Child poverty in industrialized countries

This article treats “child poverty” as the economic poverty of children. For “child poverty in the industrialized countries” as a decrease in births see birth deficit .

Child poverty is the poverty of people of a given age range; usually from birth to 18 birthday. Child poverty can be calculated in different ways, with normative components playing a role. Child poverty is widely held responsible as a cause of undersupply in important areas of life such as housing or nutrition. It can lead to limited development opportunities and poorer educational opportunities for the children concerned.

To calculate child poverty and criticism of the calculation

Since absolute poverty threatening livelihoods is rare in industrialized societies, child poverty in industrialized countries is measured as material, relative poverty : Children are considered poor if they live in households with incomes below a relative poverty line . This limit is defined differently - often set at 50% and 60% of the median of the respective weighted net equivalent income of a country.

Other studies identify those who depend on social benefits as poor . The different definition of child poverty and the type of calculation result in different poverty rates, so that the comparability of figures determined in different countries is ruled out.

From a sociological point of view, it is emphasized that “poverty” cannot be defined purely scientifically, since normative components flow into every definition. When calculating the equivalised income , the weighting of the household members also plays a role. This is done using the equivalence scale , which determines what proportion of the needs of a one-person household is assumed to be the needs of an adult, a child or a young person in a multi-person household. The Federal Government's first poverty and wealth report from 2001 states: "The" Old OECD scale "is used (1st person in the household: weight 1, other household members aged 15 and over: weight 0.7 and young people under 15 years of age: Weight 0.5) and the “New OECD Scale” (1st person in the household: weight 1, other household members aged 15 and over: weight 0.5 and young people under 15 years of age: weight 0.3). ”A different weighting of the People leads to differences in the relative child poverty rates determined from them.

This significantly lower weighting for children and their further reduction through the new OECD scale is also criticized. According to the old scale, the weighting of a child with 0.5 was not only significantly higher than it is now with 0.3, it was also significantly higher than the current 60 percent compared to an additional 15-year-old household member at around 71 percent. During the reform of the OECD scale, the weighting of children was therefore reduced particularly sharply.

The determination of the OECD also differs from the experience of the social authorities. The benefits paid by the job centers in Germany for a child correspond to around 50 to 60 percent of what is paid for a single adult and are therefore similar to those for an additional adult. Both unemployment benefit II and social benefit as well as benefits for accommodation and heating as well as special payments were taken into account.

On child poverty in general

Mother with starving children from Heinrich Zille

According to a study by UNICEF , between 1995 and 2005 the number of children living in poverty rose in 17 and fell in seven out of 24 OECD countries. Six of the seven countries with falling child poverty previously had very high levels of child poverty. Only Norway is an industrialized country with low and continuously falling child poverty. Child poverty increased the most in Poland (+ 4.3%), Luxembourg (+ 4.1%) and the Czech Republic (+ 4.1%). It fell most in England (−3.1%), the USA (−2.8%) and Norway (−1.8%). In Germany, too, the increase was above average at + 2.7%.

The extent of child poverty can be controlled by social or tax measures, as can be demonstrated in the Scandinavian countries , which have significantly low poverty rates even among single parents or couple families without income earners.

Child poverty is often associated with poor health and delayed emotional and cognitive development. Children who grow up in poverty - as is clearly demonstrated for Germany by the World Vision Children's Studies and the Shell Youth Studies - achieve poorer academic performance than other children, attend higher school types less often in countries with a structured school system, and attend universities less frequently in adulthood, are more likely to become parents at an underage age, smoke more often, use illegal drugs more often and are more likely to be unemployed as adults.

Poverty at home does not have the same negative impact on all children. Parental resources such as values ​​and coping strategies, human skills and cultural capital can help children develop well despite poverty. Studies from Dresden show that parents often strive to protect their children from the effects of poverty. Parents in particular who have a high level of education themselves, or who are generally socially relegated themselves, are very committed to their children's schooling despite being poor. Children who grow up in cultural milieus that are characterized by mutual support and strong family values ​​also appear to be largely protected from the effects of poverty. These include children from minorities such as the Vietnamese minority in the USA and peasant children from most countries in Europe and the USA.

