Educational disadvantage in the Federal Republic of Germany

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With educational disadvantage in the Federal Republic of Germany which is education-specific discrimination referred to by groups in the Federal Republic of Germany, which have low cultural , social or financial have resources. The term does not imply deliberate or deliberate discrimination , but statistically establishes a relatively poorer performance of these groups in the distribution of educational opportunities and in the achievement of educational success in German society. It has to be taken into account that there is an overarching but not completely uniform education system in Germany , since education and culture are a matter for the federal states, which leads to regional differences. With the publication of the first PISA study in 2001, the topic of educational disadvantage was again discussed more intensely and has been a regular topic in the media and the public ever since. On the occasion of the publication of the IGLU study and PISA study in 2007, Federal President Köhler also spoke of the educational disadvantage in the German education system as an “inexcusable injustice” that not only harms those affected, but also represents “a waste of human assets”.

According to the Basic Law , nobody in the Federal Republic of Germany may be disadvantaged because of their origin - which also means their social origin . Nevertheless, the Federal Ministry of Education and Research states on its website: “In hardly any other industrialized country, socio-economic origin decides as much about school success and educational opportunities as in Germany. At the same time, in an international comparison, Germany is far less successful in imparting good school skills to children and young people with a migration background . If we want to secure future opportunities for the young generation in Germany, the school system in Germany must lead more children and young people to higher educational qualifications - regardless of their origin. ”In contrast, the sociologist Hartmut Esser stated in 2016 that it was“ a myth that they are systematically disadvantaged children with a migration background in Germany ”. When it comes to grades, there are virtually no differences for the same performance and the recommendations are even more generous than for children of local residents.

In fact, various educational studies have found that people with a low social background are at a disadvantage. The social disadvantage has shifted: while in the 1970s “ Catholic laborer's daughter from the country ” was a formula for multiple disadvantage , today it is more of the “Turkish youth from the problem area” or the “migrant son”. Origin from lower social classes has remained a characteristic of educational disadvantage .

Educational disadvantage can be measured using social indicators (see chapter on methodology ) and results in absolute or relative educational poverty .

In German-speaking countries there are various organizations that are committed to combating educational disadvantage: ArbeiterKind.de , Rock Your Life and Teach First Germany .

Social inequality in educational opportunities

Education as a distinguishing feature of social classes

In a study by the Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung , parents' concern about their children's education is used as a key distinguishing feature in separating today's German society into three “lifeworlds”. The study refers to the conventional representation of society as a class society that can be divided into three social strata: lower class, middle class and upper class. If parents of the middle class try to keep their children away from children of the lower class, they would move and thus ensure a separation of the districts. The educational success of the children has increasingly been shifted to the parents, so that a market for learning material has already emerged in some federal states. Parents from the lower class, who represent around 5% of the parents surveyed, could not, in contrast to the middle class and upper class parents, attend to these school concerns of their children. The division between middle and upper classes is even sharper than the division between middle class and lower class. This separation is largely insurmountable. Children who can be classified in the upper class experience support from their parents, helpers and private schools that is largely independent of material restrictions.

With regard to the educational efforts of social welfare recipients, a long-term study by the workers' welfare organization and a study commissioned by the city of Nuremberg come to more concrete results of the educational aspiration of poor parents: In 93% of the families surveyed, the welfare recipients themselves forego as much or more than their children. The respondents saved the least on food and purchases for school. The majority usually forego vacation and rarely spend money on home furnishings. According to the scientist, “particularly noticeable” was the parents' strong wish for “the highest possible education for their children”. The AWO-ISS longitudinal study "Child Poverty" comes to the conclusion that parents in poverty, the support of their children is important, but that access to social help is often blocked.

“An important prerequisite is to recognize and appreciate the performance of the parents, especially in highly stressed life situations, including poverty, in order to ensure processes of social integration and participation, but also to ensure joint responsibility for the (poor) children as parenting partnerships to be expressed by parents, family, social environment, state and society. "

- ISS study on child poverty up to primary school

Overall, children from families in the upper class (children of people from high, mostly academic positions, for example children of top managers) go to grammar school 6.06 times as often as children from skilled workers' families and children from the lower class (e.g. children of professors or doctors) go to grammar school 3.64 times as often as children of skilled workers (ibid.).

The chances of skilled workers' children are worst in cities with over 300,000 inhabitants. There, the chances of a child from the upper class of attending grammar school are 14.36 times as high as that of the skilled worker child and the chances of a child from the lower class are 7.57 times as high as that of a skilled worker child (ibid.).

In the last few decades the development of educational participation in the Federal Republic of Germany has worsened, since the beginning of the 1980s the participation of children of socially disadvantaged families in higher education has been declining.

A study by RWI following the PISA study from 2003 found, among other things, that the educational level of the parents, especially the mother, is more decisive for educational success than the national origin.

Regional differences in social differentiation

Educational opportunities also differ from region to region, for example when comparing East and West Germany. In West Germany the chances of attending a grammar school are 7.26 times greater for a child from the upper service class (academics in high positions) and 4.20 times greater for a child from the lower service class than the chances of a skilled worker child ( ibid.).

With this information it should be taken into account that the chances of children of semi-skilled and unskilled workers and farm workers are even lower than those of skilled workers' children, but were not evaluated in a direct comparison by either the PISA or the IGLU studies.

In East Germany the inequality of life chances is smaller. Here the chance of a child from the upper service class is 3.89 times as great as that of a skilled worker child and the chance of a child from the lower service class is 2.78 times as great.

The presumption that this is due to a high proportion of foreigners in West Germany and an allegedly "uneducated" background of foreigners was checked and could not be confirmed:

“The really surprising result of the analyzes is [...] the [...] clearly recognizable finding that the secondary social inequalities among the 15-year-olds without a migration background are not less, but tend to be greater than for the overall cohort. So there can be no question of the problems of social equity in the narrower sense being a side effect of the immigration of socially disadvantaged groups of the population. […] Lehmann, Peek and Gänsefuß (1997) reported a similar result for the first time from the Hamburg study on the initial learning situation. This means [...] that the east-west divide [...] is even steeper if only young people without a migration background are considered. "

Foreign children are better off in the East. The social pedagogue and author Karin Weiss described the lack of integration of foreigners to the magazine TAZ as a "Western problem". In the east, on the other hand, foreigners are successful at school. In Brandenburg, for example, 44% of foreign children leave school with their Abitur. Weiss blames comprehensive kindergartens and parents' high educational standards for this. Above all, Weiss criticized the media image that immigrants are unwilling to learn and willing to use violence. This would obscure the true talent.

gender

In the 1990s, in several western industrialized countries, the debate about the connection between education and gender changed from one focused on the disadvantage of girls to one focused on boys. In Germany, especially since the publication of the results of the PISA studies , which found that girls had a significant head start in reading and boys in mathematics, there was talk of a “boy crisis” and boys are portrayed as losers in education.

Spiegel Online reported in 2007 that boys were disadvantaged when it came to grades and stated that they were referring to the results of a report by the Federal Ministry. The German IGLU coordinator Wilfried Bos said that boys were “slightly disadvantaged” in the subjects of German and specialist knowledge and that this was due to “better behavior or greater conformity” of the girls. In Focus, Andrea Hennis wrote in 2009 that, according to studies, “the girl bonus for more adapted behavior, more active participation and 'self-directed learning' with the same performance amounts to an average of one grade”.

A study by Maaz, Baeriswyl and Trautwein on behalf of the Vodafone Foundation Germany in 2011 showed that girls achieve better or equally good school grades (2.67 versus 2.58), although boys do slightly better in school performance tests. Data from the study indicated that girls were more conscientious in class and that this could explain at least part of the better grades, with the data obtained being based on self-attribution. With the same performance in the tests, boys were rated more strictly than girls. According to Brigitta von der Lehm from the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, the Action Council for Education has observed that boys have to perform significantly better in order to make the transition to high school. The sociologist Gerhard Amendt sees the disproportionate proportion of women among the teaching staff as the cause. This “feminization in schools” leads to a one-sidedly women-oriented selection of topics in many subjects and forces boys to make unnatural behavioral adaptations, since teachers cannot understand their behavior. The sociologist Marcel Helbig from the Wissenschaftszentrum Berlin does not believe that the majority of teachers are to blame. Girls are more hardworking, motivated and disciplined, and recommends that boys “adapt their learning behavior to that of girls in order to follow suit in the table of grades and the high school graduation rate”.

Niederbacher, Textor and Zimmermann (2009) object that a difference between school grades and results in standardized school achievement tests cannot be interpreted as evidence of a disadvantage for boys because school achievement tests such as For example, the IGLU study does not query all competencies that are taught in lessons and that are incorporated into the awarding of grades. If girls perform significantly better than boys in areas not covered by school performance tests, a better grade would be appropriate. According to Valtin, Wagner and Schwippert (2006), the better average marks given by girls can at least in part be explained by the fact that girls do homework more reliably and participate more actively in class. Hannover (2004) attributes the lower average school success of boys also to their social behavior. B. that boys reacted more often to frustrations in everyday school life with inappropriate behavior. Other explanations for the better average marks of girls are the higher motivation of the girls.

