

literature

Federal Republic of Germany

Austria

  • Ingolf Erler (Ed.): No chance for Lisa Simpson? Social inequality in the education system. Mandelbaum Verlag, Vienna 2007, ISBN 978-3-85476-220-1 .
  • Martin Unger, Angela Wroblewski: Project report student social survey 2006. Report on the social situation of students. Institute for Advanced Studies (IHS), Vienna 2006. ( PDF )

United States

France

  • Pierre Bourdieu, Jean-Claude Passeron: The Illusion of Equal Opportunities. Studies on the sociology of education using the example of France . Klett Stuttgart 1971. (French. Les héritiers. Les étudiants et la culture . Paris 1964).
  • Pierre Bourdieu: The subtle differences. Critique of social judgment. Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 1987, ISBN 3-518-28258-1 .

International comparison

  • UNICEF: Innocenti Report Card No. 4: A league table of educational disadvantage in rich nations. UNICEF Innocenti Research Center, Florence 2002.

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Bourdieu, Pierre; Passeron, Jean-Claude: The Illusion of Equal Opportunities. Studies on the sociology of education using the example of France . Stuttgart: Klett 1971.
  2. ↑ z. B. Greg. J. Duncan, Jeanna Brooks-Gunn, Pamela Kato Klebanov: Economic Deprivation and Early Childhood Development. In: Child Development. 63: 219-248 (1994).
  3. ↑ a b Scientific Advisory Board for Family Issues (2002): The educational significance of the family - conclusions from the PISA study . Stuttgart: Kohlhammer
  4. ^ A b Rolf Oerter: Modern developmental psychology . Verlag Ludwig Auer, Donauwörth 1970, p. 486.
  5. ↑ Rolf Oerter: Modern developmental psychology . Verlag Ludwig Auer, Donauwörth 1970, p. 487.
  6. ↑ Rolf Oerter: Modern developmental psychology . Verlag Ludwig Auer, Donauwörth 1970, p. 339.
  7. ^ The Contribution of Parenting to Ethnic and Racial Gaps in School Readiness ( Memento of July 13, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) Downloaded on December 26, 2007.
  8. ↑ Rolf Oerter: Modern developmental psychology . Verlag Ludwig Auer, Donauwörth 1970, p. 150.
  9. ↑ Rolf Oerter: Modern developmental psychology . Verlag Ludwig Auer, Donauwörth 1970, p. 109.
  10. ↑ Rolf Oerter: Modern developmental psychology . Verlag Ludwig Auer, Donauwörth 1970, p. 107.
  11. ^ Ruby Payne: A Framework for Understanding Poverty. Aha! Process, 2006, ISBN 1-929229-68-2 .
  12. ↑ An Interview with Ruby Payne: About Teaching Students from Poverty in 2005 ( Memento from June 12, 2008 in the web archive archive.today ) Download on December 12, 2007.
  13. ↑ San Francisco Chronicle: Self-control is the key to success ( Memento of the original from October 17, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. download on December 16, 2007. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.sfgate.com
  14. ↑ Donna Beegle: Educating children 0f Poverty ( Memento from July 9, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) (PDF; 59 kB) Download on December 16, 2007.
  15. ^ Betty Hart, Todd Risley: Meaningful Differences in the Language Learning Environments of Young American Children. Brookes Publishing Company, 1995.
  16. ↑ cf. German PISA Consortium (Hrsg.): PISA 2000 - The countries of the Federal Republic in comparison. Leske and Budrich, Opladen 2002, p. 166.
  17. ↑ German PISA Consortium (Ed.): PISA 2000 - The countries of the Federal Republic in comparison. Leske and Budrich, Opladen 2002, p. 166.
  18. ↑ Daniel Dravenau, Olaf Groh-Samberg: educational disadvantage as institutions effect. To interlink cultural and institutional discrimination . From: Institutionalized Inequalities. How education blocks opportunities. Juventa Verlag, Weinheim 2005.
  19. ↑ uni-mainz.de
  20. ↑ Intelligence of people and ethnic groups: What is it about Sarrazin's theses?
  21. ↑ Cf. Skubsch: "If the children do not learn to read and write Kurdish, they stay at a low level in their mother tongue. They often lack words to express their thoughts and feelings, and this also influences their German language skills and thinking overall negative. ”In: Sabine Skubsch: Kurdish migration and German (educational) politics. Münster 2002, ISBN 3-89771-013-7 as well as Klaus F. Geiger: For an improved minority language teaching in schools. In: kfgeiger.de. 2003, archived from the original on April 13, 2004 ; accessed on April 25, 2020 . See also: Standing Conference of Education Ministers - Recommendations on "Intercultural Education and Upbringing in Schools" of October 25, 1996.
  22. ↑ Schwippert, Bos, Lankes: Heterogeneity and Equal Opportunities at the End of the Fourth Grade in International Comparison. In: Bos u. a .: First results from IGLU: student performance at the end of the fourth grade in an international comparison . Waxmann, Münster 2003, p. 295.
  23. ^ Claudia Crotti, Sarah Keller: On the 'gender issue' in the Swiss education system since 1950. In: Contributions to teacher training. 19, No. 3, 2001, pp. 352-364.
  24. ↑ Charlotte Müller: Paradigm Shift in Gender Research - What Lessons Did School Research Draw From It? In: Contributions to teacher training. 19, No. 3, 2001, pp. 374-383.
  25. ^ A b Margit Stamm: Underachievement of young people: Perspectives of an international discourse. In: Journal for Pedagogy. 11, No. 1, March 2008, pp. 106-124. doi : 10.1007 / s11618-008-0006-6 .
  26. ↑ a b c Jürgen Budde: Educational (failure) successes of boys in school ?! In: Angelika Henschel u. a. (Ed.): Youth welfare and school . VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, Wiesbaden 2008, ISBN 978-3-531-90820-5 , pp. 394-408. doi : 10.1007 / 978-3-531-90820-5_25 .
  27. ↑ Susann Fegter: Phenomenon structure of the boy crisis: Discursive regularities and the importance of the speaker position in the media thematization 1999–2009. In: Reiner Keller, Inga Truschkat (Ed.): Methodology and practice of the knowledge-sociological discourse analysis . Volume 1: Interdisciplinary Perspectives. VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, Wiesbaden 2013, ISBN 978-3-531-93340-5 , pp. 113-134. doi : 10.1007 / 978-3-531-93340-5_5 .
  28. ↑ School study - boys are disadvantaged when it comes to grades. In: spiegel.de . December 21, 2007, accessed July 30, 2020.
  29. ↑ Marco Finetti: Better grades for girls with the same performance . In: Süddeutsche Zeitung. November 7, 2005.
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