Child poverty is usually taken very seriously in society, both because of the compassion for affected children and because of the possible long-term effects on society. For example, it is pointed out that the emotions that build up as a result of long-term poverty, anger, hatred and despair, are expressed in petty crime and organized crime and can result in long-term costs for combating violence and drugs.

Child poverty is not only an expression of a temporary lack, but can also be understood as a deficit in future opportunities. A future-oriented child policy can emphasize advantages that arise in terms of human capital theory when people are prepared for future developments and challenges. Timely investments can reduce social follow-up costs that would otherwise be expected for subsequent attempts at integration and qualification.

This can be achieved through improved educational opportunities for children in all areas, for which a number of economic considerations have been worked out.

The importance of improved training is exemplified by the access to media and information as well as the competent handling of them. Key figures on children's access to computers and the Internet are a widely accepted measure of this. Models from Scandinavian countries based on the principle "every child has their PC and their online connection at state expense" show that preparation for the future generation of professionals in the globalized world is sensible and economically feasible. The 100 dollar laptop serves similar goals as part of the One Laptop per Child project , which is aimed at pupils and schools in developing, emerging and industrialized countries.

history

See also : Poverty through historical change

Material poverty was shaped differently depending on the time and type of society. Understanding and dealing with poverty depended heavily on the era. Since the industrial revolution, child poverty has been raised as a social issue in most industrialized countries . From today's point of view, the living and food conditions of large sections of the population were catastrophic.

Around 1840 z. In the English city of Manchester, for example , 57% of working-class children are still under five. Due to their parents ' low wages, many working class children were forced to work in the early days of industrialization .

Since the end of the 19th century, politics and science have been looking for solutions on how to break the spiral of poverty . At that time z. B. the English social researcher Charles Booth documents the living conditions of workers in London. He hit z. For example, it is proposed to distribute the poor over the city in such a way that, for example, a large number of children and poor living conditions have as little consequences as possible. In 1890, the American journalist Jacob Riis documented the living conditions of children in New York slums with photographs . At the same time, Chancellor Otto von Bismarck introduced the first social laws in Germany ; a reaction to the growing impoverishment of many working class families.

From the beginning of the 20th century, poverty began to decline in most industrialized countries until the Great Depression in 1929 led to a rise again. From 1939, the Second World War, especially among children in temporarily occupied countries, and the post-war period led to a dramatic increase in homelessness, hunger and poverty.

From the middle of the 20th century, poverty appeared to be almost over. The economic miracle occurred in Germany . Some time later, vacation travel and cars were also affordable for working-class families. They could now maintain a lifestyle that a generation ago was reserved for the middle class . Sociologists such as Helmut Schelsky spoke of the “ leveled middle class society ” in which the middle class is becoming more and more extensive and the majority of people feel that they belong to the middle class.

In the 1960s, poverty only affected a minority of children. In 1965, only every 75th child under the age of seven in Germany was dependent on social assistance . After that, child poverty began to rise again significantly.

Since the beginning of industrialization, child poverty has changed its face. It is now no longer absolute , but relative poverty, which is no longer reflected in the lack of food, shelter, clothing and access to school, but in manifestations such as limited material basic supplies, reduced educational opportunities, poorer health and less social participation.

Effects and connections

Poverty can have negative consequences for child development. However, whether deficits and problems actually develop depends on many factors. As far as the stresses are concerned, the number of risk factors in particular determines whether serious harm occurs in children. Poverty is often correlated with other risk factors , such as a low level of education or a mental illness of the parents or belonging to a discriminated minority. Studies show that one of these risk factors alone often hardly affects child development, but if several risk factors occur at the same time, the child is overwhelmed with coping with the problems and negative consequences become apparent. In addition to the risk factors, protective factors (such as a close relationship with a caregiver or a so-called “positive temperament”) also play a role. These can mitigate the effects of the risk factors. Roland Merten, State Secretary in the Thuringian Ministry of Culture and Professor of Social Pedagogy at the University of Jena, speaks of multiple deprivation , of various elements that all interact negatively in a circle .

health

The following explanations about unequal health opportunities relate in detail to Germany, but can largely be transferred to the majority of industrialized countries. The very poor industrialized countries such as Poland, where poverty is not associated with overweight but with malnutrition, are an exception.