A study by Rieske on behalf of the Education and Science Union comes to the conclusion that boys are not disadvantaged: “Boys as a group in German educational institutions are not disadvantaged compared to girls. In view of the complexity of social conditions and the multidimensional nature of education, one cannot speak of a simple educational disadvantage of a gender group. "At most, one can speak of disadvantage due to unfavorable constructions of masculinity:" Boys are disadvantaged insofar as certain social constructions of masculinity conflict with certain requirements bring from educational institutions. In particular, an orientation towards the idea of ​​male hegemony with its claims to superiority and resistance to adaptation, supposedly male talents and the rejection of hard work, self-confidence and a lack of awareness of the need for help seem to prevent (some) boys from obtaining formal qualifications in educational institutions. "

Budde (2008) and Phoenix and Frosh (2005) also explain the average poorer grading of boys with the fact that boys orientate themselves towards dominant ideals of masculinity ( hegemonic masculinity ) and devalue school success as unmanly.

Since the rise in the number of female teachers in many Western countries, public concerns have been expressed about the so-called "feminization" of the school system. The assumption that female teaching staff negatively impact boys' school performance has led to efforts in several countries to increase the proportion of male teaching staff. Empirical studies using data from several countries, including Germany, have found no relationship between the gender of the teacher and the academic performance of boys. For example, the data collected in 2006 and 2007 from over 146,000 schoolchildren from 21 EU and OECD countries, including Germany, were analyzed in a study. It was found that male teachers do not improve boys' performance compared to female teachers. In some of the countries examined, however, a positive correlation was found between the performance of girls and teachers.

Prussian educational tradition

Historically, the structured school system dates back to the Prussian era and was continued in the Federal Republic of Germany despite different approaches by Allied authorities. Reforms in the 1950s to 1970s aimed at improving the education of socially disadvantaged classes, and increasingly also at increasing the participation of financially disadvantaged children in higher education. These measures had some successes. However, a current study by educational scientist Helmut Fend on the effectiveness of comprehensive schools comes to the conclusion that the influence of the type of school on educational success only lasts for a short time and that the greater educational resources of privileged families have a greater effect in the long term than equal treatment in comprehensive schools. However, this study must be checked for its generalizability.

Educational disadvantages in the respective educational sectors

In order to be able to compare educational achievements and educational disadvantages in an international context, UNESCO developed the classification system ISCED (International Standard Classification of Education), which classifies educational systems according to educational sectors. The studies listed below relate to different classifications of social origins. For reasons of readability, these are not explained here , but in the article Social origin .

Pre-school area: kindergartens

The OECD study on education in early childhood (Early Childhood Policy Review 2002–2004) on education in early childhood shows that in Germany parents with little financial means can hardly send their children to kindergartens:

“Around 80% of children between the ages of 3 and 6 with married parents and a monthly income of at least € 3800 (DM 7500) attended a kindergarten in 1999. In the income group between around 500 and 900 € (1000 and 1800 DM) only 64% of this group attended a kindergarten. "

The private funding borne by the legal guardians for kindergartens in Germany is very high compared to the OECD countries (average 18.5%). Between 1995 and 2003 it rose from 19% to 27.9%. This means that in Germany parents have to pay 27.9% of what the kindergarten costs themselves. The OECD average is only 18%.

Primary: basic education in primary school and transition to secondary schools

school enrollment

The Workers' Welfare made in an AWO study pointed out that the social background plays a role in the decision on the enrollment:

School enrollment of non-poor and poor children at the age of 6
non-poor children poor children
socially inconspicuous 91% 78%
socially conspicuous 70% 53%
Beate Hock, Gerda Holz, Werner Wüstendörfer: Early consequences - long-term consequences? Poverty and disadvantage in preschool age.

“While around nine out of ten (91%) of the socially unremarkable non-poor children (regularly) start school at around six years of age, only seven out of ten (70%) of the socially conspicuous non-poor children do. Among the poor children, about eight out of ten (78 percent) of the socially unremarkable children and only about half (53 percent) of the socially conspicuous children go to school. "

- Early consequences - long-term consequences? Poverty and disadvantage in preschool age

According to TIMSS 2007, the "coupling" between the book ownership of the family of origin and mathematics competence is only higher in Hungary than in Germany. This coupling is highest in Germany in the natural sciences. If the pupils of the 4th grade school are divided into children from households with more and less than 100 books in the family, the difference in mathematical and scientific competencies is approximately one school year.

In a comparison of primary school children whose parents were born in Germany and whose parents were not born in Germany, the same study also shows strong differences in mathematical competence, which are about one year of learning growth. Again, Germany does very poorly in an international comparison. Classic immigration countries such as the USA, New Zealand and Australia have much smaller differences in skills between migrant children and children whose parents were born there. This value is even stronger in Germany in the field of natural sciences, where the difference is around one and a half years in learning growth. Only in Austria are the differences in skills between migrant children and native children even greater.

Effects of primary school

In her dissertation, educational disadvantage at the transition from school to work. Theoretical concepts and case studies from participant perspectives with special consideration of “gender” and “social origin” , Ilka Benner proves that important decisions for a lack of competitiveness on the labor market are already made in elementary school for children with a migration background. Responsible for this are the attitudes and behaviors of teachers and the school administration, who are largely blind to the circumstances under which students (fail) to perform and show certain behaviors, but also the parents of the children themselves, who often have wrong ideas went out about the German school system. In particular, the friendly atmosphere, in which poor school performance in elementary school is often played down, is counterproductive with regard to the use of educational opportunities.

Benner summarizes: “The central function of the parental home for the entire educational path could be shown in the interviews, especially with regard to the lack of support options. In many cases, parental ineptitude was essential to the failure of young people in school. The lack of support with homework, the lack of knowledge about the secondary school choice, the unquestioning acceptance of decisions regarding cross-transfers and the linguistic deficits of parents with a migration background have negative consequences for the children's school careers. "The weaknesses mentioned, which are not accusations of guilt are to be misinterpreted, the schools would have to try to compensate in a targeted manner.

Transition to secondary school

The Hamburg LAU study , the IGLU study , the PISA study , the AWO study , the study Unequal Educational Opportunities: What role do underachievement and personality structure play? from April 2009, as well as a simulation of the PISA data from 2007, indicate that children with a low social background with the same competence are much less likely to receive a high school recommendation than children with a higher social background. In addition, the LAU study found that parents from “higher classes” would tend to send their children to higher school even if the teachers advised against it. Parents from “lower classes”, on the other hand, would adhere exactly to the teachers' recommendations. The IGLU-2 study states:

A similar disadvantage applies to children due to their migration background only in Baden-Württemberg.

"If one examines the influence of the social class [...] of the children on their school career recommendations, it becomes clear that even if the basic cognitive skills and reading competence are checked, children from the two upper classes have a 2.63 times greater chance of receiving a recommendation for a high school as a child from a lower-class household […]. The clear disadvantage of children from the lower classes is evident in all of the countries of the Federal Republic of Germany listed here. In Baden-Wuerttemberg and North Rhine-Westphalia, the degree of disadvantage is greater than the federal average, in Hesse somewhat less. "

According to calculations by the German Child Protection Association (DKSB) , educational opportunities in poor families have deteriorated in recent years. Even though primary education should be free of charge, school enrollment costs around 300 euros, plus additional costs in the current school year. However, there is now only six countries that are free of teaching materials . The managing director of the DKSB Berlin, Sabine Walther, summarizes the calculations:

“Education is actually free in Germany due to compulsory school attendance - but in fact, the parents' costs are considerable when their children start school. According to our calculations, these are an average of one-time costs of approx. € 300 for school enrollment as well as other ongoing costs for parents during each school year and for each subsequent school year. The income situation in the parental home is therefore directly related to the educational opportunities of the children. "

The 2007 IGLU study complains that the disadvantage of working-class children has increased:

High school recommendations:

Minimum number of points (reading competence) for the transition to grammar school according to the opinion ...
(values ​​from 2001 in brackets)

... the children's teacher ... the parents of the children
Upper-class children 537 (551) 498 (530)
Children from the lower service class 569 (565) 559 (558)
Children of parents from the occupation of routine services 582 (590) 578 (588)
Children of self-employed 580 (591) 556 (575)
Children of skilled workers and executives 592 (603) 583 (594)
Children of unskilled and semi-skilled workers and farm workers 614 (601) 606 (595)
Source: IGLU 2006

Reading aid for the table: Children from the top service class who received a recommendation from the teacher for high school achieved an average of 537 points in an independent test on reading competence.

The result of the 2007 IGLU study regarding the recommendation for high schools points to social injustices:

  • Teachers recommend children from the upper service class to high school with 537 points; However, children of unskilled and semi-skilled workers must achieve 614 points for this.
  • Parents from the upper class already see their children as suitable for high school if they only achieve 498 points; Workers do not want to send their children to high school until they reach 606 points.
  • Contrary to a widespread prejudice, it is not primarily workers who do not want to send their children to grammar school (already at 606 points), but rather the primary school teachers prevent a fair school career for working-class children (grammar school recommendation only from 614 points).
  • While the required number of points for a high school recommendation has decreased for all children, it has increased for children from the lowest class. It should be noted that the hurdle for teachers to transition to grammar school has risen more sharply than children from the lower classes than for the children's parents. The hurdle for children from the highest group of origin has fallen dramatically, both for teachers and even more so for parents.
  • Parents in the upper class are better able to assert themselves against teachers than workers when they want to send their children to high school.