General

According to Klaus Peter Strohmeier , Professor of Urban and Regional Sociology , 80% of young people in the middle-class district of Bochum are healthy. In the large estates it is only 10 to 15%. Diseases associated with child poverty are mainly obesity and motor disorders .

Persistent experience of poverty during primary school apparently leads to significantly increased motor restlessness. The professional association of paediatricians demands that child poverty be resolutely combated in the future. The president of the association, Wolfram Hartmann, warns of the consequences of child poverty: developmental disorders, obesity, drug consumption, incomplete vaccination protection and chronic diseases: the damage to health that is closely linked to child poverty is dramatic .

Social capital

Not every child living in poverty has to face the same risks to health and development. The individual and family resources , such as the support or social integration that the affected child experiences in the family, among friends, in the environment (neighborhood) or in school ( social capital ), are also decisive . A distinction is made between a structural and an individual cognitive component of social capital. The individual cognitive component is also described as social cohesion ( cohesion (psychology) ) in the sense of universally recognized norms, a feeling of stability and security in the respective community. Findings so far support the view that there is a positive correlation between health and social capital. Conversely, if there is a lack of such personal and psychosocial resources, the lack of social capital increases any exogenous pathogenic influences.

pregnancy

The poorer health opportunities have an impact in many areas. Even during pregnancy , poor children have worse chances. Children of poor mothers are more likely to be born prematurely than children of more affluent mothers, which can lead to learning disorders , behavioral problems and intellectual development disorders in later life .

In the lower social class , 40% smoke during pregnancy. Three out of four households with children under the age of six smoke.

Environmental influences

In addition, poor children are often victims of environmental pollution . Federal Environment Agency President Andreas Troge reported that they suffered in particular from car exhaust and nicotine poisoning, which were clearly related to their growing up in poor residential areas. Poor children have more accidents than non-poor children. They are twice as likely to have traffic accidents and scalds as children from wealthy families. Poor children are also overrepresented in fatal accidents.

nutrition

Poor children often eat less healthily than rich ones. They consume more meat, fast food , chips and sodas and less fruit, vegetables and whole-grain bread. As a result, they are more likely to suffer from vitamin deficiencies , fatigue , difficulty concentrating and being overweight . As the program Planet Wissen reported, unemployment benefit II recipients cannot eat healthily because the money is not enough for the daily ration recommended by the German Nutrition Society (DGE).

psyche

Some mental illnesses are influenced by social factors in their emergence and severity. For poor children, this means developing an increased risk of mental disorders and being exposed to the risk of the mental disorder becoming chronic due to various poverty-related structural deficits such as the lack of intervention and prevention options . The Cologne poverty researcher Jürgen Friedrichs assumes that poverty creates permanent psychological pressure , stress , which also has a negative impact on health and is also inherited.

Education, cognition and intellect

Many children from disadvantaged neighborhoods already show deficits in fine motor skills , gross motor skills and language skills when they start school .

Children of poor parents often receive little or no early intervention and development support therapy . According to Trabert, data from the Cologne Youth Health Service show that participation in the U8 and U9 preventive examinations as well as the use of therapies for developmental disorders requiring treatment depend on the parents' social status . Another study on the use of the U9 preventive medical check-up showed that the participation rate of children from families without an income of their own was 27 percent, whereas it was 61 percent overall.

The socio-economic status of the parents determines the child's intelligence development more than all currently ascertainable prenatal and perinatal risk factors.

In Germany, children from families who have lived in poverty for a long time have an average IQ that is 9 points lower than children from families that have never been impoverished. Children who have lived in poverty for a shorter period of time have an IQ four points lower. Among poor children, the percentage at risk of failing school is greatly increased.

Similar differences in the development of intelligence were also found in studies from the USA. In these studies, IQ losses between 6 and 13 points could be demonstrated. They show that the low IQ of children from poor families can mainly be explained by environmental factors. While the intelligence of the middle class is largely influenced by heredity, the low IQ of children from impoverished sections of the population can mainly be explained by a lack of support, poor nutrition and schools. However, critics argue that since intelligence tests are constructed by middle-class individuals, they do not measure the true abilities of poor children. See also: Critique of the concept of intelligence

Poverty does not always lead to low intelligence. There are exceptions to this rule. For example, the Oakland Growth and Berkeley Guidance Studies did not show any significant effects of poverty among working- and middle-class boys. Poor middle-class boys had an average IQ of 115.9 and poor working-class boys an average IQ of 113.1. The results of these studies, which deal with individuals born in California between 1920 and 1929, cannot be fully applied to the present day. These are also boys who, despite poverty, grew up in a relatively good social environment. But they show that not everything is hopeless.

Intelligence development can be promoted with special programs. The Milwaukee Project was best known here . There are only a few such programs in Germany. There is an interaction between poverty, educational poverty and educational disadvantage.

According to a study by the Bertelsmann Foundation from 2009, on the other hand, the fact that around one in five young people receives an inadequate education results in economic costs of around 2.8 trillion euros in Germany.

80–90% of the children in schools for people with learning disabilities come from a poor environment or the other way around: 19% of the children from the lower class are in a special school , compared to 1% of the children from the upper class. According to Schlack, the insecure professional and financial situation of the parents, poor living conditions, life in socially disadvantaged areas, incomplete families, restricted and one-sided suggestions and social isolation contribute to the fact that the needs of children cannot be satisfied in this living environment. This leads to the fact that they cannot reach their intellectual potential.

According to a study by the Vodafone Foundation published in 2011, differences in the different transition rates between poor and non-impoverished children are largely due to different performance. But even with the same performance, poor children are given worse marks.

character

Ruby Payne argues that growing up in poverty has important character effects. In order to survive in poverty, poor children would have to communicate non-verbally and react immediately to sensory impressions. This is a disadvantage in schools, which are primarily verbalized and abstracted . According to Walter Mischel , poor children have less self-control and strive more for immediate need satisfaction. Donna Beegle believes that poor and wealthy families lived in different cultures. In poor families, there is an oral culture geared towards spontaneity , an orientation towards the present, emotions and holistic perspectives. In wealthy families, on the other hand, the written culture prevails, which prefers self-discipline , the ability to pursue goal-oriented, analytical- strategic approaches, technical skills and delayed reward.

Deviant behavior

Poor children and young people are overrepresented in criminal and aggressive behavior. It is not clear whether these young people are people who have said goodbye to the values ​​of society. An individual study by Engel and Hurrelmann suggested that poor young people who have just become criminals share the social values ​​of success and superiority. However, since they felt that they could not achieve this by legal means, they often resorted to legally prohibited means. Relationships with peers can also have a decisive influence on personality development. In the case of children from the middle and upper classes, these relationships generally also inhibit the tendency towards so-called externalization and thus prevent aggressive and violent behavior. The children from poor families often lack comparable standards and role models.

Maternity of Minors

Adolescents raised in poverty are much more likely to become pregnant in their teens than adolescents raised in affluence.

In the UK, teenagers living in poverty are around twice as likely to have abortions and 10 times more likely to have children than their wealthy peers. In Germany too, social disadvantage increases the risk of becoming a mother at an underage age, often with fatal consequences, as it is more difficult for underage mothers to escape the poverty trap.

Value type

According to Ronald Inglehart, growing up in poverty shapes a person's value type. Those who grew up in poverty will later be more materialistic. He will be more religious, be more patriotic and tend towards conservative values. For example, he is more likely to be hostile to homosexuality and disapprove of abortions. In politics he will be more conservative. The so-called “new political movements” such as the environmental protection movement, the anti-nuclear power plant movement or the peace movements are more likely to be supported by people who grew up in affluence. These tendencies can be observed in all countries for which Inglehart data from the World Values ​​Survey are available.