So while children from the top service class only have to reach competence level III ( "Finding relevant details in the text and relating them to each other" ) to switch to grammar school , children from the lowest level need the highest competence level (competence level V: "Abstract, generalize and justify preference ” ) for the same high school recommendation.

The IGLU study from 2016 showed that teachers' recommendations for the school type based on social origin rather than performance, i.e. the unjust type of school recommended, is continuously increasing. According to the IGLU study, children from the so-called "lower" classes of origin ("working class") are less and less likely to receive a recommendation from teachers for high school if they have the same reading and cognitive skills. In 2016, with the same skills, children from the "upper" service classes were 3.37 times more likely than children from the "working class" to receive a recommendation from a grammar school. This means that children with the same skills are increasingly disadvantaged according to the IGLU study with "lower" origins.

Relative chances of teachers having a grammar school preference for children from the service class ( EGP I and II) compared with children from the working class (EGP V, VI and VII) in IGLU 2001, 2006, 2011 and 2016
Model 1 Model 2 Model 3
2001 4.18 3.49 2.63
2006 4.06 3.40 2.72
2011 4.48 4.07 3.14
2016 5.13 4.76 3.37
Explanation of the models:

Model I: Without control of covariates.
Model II: control of cognitive abilities.
Model III: Control of cognitive skills and reading competence (international scaling).

See also teacher recommendation

The pupils in Germany are not evenly distributed among the school types. Only comprehensive and secondary schools have students who come from all classes in the same ratio. In the secondary schools, however, 45% of the students come from the lowest class. In the grammar schools, 50% of the students come from the top layer. Less than 20% of the students in the grammar school belong to the lowest two classes. Of this, 5.6% of the bottom layer.

In Germany the ratio between pupil and teacher, ie the supervision ratio, is much lower than the OECD average. In Germany, teachers look after two more children per school class on average than the OECD average. Too little is invested in education, resulting in less teaching time, larger school classes and lower material costs. Poverty has an impact on educational opportunities. A long-term study by the Frankfurt Institute for Social Work and Social Pedagogy (ISS) on behalf of the AWO showed that poor children have particularly few opportunities in the German school system. Out of a hundred children who were already considered poor during their kindergarten age, only four made it to high school after primary school. According to this study, three and a half times as many poor children as non-poor children repeat a class in elementary school.

It doesn't look quite so extreme in a study by Becker and Nietfeld (1999):

They dealt with the children of unemployed parents in Dresden. They showed that poverty and unemployment of the parents go hand in hand with poorer educational opportunities for the children. However, other things can be found that have an impact on educational opportunities. Taking these things into account shows that the impact of poverty and unemployment is smaller than a superficial examination would suggest. Cultural capital is far more important. This means, for example, education. Uneducated classes in particular tend to make risk-averse educational decisions, which means that when in doubt they tend to choose lower educational decisions. Poor families are often unable to take part in cultural life, as theater, opera and music lessons are too expensive for the children. Works of art or books are also rarely bought. There is a cultural discrepancy between family and school. The children affected are insufficiently prepared for the performance requirements of the school, their motivation to learn and social skills are deficient. However, poverty and unemployment almost only have negative consequences for poorly educated parents. More educated parents are obviously better able to compensate for the problems that this entails.

The following table is taken from "Unemployment and educational opportunities for children in the transformation process" by Becker and Nietfeld:

Education of the head of household Child attends secondary school Child attends secondary school Child attends high school
Secondary school level 30.4% 39.1% 30.4%
Realschule level 23.7% 43.3% 33.0%
High school level 8.4% 30.1% 61.4%

Note: As is customary in the East, almost all parents had vocational training. Therefore only the school leaving certificate was taken into account. The secondary school level was POS up to the 8th grade, the secondary school level POS up to the tenth grade, and the high school level qualification from the EOS.

The IGLU study also looked at the social origins of underperforming students. In the IGLU study, a student who was unable to understand short sentences in a meaningful way was considered to be underperforming. This was the case for 10.3% of the children in the fourth grade.

Overall, it was only 3% of college graduate children but 20% of unskilled workers' children who did.

Psychologists from the PH Heidelberg analyzed 84 school classes and found: The worst student in one class can be better than the best student in another class. Grades are not comparable outside of a class. Students with the same performance therefore ended up in different school types. The current school system can no longer be legitimized on the basis of this research. The Tagesspiegel suspects that social origin plays a major role in this.

Underachievement

Johannes Uhlig, Heike Solga , Jürgen Schupp examined the relationship between “ underachievement ” (less (school) success than would be expected in view of the basic cognitive skills), social background and personality traits in their study “Unequal educational opportunities: What role do underachievement and personality structure play? “From April 2009 at the Social Science Research Center in Berlin. You could show

“That children from families where neither parent has a university degree are at higher risk of underachievement. When it comes to access to adequate school education in Germany, there are significant social inequalities - even when children of different origins have comparable levels of cognitive learning potential. "

This contradicts the demand for equal opportunities. In addition, they were able to prove that personality traits such as hard work, openness and cooperation in non-academic children have no effect on the question of which type of school they are admitted to:

“It is therefore more of secondary origin effects that lead to underachievement. Above all, the decisions of teachers and parents and less the differences in performance or grades between children of different social classes determine their further education after primary school. "

With this they restrict the thesis of Becker / Nietfeld (1999, see above) and Bourdieu's habitus theory, according to which social origin shapes personality and students with the “wrong habitus” are discriminated against. Their study suggests that they are directly disadvantaged by teachers because of their social background. In their recommendation based on this study, the scientists therefore advocated "making 'decisions' about different educational paths and unequal learning environments as late as possible in the educational biography".

Lower secondary level: basic education with a specialist teacher

The TIMS study , DESI study and the PISA studies found for the lower secondary level that mathematical and literary skills overlap to a large extent between secondary school students, secondary school students and high school students. From this, the UNICEF study Disadvantages In Rich Nations concluded that children in Germany were sorted too early and incorrectly. The study summarized the situation in Germany under the title: Germany: Children Sorted For A Life (Germany: Children sorted for their entire life) to make it clear that this early sorting can hardly be reversed.

Mathematics credit points for 15-year-old students
Immigrant students Students without a migration background
First generation students * Second Generation Students **
Germany 454 432 525
OECD average 475 483 523
* Born abroad, foreign parents - ** Born in the survey country, foreign parents
Where Immigrant Students Have the Best Chances of Success: A Comparative Analysis of Performance and Engagement in PISA 2003

The PISA special study on the chances of success of migrant children criticizes the German education system. Second-generation migrant children, i.e. schoolchildren who were born in Germany but have foreign parents, perform even worse than first-generation migrant children. 40% of them do not achieve proficiency level 2. In Denmark and New Zealand, too, migrant children of the second generation do worse than those of the first generation - but not to the same extent as in Germany. The education researcher Mechthild Gomolla speaks of institutionalized discrimination .

For example, “ mother tongue competence ” is an important requirement for these students. In a declaration by the Conference of Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs in 1996, it says: "For bilingual pupils, mother tongue competence contributes significantly to the development of identity and personality." A deficit is often the lack of mother tongue teaching in schools. B. for Kurdish lessons at German schools, like that of Sabine Skubsch. Skubsch states: “If the children do not learn to read and write Kurdish, they stay at a low level in their mother tongue. They often lack words to express their thoughts and feelings, and this also affects their German language skills and their thinking in general negative."

Secondary schools

Trautwein, Baumert and Maaz identified three types of secondary schools.

  1. The modal form of the secondary school : these are secondary schools with an average level of performance. This includes 45 percent of the secondary schools in Germany.
  2. Problem schools: these are secondary schools with a low level of performance. Around half of the students repeated at least one class. 50 percent come from migrant families where German is not spoken at home. 40 percent of parents have no completed vocational training. Almost a third of families are unemployed. 16% of all secondary schools are problem schools. The schools are mainly located in city states (Hamburg, Bremen and Berlin), in Hesse and North Rhine-Westphalia.
  3. High-performance secondary schools : The students at these schools are as efficient as secondary school students. These can only be found to a significant extent in Baden-Württemberg, Bavaria and Rhineland-Palatinate.

When making statements about the frequency of secondary school types, it should be taken into account that in countries with a two-tier school system there are no secondary schools (which could be separated from secondary schools) and that in many countries in which there is (still) the secondary school type, there are many School locations Hauptschulen closed due to a lack of demand for this type of school or transferred to schools of the Oberschule type (also referred to differently depending on the country).

According to a study by the Max Planck Institute for Educational Research , teaching is structurally no longer possible at 16 percent of secondary schools . These schools are referred to as “critical school environments” that “structurally disadvantage” the students. In the secondary schools there is a concentration of so-called “school failures” (50%), immigrant children (50%), students used to violence (40%) and children of unskilled (40%) and unemployed parents (30%), with one student can belong to multiple groups. Critical school milieus appear more frequently in some large cities. In the secondary schools in Bremen (95%), Hamburg (70%) and Berlin (60%) there are structurally no more lessons.

Acquisition of skills at the various types of school

It applies to all school types that university graduates acquire more skills there than children of workers. The differences in mathematics are particularly large. Secondary school students from the top layer have a lead of 50 competence points over those from the lower layer. This corresponds to the increase in knowledge of more than one school year. At secondary schools, top-class students have a 44 point lead and at grammar schools 24 points. The differences are particularly large at the comprehensive school. Here students from the lowest level have 77 fewer competence points in mathematics than students from the highest level. However, it must be remembered that the comprehensive school is the only school that accepts children of all skill levels. The large differences among students in comprehensive schools are likely to be a statistical artifact.

Acquisition of skills at different types of schools (measured in "skill points")
type of school Very "low" social background "Low" social background "High" social background Very "high" social background
secondary schools 400 429 436 450
Integr. comprehensive school 438 469 489 515
secondary school 482 504 528 526
high school 578 581 587 602
PISA 2003 - The educational level of young people in Germany - results of the 2nd international comparison .

In order to be able to actively participate in life in industrial society, one must have at least the competence level 2 in mathematics. This means that students should be able to read information from a simple, standard table or graph, and do simple calculations relating to relationships between two familiar variables (Level 1). Furthermore, they should be able to handle simple formulas and algorithms and to combine a given text with a form of representation (graph, table, formula) (level 2)

Young people who cannot do this are referred to as a risk group. In Germany this applies to 27.1% of young people

The following young people run a particularly high risk of belonging to the group of underperforming students:

  • Adolescents with parents with low-skilled jobs (1 in 2.38)
  • Adolescents whose parents have no more than secondary school leaving certificate or a completed apprenticeship (1 to 3.19)
  • Young people whose fathers are not employed full-time (1 in 1.83)
  • Young people with few cultural possessions in their families (1 in 1.26)

Social selection through tutoring?

According to a study by the Research Institute for Educational and Social Economics in Berlin, 30% of the tutors would spend 1300 euros per year on professional tutoring . Tutoring by students and pupils improves the student's assessment by an average of one grade, professional tutoring by 1.3 to 1.4. In addition, children who receive tutoring seem to have parents from higher educational and income groups. Dieter Dohmen, head of Fibs explains: "If that is the case, it means: tutoring intensifies social selection."

"Transition system"

In her dissertation published in 2017, educational disadvantage at the transition from school to work. Theoretical concepts and case studies from participant perspectives with special consideration of “gender” and “social origin” , Ilka Benner deals with the situation of young people who do not succeed in starting vocational training immediately after completing secondary level I or in successfully completing or completing it. to find a permanent job on the primary labor market .

According to the “Working Group on Education Reporting”, “the transition system is defined by the fact that its (training) training offers are below qualifying vocational training or do not lead to a recognized training qualification, but aim to improve the individual skills of young people to take up training or employment partially enable the catching up of a general school leaving certificate. "

The term “transitional system” threatens to become a euphemism in so far as in Germany at the end of the 2000s only 31 percent of companies with training authorization in Germany actually offered young people vocational training in the dual system . According to Dobischat / Münk, the dual system “cut itself off at the bottom” in that it was not prepared to integrate “young people with no qualifications ”. The “transition system” only partially succeeds in making up for the required “training maturity”. From 2011 to 2016, the proportion of companies in Germany that take part in vocational training decreased from 25 to 20 percent.

Following Ruth Enggruber and Joachim Gerd Ulrich, Benner distinguishes six groups of “disadvantaged young people”:

  1. young people with no prospect of a secondary school leaving certificate;
  2. young people without a training place who are included in school or extracurricular measures for vocational preparation;
  3. Workers in unskilled jobs or employment relationships to secure their livelihood;
  4. Participants in external vocational training or vocational training with the support of training-related aids;
  5. young people who prematurely terminated an apprenticeship contract;
  6. young people whose transition failed at the “second threshold” (ie after leaving lower secondary level).

Ruth Enggruber cites the following reasons for the disadvantage of the groups mentioned:

  1. The disadvantage of young people due to the situation on the labor market;
  2. School overload and failure in achievement;
  3. Excessive demands outside of school and life problems;
  4. Search for meaning and identity of “problematic” adolescents;
  5. Multi-problem families of origin with experiences of violence;
  6. Protest and autonomy evidence;
  7. Migration background.

From their analysis Ilka Benner directs three types of support requirements in the transition area from: "Young people with aufbauendem support needs are characterized by a low degree, not have a stable professional orientation or concrete plans for the future, can be more of a passive-resigned habit assign feature multiple experiences of failure, which they label personally and are not instinctively motivated , which can be represented by a lack of initiative or frequent drop-outs . For the educational staff of the BvB [= the vocational preparatory training measure ], in contact with these young people, the requirement arises to respond in a highly personalized manner to the needs of these young people. When dealing with them, it is essential to have an affectionate, open attitude, a motivating to challenging attitude as well as the opening of the possibility of completing a school leaving certificate within the framework of the BvB. "

Upper secondary level: upper secondary level in general schools

The educational funnel : Pupils with low origins are screened out more at every threshold

The DSW Social Survey of the German Student stated early 21st century, a different origin specific course of education funnel ( see figure ). While around 85% of 100 children of the highest group of origin who went to school reached an upper level and 95% of these, i.e. 81 children, started studying, of 100 children of the lowest social group of origin only 36% reached upper level, and of these, only 31%, i.e. 11 children, started studying.

According to a study by the German Institute for Economic Research (DIW), it appears that not only access but also premature exit at high school is shaped by social selection. If one follows the paths of children who switch to grammar school after elementary school, it becomes apparent that within 6 years 35% of children of low social origin drop out of education. If at least one parent has the Abitur, the rate is only 20%.

The university research working group at the University of Konstanz showed in a long-term study that only 51% of pupils with a low social background take up a degree even if they have an average grade of between 1 and 2 on their Abitur certificate. The higher the social background, the more willing students are to start studying even if they have a bad high school diploma. For example, 54% of students from the highest group of origin who received an average grade between 2 and 3 would take up a degree.

Upper secondary level: vocational schools, education in the dual system

Vocational training for young people with a migration background and German young people
year Young people with a migration background female adolescents with a migration background German youth
1995 44% 34% 70%
2000 40% 35% 66%

Young people from families with a migration background in particular are disadvantaged in terms of vocational training. The quota of young people with a migration background who received vocational training fell from 44% to 40% between 1995 and 2000, compared to 66% of young people with German parents who had vocational training. The situation is even worse for female young migrants, of whom only around 35% have received initial training for the last 10 years.

The 2006 Shell Youth Study finds:

“Young people from the lower class [...] can be found more often at secondary schools and special schools. Even in the subsequent professional training path, they do not achieve the results that correspond to their potential. "

Tertiary A / B: Universities and technical colleges / technical colleges and schools of the health sector

The number of students in the Federal Republic of Germany is still very low. The higher education entrance qualification in Germany was only 38.8% in 2004 (in the OECD average almost twice as high, at 67.7%). According to an OECD study, the trend is also worrying: between 1995 and 2003, the student ratio in Germany only rose by 8%, while it rose by an average of 49% in the OECD countries over the same period.

According to the 2007 OECD report, an OECD average of 57% of 15-year-olds would like to go to university. This percentage varies, however, between a high value of 95% of students in Korea and only 21% in Germany.

The Science Council complains that the tendency of high school graduates to study is declining. In 2002, 73% of high school graduates wanted to study, in 2006 this was only 68%.

Financial aspects are more of a deterrent to those who are eligible to study from non-academic parents than those who are eligible to study from academic parents. For example, a study by the University Information System on university entrance qualifications in 2005 found that

  • 20% (14% of academic origin) do not have the financial prerequisites for university studies,
  • 11% (6% academic origin) are not willing to go into debt because of the BAföG loan component and
  • 27% (18% of academic origin) do not take up a degree because they would not have been able to finance the introduction of general tuition fees, which was possible at the time ( this proportion is higher for students from the new federal states and female students).

The main reason not to study was to earn your own money as quickly as possible, but here, too, a differentiation must be made according to social origin:

“Whereas with those with an academic educational background, the conscious decision for a non-academic profession (36% vs. 29% of non-academics [...]) or the too long duration of a university course (36% vs. 28%) is more in the foreground When deciding not to study, respondents without an academic educational background name more than average financial obstacles. "

It must be noted, however, that multiple answers were allowed for the 14 possible answers.

Another study by the University Information System (HIS), commissioned by Education Minister Annette Schavan (CDU), but not published in the run-up to the Dresden Education Summit in October 2008, confirmed the deterrent nature of the tuition fees, especially for women and for high school graduates from Educated parents. In 2006, 18,000 high school graduates would have been deterred from studying by the tuition fees. In a dpa report it said:

According to the study, women and young people in particular from families with little education are more likely to forego studying because of the fees. On the other hand, children from academic families are 'significantly less likely to be influenced in their choice of university', states the University Information System (HIS) in the study. The fee debate has contributed to 'considerable uncertainty' among high school graduates and young people with a technical college entrance qualification - even in countries that do not yet charge fees. "

- The time

A deterrent effect of tuition fees can also be seen from the lower inclination to study. Between 2003 and 2006, the number of high school graduates rose by 14%, but the number of new students fell by 5%.