Life chances

The effects of poverty on life chances are different. It is wrong to assume that poor children have a uniform living situation. Poverty is most destructive where it lasts for a long time and goes hand in hand with parenting poor education, unemployment and life in disadvantaged neighborhoods.

There are a variety of circumstances that can mitigate the effects of poverty on children's life chances. One factor is the employment of the parents. Children of the working poor are better off than children of the unemployed . On the question of mothers, Vandell and Ramanan found that poor children whose mothers worked when the children were young had significantly better reading and computing skills than other poor children. Woods and Milne, Myers, Rosenthal and Ginsburg also found that poor children benefit from a mother's job and then develop better.

However, unemployment does not always mean that the child's chances in life are poor. A high education of parents can protect them from the effects of poverty and unemployment. In a Dresden sample, 62.4% of the children of parents who were poor and unemployed but had completed the extended high school (EOS) attended a grammar school . 30.1% of these children attended secondary school and only 8.4% attended secondary school .

Dorothea Langes Migrant Mother from 1936. An iconic picture of the Great Depression

Glen Elder's research suggests that poverty can also have a positive effect on the further course of life . He has followed the path of children who lived in poverty at the time of the Great Depression. The children became socially adjusted adults with strong family values, and they were more successful at work than people from families who had never been poor.

There is empirical evidence that poverty nowadays mainly occurs in the less educated. They are less able to cope with the pressures of poverty than families with a close education. Other burdens also accumulate in poor families. This contributes significantly to the lack of educational opportunities for poor children. A study by the workers' welfare department found that overall only 4% have the chance of attending a grammar school.

Escape from the poverty trap

Since Spanish migrant families in the 1970s were mostly poor and unskilled and they did not speak the German language, their children had bad grades and had to struggle with the difficulties immigrants often encountered, foreign language, mentality and culture. Today they have arrived in the "middle of society" and occupy similar professional positions as Germans. This upswing can explain the strong self-organization of the Spanish immigrants and the targeted affirmation of full integration into the local school system. In Germany this was partially enforced against authorities who wanted to create special classes. This led to good school qualifications and corresponding professional success. It is noticeable that the professional and academic successes of the Spanish are not accompanied by a loss of their cultural identity.

Another example of social advancement is the Vietnamese population group in East Germany. Although she lives in poverty and most parents have little formal education, her children have shown themselves to be successful in school. They do their Abitur more often than Germans. In the families of these cultures of origin, education has a high value. Migrants from Asia have particularly high educational requirements. Exertion in Vietnam is particularly worthwhile for weak students, motivation is easy to achieve for Vietnamese teachers, who, like parents, are regarded as persons of respect, as the children are eager to learn and self-controlled. It is quite possible that the Vietnamese have similar attitudes in Germany.

Child poverty in individual states and regions

Child poverty in some industrialized countries (as of 2005 according to UNICEF)

The international UNICEF study "Child Poverty in Rich Countries 2005" found that the child poverty rate increased in the majority of industrialized countries between 1995 and 2005 and examined the causes for this increase and for the differences in the successes in protecting children at risk of poverty.

A 2007 study by UNICEF included six dimensions of poverty:

1. Material situation

2. Health determinants such as infant mortality, birth weight, vaccination rates , deaths from violence. All industrialized countries have a high level here

3. Education as measured by PISA academic achievement, the percentage of students attending secondary school, youth unemployment and future professional expectations

4. Relationships with parents and peers such as the proportion of children growing up in foster families, the proportion of children growing up in single parent families, time for meals and discussions with the children, and relationships with peers

5. Lifestyle and risks such as obesity, substance abuse, risks in sexual behavior, experiences of violence and exercise

6. Self-assessment of the children by evaluating surveys on the subject of health, school and personal well-being.

The Netherlands ranked the most child-friendly nation overall, ranking in the top ten in each of the six dimensions. The UK and US did particularly poorly. No direct relationship could be established between child well-being and gross domestic product per capita.