The chairman of the Science Council , Peter Strohschneider, complained in a dpa announcement that the inclination to study in Germany is falling, which is especially true for high school graduates with an educational background:

“There are conjectures as to why the inclination to study has decreased… Financing the degree is a problem for many students, especially those from less educated groups. ... Due to the increased attendance requirement in the tiered bachelor and master degree programs, it has become more difficult to earn a living on the side. "

According to the Eurostudent Report study from 2005, the relative number of students with low social origins in Germany was lower at this point in time than in all other European countries that had participated in this study. The authors also found that students with a low social background are much less likely to study abroad. They  attributed this - based on a term used by the renowned French sociologist Pierre Bourdieus - to the fact that they lacked cultural capital . They would have less experience with stays abroad and the customs at universities as well as less foreign language skills.

Share of workers and civil servants' children at universities
year Share of working-class children Share of civil servants' children
1982 9% 46%
2000 12% 73%
Data report 2004. Facts and figures about the Federal Republic of Germany.

According to an analysis by Destatis , the chances of working class children compared to civil servants' children to take up studies were lower in 2000 than in 1982; the ratio was 9: 1 in 1982; in 2000 at 20: 1.

The OECD sees the cause for this trend mainly in the three (or four) tiered school system and sees - which was also criticized in a special UNICEF study (see below) - no possibilities to compensate for this structural problem in the later course of education:

"[...] the effectiveness of compensatory measures in the tertiary sector [is] limited, because the connection between educational performance and social background is evident in Germany as well as in other equally well structured and early selective education systems (e.g. Austria, German-speaking Switzerland, the Czech Republic or Hungary) significantly influenced by the choice of school and type of school, which in turn determines access to higher education. The context suggests that the school system itself has a considerable influence on the unequal distribution of later educational opportunities and thus leaves the performance potential of a considerable proportion of young people, including students with a migration background, untapped [...] "

The GEW study “You have to be able to afford it…” from April 2005 on student assistants at the University of Marburg showed that of 150 student assistants only three were working-class children. The attempt at explanation in the study referred to Pierre Bourdieu's idea that professors have the same habitus as academic children; therefore, regardless of performance, they would prefer to recruit academic children. A data set available nationwide is currently to be evaluated in order to clarify whether the Marburg phenomenon is evident nationwide. Apart from this, the evaluation of data from the student survey in 2006 corroborated this tendency: both students with a “high” social background and men would be much more likely to hold academic assistant positions or tutorials. These positions are also crucial for the next generation of scientists.

Receipt of scholarships for talented students (grade point average 1–1.4)
financing Men Women Workforce Middle class Higher class of service Academics
mainly 4.7% 5.1% 2.8% 8.6% 4.9% 2.6%
partially 11.4% 4.6% 4.2% 4.0% 8.1% 11.4%
all in all 16.1% 9.7% 7% 12.6% 13% 14%
Remarks:
  1. Study funding through scholarships
  2. Combined with a base layer due to the low number of cases
Source: Student Survey 1983–2004. Research group on higher education, University of Konstanz.

A study by the “AG Hochschulforschung der Uni Konstanz” comes to the conclusion that the scholarships for gifted students are also unevenly distributed socially and gender-specifically. Above all, the inequality increases in favor of male students and students with rich parents if only the elite of achievement (grade point average 1.0–1.4) are considered. The fact that the higher the average grade, the greater the unfair distribution of scholarships for talented students is relevant to the explanation.

The triennial social survey of the German Student Union came to a number of points that could be indications of a disadvantage for students of low social origin:

  • Illness : Students of low social background make use of psychological counseling much more often. In addition, the greatest difference between the various origins with regard to the reasons for dropping out of studies can be found in the reason for illness .
  • Dropout : Students with a low social background drop out more often. This is especially true for the subjects of medicine and law .
  • Duration of study : Students with a low social background need on average much longer than other students
  • Resources : Students with a low social background have less money to support themselves than other students despite BAföG
  • Jobs : Students with a low social background work more often alongside their studies; More often than others, they state livelihood as motivation to work .
  • Choice of subject : Students with a low social background tend to study subjects and at universities that are associated with less prestige and less well-paid professions.
  • Research : Students of low social background do their doctorate less often than other students.

When it comes to the question of young academics, the student survey confirms the results of the DSW social survey. There is a "social imbalance" among doctoral candidates and young scientists:

“The differences according to social origin and gender are not due to performance or subject area. On the contrary: among the student elite, social differences according to gender or social origin are even greater when it comes to joining the next generation of scientists. "

Extra-curricular professional development

According to the 2006 OECD study Education at a Glance , only 3% of people without an upper secondary level qualification take part in extracurricular vocational training ; the OECD average participation of this group is more than twice as high. In Germany, compared to university graduates, only one seventh of them take part in extracurricular professional development. With increasing age, people with no upper secondary level qualification take part in extracurricular professional development even less.

Effects of educational disadvantage

The Federal Statistical Office names negative effects in the 2004 data report :

are some of the consequences of the unequal starting opportunities "which are reinforced by institutional restrictions and organizational inadequacies in the German education system."

Psychosocial and psychosomatic consequences

Psychosocial consequences are social effects on the mental health of people. Psychosomatic consequences describe the effects on the mutual influence of mind and body (e.g. bullying as a societal cause can lead to fear and avoidance behavior, which can lead to stomach ulcers). Educational disadvantage has negative effects on both the mental and physical health of those affected.

There is a statistical correlation between the type of school and self-efficacy beliefs. High school students are more likely to believe that social change can be brought about through commitment. Overall schoolchildren are least likely to believe that what one achieves in life is determined by fate or luck. Early school leavers are more likely to have doubts about their abilities and consider ability to be more important than effort. The 2006 Shell Youth Study came to similar results :

"Young people at secondary schools are much less optimistic about their own future (38% are more confident) than their peers at grammar schools (57% are more confident)."

School education also has a "massive influence on the likelihood of becoming pregnant as a minor" . This was the result of a study by the pro familia federal association and the Federal Center for Health Education . The probability of getting pregnant under age is five times as high for high school students as for high school students. It is possible that this study overestimates the extent of this connection, "but it is obvious that a low level of education and the lack of prospects associated with it today drastically increases the risk of becoming pregnant unintentionally."

The university information system's drop-out study indicates that students from the lower social group of origin are much more likely to drop out of their studies on the grounds of “illness” than other students. This may indicate that students of low social origin are exposed to multiple stresses with negative psychosomatic consequences.

The 2006 health report states that the level of education “just like financial status has an important influence on health and health behavior.” In addition, the educational qualification determines the possibility of income and employment. However, according to the health report, poverty and unemployment lead to a greater risk of illness and death. These risks have increased in relative terms for those affected by low incomes and unemployment in recent years. A low level of education therefore indirectly has negative effects on health and life expectancy. See also: gratification crisis

Nico Dragano refers to recent medical research, according to which socially disadvantaged children not only have a higher risk of falling ill at a young age, but that they also bear this mortgage on their health in adulthood. However, a study by Debbie A. Lawlor on the effect modification (interaction of social, educational and health disadvantages) shows that the health-damaging effect of early childhood social disadvantage is significantly reduced if the children concerned later received a high school education.

The Max Planck Institute for Human Development was interested in the question of whether the type of school attended has an influence on the development of intelligence . Strong effects could be demonstrated: When the output performance was checked in the intelligence test in grade 7, the students who attended grammar school were able to increase their intelligence performance by 11.39 points up to 9th grade than the students who attended secondary school. So it could be proven that the pupils at the lower school types have worse development chances.

Psychosocial Consequences in the Second Generation

A study, which was financed by the children's aid organization World Vision Germany and for which 1,600 children were surveyed, shows that children from poor homes already feel disadvantaged for the rest of their lives at the age of 8 to 11 years. It is the first comprehensive environmental study of children of this age group. The social scientist Klaus Hurrelmann commented: The poor starting opportunities “shape all areas of life and work like a vicious circle. The stigmatization and disadvantage of these children runs like a 'red thread' throughout life ”.

Many parents could not offer their children adequate leisure activities because of poverty , said Hurrelmann. The children would have to spend their free time watching TV and playing computer games. The co-author of the study, Sabine Andresen, pointed out that class society is not a new development. However, it is frightening how in a rich country like Germany the poverty of children "blatantly" affects their biographies. The researchers found that many parents are overwhelmed with the upbringing. That is why all areas of society should help to make children strong.

Leisure time behavior in Germany is largely determined by educational disadvantage due to social origin. According to Ulrich Schneekloth from the research institute TNS Infratest Sozialforschung, which was involved in the first German children's study, the German half-day school system, which is very much geared towards imparting knowledge and early selection, is one of the reasons for this. There is a lack of a wide range of afternoon activities. The children in the current study want such a thing very strongly. Of the upper-class children, 72 percent went to a sports club and 50 percent took part in musical and cultural activities, but only 40 percent of the lower-class children were regularly involved in sports and only 13 percent in the arts and culture. Over half of the socially disadvantaged children do nothing of the sort.