Mexican mother with children in 1917. In Mexico, almost every third child in 2005 still lived in poverty

A calculation carried out by the Federal Agency for Civic Education in 2006 on the basis of data from 22 OECD countries suggested that transfer payments could only have a limited effect: an increase in expenditure on family-related transfers by one percentage point relative to gross domestic product would lower the child poverty rate otherwise the same circumstances are only slightly more than one percentage point. At the same time, a statistically significant connection between socio-demographic explanatory factors and the child poverty rate becomes clear: child poverty is particularly important in those countries where many children live in single parent households; a high youth quotient tends to be associated with higher child poverty rates and a high old-age quotient tends to be associated with lower rates. The calculation showed no systematic influence of the unemployment rate on the child poverty rate.

When comparing child poverty rates in different countries, it must be borne in mind that the poverty line depends on the prosperity of the country concerned. The higher the prosperity, the higher the poverty line. Many of the poor German children in Poland would not be poor. The extent of child poverty in other industrialized countries such as Mexico and Turkey with 19.7% in 2000 and Bosnia-Herzegovina is usually greater than in Germany. The range ranges from Denmark with 2.4% to Mexico with 27.7%. Italy ranks first in terms of child poverty within the EU with 16.6% . Germany is in the lower midfield with 10.2%. In emerging and developing countries , child poverty is qualitatively far higher.

Germany

The first comprehensive milieu study of children between eight and eleven years, which the children's aid organization World Vision Germany financed and which 1,600 children in Germany were surveyed, showed that children from socially disadvantaged parental homes already feel disadvantaged for the rest of their lives at this age. The social scientist and head of the study, Klaus Hurrelmann, commented: The poor starting opportunities “shape all areas of life and work like a vicious circle. The stigmatization and disadvantage of these children runs like a 'red thread' throughout life ”. The study also showed that children from socially disadvantaged backgrounds are often left on their own. Since there is a lack of support, suggestions or targeted support, the everyday life of these children is often one-sidedly geared towards media consumption .

The co-author of the study, Sabine Andresen , pointed out that class society is not a new development. It is frightening how in a rich country like Germany the poverty of children "blatantly" affects their biographies. The researchers found that many parents are overwhelmed with the upbringing. That is why all areas of society should help to make children strong. The study continued in 2010.

See also : World Vision Children's Study

According to a UNICEF study published in autumn 2011, around 14% of children in Germany lived in relative poverty . Employment by the parents had a positive effect on the children's education not only because of the better material supply and security. In May 2012, another UNICEF study showed that around 1.2 million children in Germany live in relative poverty. Germany was in 15th place in a comparison of 29 industrial nations. Iceland and Sweden performed best. According to Eurostat , around 2.27 million children were at risk of poverty or social exclusion in 2014. The data from the Federal Employment Agency shows that around every seventh child was dependent on Hartz IV in May 2016.

A study published in 2020 by the non-profit Bertelsmann Foundation based on data from the Institute for Employment Research described child poverty as "one of the greatest social challenges in Germany". According to this survey, poverty overshadows the everyday lives of more than a fifth of all children in Germany. According to the study, 21.3 percent or 2.8 million children and adolescents under the age of 18 are at risk of poverty, which has a significant impact on social and cultural participation. In the evaluation, the connection with the receipt of basic security according to SGB ​​II should be emphasized. Despite the years of good economic development, material supply has not improved significantly in recent years. According to the study's authors, child poverty is an “unsolved structural problem” in Germany that is being exacerbated by the effects of the global coronavirus pandemic .

Signs and spread

The AWO study , a long-term study on behalf of workers' welfare among children of preschool age 1997 to 2000 and a subgroup of the same children in early primary school age 2002 to 2005, looks at nine child-specific dimensions of poverty: material poverty, part of which is financial poverty, proportionate to respective household income; Educational disadvantage; intellectual and cultural poverty; social poverty; missing values; mental, emotional and psychological poverty; Neglect, wrong care and discrimination specific to foreigners.