Activity rate and unemployment

In Germany, people with university degrees have an employment rate that, at 84%, is 34 percentage points higher than that of people without an upper secondary level II degree (employment rate of 50%). Likewise, the unemployment rate of academics in Germany is much lower than that of people without an academic degree. While university unemployment is only one and a half times the average for the other OECD countries, unemployment among non-university graduates is twice as high.

Educational qualifications and unemployment (according to OECD 2006)
Highest level of education Unemployment in Germany Unemployment on average across OECD countries
without an upper secondary level qualification 20.5% 10.4%
Upper secondary degree 11.2% 6.2%
academic degree 5.5% 3.9%
OECD Briefing Notes for Germany. Education at a Glance 2006

This gap in unemployment has widened in recent years. While unemployment for people with upper secondary education has remained constant since 1998, for people without this qualification it increased from 15.4% to the mentioned 20.5% in 2003. In addition, the risk of unemployment for non-university graduates increases with age disproportionately.

The Federal Statistical Office came up with similar figures for 2007. Conceptually based on the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) of the International Labor Organization (ILO), the Federal Statistical Office confirms by means of new evaluations the “considerably” lower labor market opportunities with low levels of education in Germany. In the EU countries only in the Slovak Republic and the Czech Republic unemployment is higher among people with low educational qualifications.

Educational qualifications and unemployment (according to Destatis 2008)
ISCED level Unemployment in Germany Average unemployment in EU countries
0–2 (pre-school, primary and secondary level 1 (at most secondary school leaving certificate without vocational training)) 17.7% 9.2%
3–4 (secondary level 2 and post-secondary level (Abitur or vocational training in the dual system or at a vocational school)) 8.2% 6.0%
5–6 (tertiary level (higher vocational training or a university or technical college degree)) 3.7% 3.6%
Destatis: Low education significantly reduces employment opportunities

While unemployment in Germany with a high level of education corresponds to the European average (3.7% / 3.6%), the probability of becoming unemployed with a low level of education is roughly twice as high in Germany as the EU average (17.7%) % / 9.2%). Since the dependence of educational success on social origin in Germany is also higher than the EU or OECD average, the educational system in Germany consolidates the probability of unemployment due to social origin more than in other countries.

In the case of young people of Turkish origin, the educational capital and special restrictions in the training and labor market prevent successful integration in training and work to a much greater extent than any re-ethnicization processes. This is the result of a 2007 study by the German Youth Institute

income

The OECD study “ Education at a Glance 2006 ” found that the income advantage for academics increased from 30% to 53% between 1998 and 2003. During the same period, it grew by only four percentage points on average for the OECD countries. The income disadvantage for women is particularly high in Germany compared to other OECD countries and has grown in recent years, with women in Germany being particularly dependent on the respective educational qualifications.

Career

The elite study Michael Hartmann found that in the economic elite - the boardrooms of large corporations - are to be found only 0.5% of workers' children. In this study, the biographical course of approx. 6,500 doctoral students was analyzed from four years at ten-year intervals. Working-class children with doctoral degrees were much less likely to have a career than doctoral students with a different social background. Hartmann believes that he recognizes a trend according to which a process of social closure has been taking place since 1990 , which makes social advancement more dependent on origin than on performance.

The long arm of social origin

Apparently, children of educationalists often fail to replicate their parents' success. This is the conclusion reached by Marek Fuchs and Michaela Sixt from the University of Kassel . The two sociologists worked with data from the SOEP .

A lower percentage of children of educationalists attain higher education entrance qualification than children of traditional academics (a person whose parents and grandparents were already academics was considered to be a traditional academic). In addition, the proportion of children who have been promoted with a high school diploma has decreased more and more. It is true that 81% of the children of the educational climbers between the years 1948 and 1952 passed the Abitur. However, only 56% of the children of the educational climbers between the years 1958 and 1962 made the Abitur. In contrast, 84% of the children of traditional academics from the same age group had the Abitur.

In addition, children of traditional academics were more likely to complete their university studies successfully. 84% of the children of traditional academics completed university education once they had started. It was only 72% of the newcomers.

Juvenile delinquency

A study by the Criminological Research Institute of Lower Saxony (KFN) from 2008 comes to the conclusion that the secondary school promotes juvenile delinquency :

“In the course of the last ten years, the secondary school has gradually become an independent reinforcing factor for youth violence. Since the proportion of young people with considerable family and social stress in their student body has risen sharply, there have been negative stimulation and contagion effects that schools can only counteract with difficulty. "

The results of the Criminological Research Institute of Lower Saxony cannot be traced back to the cultural capital of the parents and hardly to the religious affiliation of the young people.

“In our study of the ninth graders in Hanover, however, the family's cultural capital does not make its own contribution to explaining delinquency because it is overlaid by the factors that are reflected in school types and other social aspects. Religious affiliation is evidently of little relevance for the delinquency behavior of young people. "

- Susann Rabold, Dirk Baier, Christian Pfeiffer : Youth violence and delinquency in Hanover. Current findings and developments since 1998

National and international voices on educational disadvantage in Germany

Educational disadvantage is present in many countries, but the German situation has drawn criticism on both a national and an international level. This relates to both economics of education and humanistic and human rights considerations. The criticism is based primarily on the expected effects of the educational disadvantage (see also the chapter on effects ).

Educational economic considerations

Education Economic Critique of educational disadvantage means that starting from the question of what is good for the development of the economy, is critical of the deprivation. Essentially, the argument of wasting talent and human capital is given here.

OECD

From an educational economics perspective, the OECD criticizes that investment in education, which is below average in terms of gross domestic product in comparison with other OECD countries , flows disproportionately into the tertiary sector (university) and disproportionately into the primary sector (kindergarten, elementary school). For example, between 1995 and 2003 expenditure per pupil grew by only 5% (OECD average by 33%), while over the same period it increased by 8% per student (OECD average by only 6%). This leads to the fact that broad educational support is stopped very early on, while doctoral students (who mainly have an academic background) receive above-average support.

OECD Secretary General Angel Gurría criticized the distribution of ten-year-old children to different types of school, which is common in Germany. Upper-class children have more than twice the chance of studying as students from simple families. Only 21 percent of all 15-year-olds in Germany could even imagine studying at all. The OECD average is 57 percent. Literally he said:

“In Germany, however, these inequalities can be traced back to the structure of the school system. As early as the age of ten, schoolchildren are distributed among the various branches of the school system, with children from socially disadvantaged families often being referred to branches in which the performance expectations are lower. This can also be seen in the poor academic performance of students with a migration background [...] "

In the policy recommendations of the 2008 economic report, the OECD expressed criticism of the German school system, in particular the lack of “permeability” in the education system and a lack of commitment to children from lower social classes. To reverse this, the OECD recommended, among other things:

  • "Increase participation in early childhood education and upbringing (ECEC) and improve its quality"
    • Pilot programs to compensate for deficiencies in the home environment in young children from socially disadvantaged backgrounds , which limit their ability to develop”;
    • "Development of common financing standards for all institutions in order to guarantee fairer treatment of children from socially disadvantaged backgrounds";
    • “Raising the training of ECEC educators at tertiary and preferably university level and introducing more specialized training for educators for young children (under 3 years of age)”;
    • "Rethinking the currently considered payment of a monthly amount (care allowance) to parents who look after their children themselves instead of giving them to a childcare facility";
    • “Identification of strategies for the increased participation of children from socially disadvantaged backgrounds from the age of 3 in kindergarten education”, as well as
    • "Improving the quality of all-day kindergarten programs."
  • as well as the "reduction in the degree of structure of the school system" through:
    • "Postponement of the first selection, which in most federal states currently takes place at the age of 10, to a later date";
    • "Offer of secondary and secondary schools in a common school type" and
    • "Increasing the permeability between the courses in practice."

McKinsey

Similar to the criticism expressed by the OECD, in 2005 the management consultancy McKinsey spoke out in favor of more "educational quality and equal opportunities " in Germany. Given the need for a highly skilled workforce, McKinsey called for a billion dollar investment program in early childhood education and a special focus on disadvantaged families and children of foreign parents. For example, access to crèches and kindergartens should be made easier for the so-called educationally deprived strata in socially disadvantaged areas, the childcare ratio should be doubled and special emphasis should be placed on language education; parents should also no longer pay a meal allowance.

Chambers of Crafts

The lack of school performance of the apprenticeship applicants is now massively affecting the recruitment of young people in the craft.

As early as 2002, Dieter Philipp , President of the Central Association of German Crafts (ZDH), called for consequences from the PISA study. In Bavaria and Baden-Württemberg in particular, many companies do not find enough trainees, especially in technically demanding jobs in the metal and electrical trade. This is due to the lack of qualifications among school leavers. In a survey by the Düsseldorf Chamber of Crafts it was found that 40% of the applicants did not have the necessary qualifications. According to Philipp, it is the tradition and voluntary commitment of the craft to also integrate underperforming young people and enable them to start their careers. However, the craft is not a repair shop for deficiencies in school education,

The BWHT has criticized the fact that the secondary school no longer adequately prepares young people for skilled trades. Many apprenticeship positions in the skilled trades would have to remain vacant because young people would no longer have the necessary qualifications. In particular, there would be a lack of math and technical skills. The BWHT has therefore called for the abolition of the secondary school. More and more craft businesses are only employing secondary school students or high school graduates. So now the majority has apprentice carpenters , the High School . A 9-year basic school is required for everyone. The first level is the pre-school area, which must be compulsory and should last for one to two years. Building on this, in a basic level, the name of which is still to be defined and which is to last nine years, a broad general education with a larger educational offer is to take place in order to do justice to individual support. Following this phase, specialization should take place either in the general high school or in vocational training (dual training, full-time school measures, vocational high schools) over a period of three years. Access to the upper level should be regulated via entrance exams. Completion of the third educational phase should entitle them to study at a university so that the way to university is open to everyone. According to the supporters of the model, this would combine the advantages of a one-part school system with the advantages of a structured school system. The hope is that the individual pupil would be better supported. The WHKT has joined the demands of the BWHT.

With regard to the PISA study, the President of the Craftsmen of Baden-Württemberg, Joachim Möhrle, once again called for longer joint learning and individualized support in 2007. He was pleased with the slightly better performance of German schools and said that the German school system had strengths. However, these are not in the secondary school. 39 percent of secondary school students only achieve basic skills. That means they can only do as much as an elementary school student. In a press release, the BWHT described this as bad news for the trade. Möhrle criticized that no branch of the economy suffered as much as the handicrafts, because many secondary school graduates were no longer able to cope with the increasing qualification requirements. The state government must finally recognize that the economic and social prosperity of an entire industry is in danger here. Many apprenticeship positions can no longer be filled because there is a lack of qualified applicants. According to the new PISA results, one could no longer ignore the fact that the prevailing principle of selection was not really successful.

Human rights aspects

One human rights critique of educational disadvantage is based on the fact that education is a human right. This is required not least of all by the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights , which many OECD countries (including the Federal Republic of Germany) have signed. See also: Right to Education

The German pedagogue and professor for educational psychology, Kurt Singer , dealt with the disadvantage of pupils through pedagogical misconduct in his research and noted a particular conflict of fundamental rights (“The dignity of the pupil is touchable”).

In extensive studies with surveys of 2965 students (including German people), a research group (Krumm / Weiss) at the Institute for Educational Sciences at the University of Salzburg examined the behavior of teachers who abuse their position of power through psychological violence . One category of these investigations was false / unfair performance evaluation . During the evaluations, u. a. based on equity theory (justice in social relationships).

United Nations Human Rights Commission

Alarmed by the educational disadvantage in the Federal Republic of Germany, the United Nations Human Rights Commission sent its special rapporteur Vernor Muñoz from Costa Rica to German schools in February 2006. Muñoz pointed out that education in Germany is characterized by a lack of equal opportunities. He criticized

“That the German government's reservation with regard to the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child has the effect that children are first seen in their refugee status and only then as children. Of course, this means that people whose legal status has not been clearly clarified also have no way of getting into the training area [...] "

and recommended:

“That the child is placed at the center of the educational process. And as we have seen, it is clearly not the case that there is an education that is justified with the rights of boys and girls "

He also recommended a fee-free preschool education and

"To postpone the grading, which currently takes place at the age of 10, to a later age and consequently to enter into a dialogue on the question of the educational structure in connection with an analysis of the implications for school content and school organization."

He also criticized that kindergarten places in Germany are chargeable.

UNESCO

The request came from UNESCO that Germany should join the Education for all plan. The so-called EFA plan was drawn up at the UNESCO World Education Forum in Dakar in 2000 with the aim of achieving adequate and high quality “Education for All” (EFA) by 2015. This plan should not only apply to developing countries , but also to Germany, since four of the six conditions for “basic education for all” are also not met in Germany:

UNESCO: "Four of the six goals formulated in the EFA action program also directly or indirectly affect Germany"
EFA goal German situation
"Expansion and improvement of early childhood care and education, especially for vulnerable and disadvantaged young children" "No regular pre-school education, disadvantageous especially for children from social problem situations and with a migration background"
"Securing the learning needs of young people through access to learning opportunities and training of basic qualifications" "Unequal opportunities: social exclusion and performance selection instead of encouraging and integrating socially disadvantaged children"
"Significant reduction in illiteracy and improvement of learning and training opportunities for adults" "4 to 7 million adults in Germany are" functional "illiterate and have little chance of meeting the requirements of the information society and the job market"
"Improvement of the educational quality and adapted, relevant learning content" "Outdated teaching material and outdated teaching methods, inadequate teacher training, poor equipment and insufficient independence of the schools, too rigid curricula"
(Andreas Baaden, Eva-Maria Hartmann: EFA and PISA. Why Germany needs a national EFA plan. In: unesco today online. Issue 10, October 2002 )

Germany needs a national EFA action program that focuses on school structure, pre-school education, primary schools and secondary schools. In addition, efforts in adult education should be stepped up to provide quality basic education for those people who have left school with insufficient knowledge.

UNICEF

The UNICEF highlighted the discrimination in the German education system in their study Disadvantage in Rich Countries particularly pointing and wrote thereupon a special report A Sorting Hat did Fails? The Transition from Primary to Secondary School in Germany . In the German education system people would be sorted too early and this sorting would be difficult to break in later life.

Education Minister of the European Union

In a joint advice paper of the 25 education ministers of the EU , the early separation of schoolchildren, as it takes place especially in Austria and the Federal Republic of Germany, is reprimanded there

"It can have a negative impact on the performance of disadvantaged students if the early age students are divided into different types of schools according to their abilities"

- ORF

The paper was written in this defused version due to the intervention of German and Austrian diplomats. The communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament on "Efficiency and equity in European education and training systems" on which this decision is based stated:

“In European countries where early differentiation of students is made (e.g. DE, LI, LU, NL, AT) there are greater differences in student performance than in countries with more integrated school systems. An early differentiation has a particularly negative effect on the performance of disadvantaged children. One reason for this is that these children are more likely to be channeled towards the less-regarded forms of education and training. "

Education Commissioner Ján Figeľ referred to the studies of 12 researchers as well as the international organizations UNESCO and OECD on the early division of pupils: “Nobody says it is positive.” The President of the Council and Finnish Education Minister Antti Kalliomäki emphasized that cohesion is particularly important for disadvantaged children .

On the occasion of the EU Education Monitor 2007, EU Director General Quintin also saw the main problem in Germany in the early separation of pupils into Hauptschule, Realschule and Gymnasium.

Methodical questions

Different classifications of the groups of origin

The investigations are based in part on different classifications of the groups of origin. Different classifications can lead to significantly different interpretations of educational disadvantage. This was shown, for example, by the dispute between the OECD and the head of the German educational consortium at the beginning of December 2007, since the German PISA consortium only looked at the socio-economic situation ( EGP index ), while the OECD also included cultural aspects to determine the group of origin ( ESCS index ) used. Explanations can be found under

Influence of the class of origin on the competence achieved

There are several ways to measure educational disadvantage. One possibility is the so-called social gradient . To put it simply, the attempt is made to calculate a straight line which, given the social status, enables the competence to be predicted.

To make this clear: Imagine a coordinate system . The abscissa (the horizontal axis) represents the independent variable (X). In this case that would be the social origin. The ordinate (the vertical axis) represents the dependent variable. In this case, that would be educational success.

Now every student is entered in the coordinate system according to their educational success and their social background. So you get a so-called point cloud . Each point symbolizes a student.

A straight line is drawn through this point cloud in such a way that all points of the cloud are as close as possible to the straight line. If this line rises sharply, the connection between social status and competence is strong; if it increases only slowly, there is only a weak connection. In mathematical terms: regression estimated from the respective competence scores on the international index for the socio-economic standard of the family (ISEI). With a given social status, this regression function allows a prediction of the competence level achieved. A linear regression equation was sufficient for the estimation. The regression line is called the social gradient of the respective competence area. For more details see: Regression Analysis .

In Germany, the social situation has a strong influence on the level of performance.

Calculation of the odds ratio

In order to check how the educational opportunities of children from different classes stand, the quota ratio for attending grammar school instead of secondary school was calculated as part of the PISA study .

This happened as follows:

  Number of people in the group of interest
(e.g. "upper class")
Number of people in the reference group
(e.g. "skilled workers")
In high school a b
In secondary school c d

A odds ratio of

  • exactly 1 means that there is no difference in the odds,
  • if the odds ratio is> 1, the odds of the first group are greater,
  • if it is <1, they are smaller than those of the second group.

If the quota ratio is 6.06, then the chance for children from the upper service class to attend grammar school instead of secondary school is increased by 6.06 times. In popular science terms: for children from the upper class, the chance of attending a grammar school is 6.06 times greater than for children of skilled workers. The term “ chance ” is used in the popular science sense. In a scientific sense, the chance is something different than the odds ratio (for more on the differences: see odds ratio ). However, since the term chance is often used in the press instead of odds ratio, although this is actually mathematically incorrect, it will also be used here.

Criticism of the studies and theses on educational disadvantage

Criticism of the methodology

Critics, including the economists von Collani and Prais, the physicist Wuttke, the mathematician Putz and Frank Gaeth, who did his doctorate at the Free University of Berlin, have pointed out methodological deficiencies in studies on educational disadvantage, especially in the PISA study.

The most serious mistake was the handling of missing values ​​in PISA. As part of the PISA study, an IQ test, the so-called “test of basic cognitive skills”, was first carried out. Anyone who took part in this test was to be rated as a participant - even if no data was available on the type of school attended or the achievements in the subjects tested by PISA. Now there were students who, for various reasons, did not answer a question after testing their basic cognitive skills. So the values ​​were missing here. There are several ways to deal with this. Firstly, the missing values ​​could be left out entirely. This option is the most serious, but at the same time it leads to the fact that a large number of data sets become unusable. That's why she wasn't chosen here. Instead, the students were assigned so-called plausible values based on conditioning variables . In this case, conditioning variables are understood to mean things such as the parents' job or basic cognitive skills. Based on these conditioning variables , the performance of the students and the type of school attended are estimated. Of course, a sophisticated mathematical model is used for this, so that the estimated values ​​are plausible. The calculation of plausible values ​​is common in sociology, but this methodical approach has been criticized in the case of the PISA study. It is not certain whether the measured educational disadvantage actually takes place or is an artifact.

The OECD categorically rejected doubts about the methodology and the correct analysis of the data. This lacked “any scientific basis,” said the OECD in Berlin.

The German teachers' association criticized the opinion that migrants are disadvantaged in Germany. The President of the German Teachers Association, Josef Kraus, took the following position:

“The OECD is once again serving up half-truths and pretending to be dealing with new data. Above all, it is not serious if the OECD spokesman combines the data presentation with personal evaluations, such as a plea for school uniforms, and uses the Rütli school for its unitary school ideology. "

The German school does not integrate the children of migrants better or worse than other countries where migrants perform better, this is due to the controlled immigration policy and not to the school. Migrants are particularly poorly integrated in Finland. Finland is being hyped up to be a myth, although it does not get along with its migrant children.

Dr. Volker Hagemeister has criticized this. There were significant differences in educational and social status between the immigrant populations living in the different PISA participating states. This was insufficiently taken into account when planning and evaluating the PISA study. In some states - e.g. B. in Canada or New Zealand - the children of new immigrants would have done as well or even better on PISA than the native children because academics are overrepresented among immigrants and because most immigrants in Canada or New Zealand already speak the national language. In contrast, many children with a migrant background in Germany belonged to the lower social class.

Hagemeister has also expressed criticism of the TIMSS study.

Criticism of the allegation of an educational disadvantage

In a criticism of the PISA theses, Josef Kraus , the President of the German Teachers' Association, denies any educational disadvantage. There are no educational barriers in the German school system. However, many parents decided not to send their children to high school because other schools had their qualities too. The education debate is too focused on high school and university studies.

The former Hessian Minister of Education, Karin Wolff, shares this opinion . "The abolition of the Hauptschule would be the continuation of the ideologically justified contempt for practical talents, with which the SPD ministers of education have inflicted severe damage on Hessian schoolchildren over many years."

In fact, a way should be found that elementary school students opt for secondary school at an early stage. At the moment, only 4% of students would go from elementary school to secondary school, plus a large number of cross-transfers:

"Now we have to look for ways to increase the attractiveness of practice-oriented main school branches in such a way that the number of cross-transfers to the main school is also reduced because pupils discover early on their interest in a type of school that corresponds to their talents and inclinations prepared for a successful professional life. "

The Lord Mayor of Regensburg, Hans Schaidinger, spoke out in favor of the current school system. Only through the current school system is it guaranteed that even those with practical skills can find a job that suits them and that there are enough qualified workers for all areas. On the occasion of the laying of the foundation stone for a secondary school, he said on April 24, 2006:

“Anyone who regrets that there is z. For example, there are too few high school graduates in Bavaria, which must also say where the young people for the craft and many other areas should come from. Without qualified specialists there would be no efficient companies and without well-trained employees at all levels and in all areas there would be no basis for our economic, but also social and cultural development. Education, training and qualifications are the indispensable sources for the competitiveness of our country and our economy and these sources are fed from all types of schools [...] We need strong secondary schools as well as strong secondary schools. "

In October 2006, the Ansbach Vocational Training and Technology Center (BTZ) of the Chamber of Crafts for Middle Franconia celebrated its 25th anniversary. On the occasion of this celebration, Chamber President Mosler rejected the criticism of the German school system. It is simply not true that secondary school students can no longer find an apprenticeship in the craft. Secondary school students would have good chances in the craft.

Measures against educational disadvantage

83 out of 100 academic children enroll at a university in Germany; families with no academic tradition only do 23 out of 100 children. Only eight percent of the students are migrant children, although around a fifth of the population and a quarter of the children and adolescents under 25 years of age have a migrant background. That is why the sociologist Ralf Dahrendorf called for a minimum quota of students from educationally disadvantaged backgrounds. This quota should be similar to the American affirmative action .

In some municipalities in Germany, breakfast is offered in primary schools and given out free of charge to children from poor families. As part of the EU school fruit program in the school years 2011/2012 to 2015/2016, fruit and vegetables were distributed free of charge in the school. (For previous and successor programs, see also: School milk program of the European Union .) According to a representative survey from 2019, a total of 10% of all primary school children in Germany go to school without breakfast, another 9% have breakfast alone.

See also

literature

Basic texts

  • Pierre Bourdieu : The subtle differences. Critique of social judgment . Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 1987, ISBN 3-518-28258-1 .
  • Pierre Bourdieu, Jean-Claude Passeron: The illusion of equal opportunities, studies on the sociology of education using the example of France . Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart 1988, ISBN 3-12-921120-9 .
  • Ralf Dahrendorf : Working-class children at German universities . Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen 1965, ISBN 3-16-517471-7 .

History of educational disadvantage

  • Herbert Gudjons : Basic pedagogical knowledge. 8th edition. Julius Klinkhardt Publishing House, Bad Heilbrunn 2003.
  • Peter Lundgreen : An overview of the social history of the German school. Part II: 1918-1980. (= Small Vandenhoeck series). Göttingen 1981, ISBN 3-525-33454-0 .

Gender and social origin

  • Hannelore Bublitz: Somehow I didn't belong anywhere: Workers' daughters at the university . Focus, Giessen 1980, ISBN 3-88349-208-6 .
  • Erika Haas: children of workers and academics at the university. A gender and class specific analysis . Campus, Frankfurt am Main 1999, ISBN 3-593-36223-6 .
  • Anne Schlüter (Ed.): Working-class daughters and their social advancement. On the relationship between class, gender and social mobility . Deutscher Studienverlag, Weinheim 1992, ISBN 3-89271-327-8 .
  • Anne Schlüter (ed.): Educational mobility. Studies on the individualization of working-class daughters in the modern age . Deutscher Studienverlag, Weinheim 1993, ISBN 3-89271-417-7 .
  • Gabriele Theling: Maybe I would have been happier as a saleswoman: Workers' daughters & college . Westphalian steam boat, Münster 1986, ISBN 3-924550-18-2 .

Urban / rural disparities

Migration research

  • Mechtild Gomolla , Frank-Olaf Radtke : Institutional Discrimination. Making ethnic difference in school . Leske + Budrich, Opladen 2002, ISBN 3-8100-1987-9 .
  • Mechthild Gomolla: School development in the immigration society. Strategies against discrimination in England, Germany and Switzerland . Waxmann Verlag, Münster 2005, ISBN 3-8309-1520-9 .
  • Mona Granato: Inequalities in access to vocational training: developments and lack of prospects for young people with a migration background . Internet article from July 14, 2006 (on: migration-online.de )

University research

  • Wolfgang Isserstedt, Elke Middendorff, Steffen Weber, Klaus Schnitzer, Andrä Wolter : The economic and social situation of students in the Federal Republic of Germany 2003. 17. Social survey of the German student union carried out by the HIS university information system . Bonn / Berlin 2004.
  • Walter Müller, Reinhard Pollak : Why are there so few workers' children in Germany's universities? In: Rolf Becker , Wolfgang Lauterbach (ed.): Education as a privilege? Explanations and findings on the causes of educational inequality . Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, Wiesbaden 2004, ISBN 3-531-14259-3 , pp. 311–352.

Elite sociology

  • Michael Hartmann : The myth of the performance elite . Top careers and social origins in business, politics, justice and science . Campus-Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 2002, ISBN 3-593-37151-0 .
  • Klaus Schubert : Elite performance. The importance of social origin as a selection criterion for top careers. An analysis with special consideration of socialization and qualifications . Kovac, Hamburg 2006, ISBN 3-8300-2218-2 .

International surveys

  • UNICEF: Innocenti Report Card No. 4: A league table of educational disadvantage in rich nations . UNICEF Innocenti Research Center, Florence 2002.

Criticism of the OECD surveys

  • Josef Kraus: The PISA hoax. Our children are better than their reputation. How parents and schools can promote potential Signum Verlag, Vienna 2005, ISBN 3-85436-376-1 .

Web links

Individual evidence

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  2. pp. 55 and 73
  3. p. 61.
  4. p. 63.
  5. a b p. 62.
  6. p. 69.
  • Johannes Uhlig, Heike Solga, Jürgen Schupp: Unequal educational opportunities: What role do underachievement and personality structure play in this? Discussion Paper SP I 2009-503, Social Science Research Center Berlin, 2009.
  1. a b PDF
  2. p. 27.
  3. p. 26.
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