This study shows, among other things, different living conditions for children according to migration background and gender. It determines the need for social and political action.

state Share of children who receive social allowance Bavaria 6.6% Baden-Württemberg 7.2% Rhineland-Palatinate 9.9% Hesse 12.0% Lower Saxony 13.5% North Rhine-Westphalia 14.0% Saarland 14.0% Schleswig-Holstein 14.4% Hamburg 20.8% Thuringia 20.8% Brandenburg 21.5% Saxony 22.8% Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania 27.8% Saxony-Anhalt 27.9% Bremen 28.1% Berlin 30.7%
Germany (total)	14%
Status: June 2005

The German Children's Fund publishes the 'Children's Report Germany' every year. According to the Kinderreport Deutschland 2007, 14% of children in the Federal Republic of Germany are poor. It is estimated that almost 6 million children live in households in which the parents have an annual income of EUR 15,300 that is not sufficient for the family . This is a third of the parents entitled to child benefit . In 2007, there was great media interest in the finding that the number of children in need of social assistance had doubled every ten years compared to the period since 1965. In the meantime, according to calculations by the German Children's Fund, child poverty in Germany has leveled out at around 2.8 million children, which is roughly every fifth child under 18 years of age. According to the Federal Government's 2008 poverty report , every 8th child is poor, according to the UNICEF report on the situation of children in Germany (2008) it is every 6th child.

There are large differences in child poverty. In Bavaria only 6.6% of children live on social allowance , while in Berlin 30.7% of children live on social allowance.

The differences turn out to be even greater if the “social money density” is differentiated more narrowly according to cities or districts: In the 388 districts for which data were available, it ranged from 40.6 to 14 year olds. 38.6 percent in the cities of Görlitz and Bremerhaven to 0.29 and 0.28 percent in the districts of Ebersberg and Eichstätt. In rural communities, a much smaller proportion of children live in poverty than in larger cities.

Studies by UNICEF show that the child poverty rate in Germany has increased significantly faster in the past decade than the poverty rate in the rest of the population, despite the falling birth rate. The situation is particularly difficult for children from immigrant families and children of single parents .

Possible causes

The UNICEF partial study on Germany "A Portrait of Child Poverty in Germany" from 2005 was carried out with a focus on differences between East and West Germany and according to family structure and citizenship. It found that the child poverty rate had risen since 1991, more than the population-based poverty rate since the mid-1990s. Children in single parent households or in households where the head of the household is not German citizens were particularly affected, and there were significant differences between East and West. The report on the study emphasized the role of the tax and welfare system in reducing the risk of poverty among children. The causes and countermeasures are often taken up as a topic in the daily press. The “Tagesspiegel” emphasizes that the “Kinderreport Deutschland 2007” of the German Children's Fund sees German tax and social law as a decisive reason for the development of child poverty. There is a “structural” tax disadvantage for families. The tax-free subsistence level for children is too low, consumption taxes are more taxing on families than individuals, social security contributions hit low incomes disproportionately hard, and the costs of raising children are burdened solely on the parents, while old-age security is borne by society as a whole. According to the view of the German Children's Fund, child poverty in Germany is based in particular on the fact that the tax and social system does not provide for an independent basic child security .

In 2005, Christoph Butterwegge drew attention to a possibly ambivalent role of state transfer payments: “Spouse splitting, parental allowance and child benefit are supposed to make it more attractive for women to stay at home and are thus part of a family policy that leads women into poverty unexpectedly .” Child poverty can usually be traced back to maternal poverty and could be reduced by increasing the participation of women in the labor force .

The report on a study by the OECD named as the cause of the high level of child poverty in Germany that families are primarily supported through transfers and tax rebates such as child benefit or child allowances , but that good childcare offers could prevent child poverty more effectively. According to the recommendation of the OECD, services such as childcare and all-day schools should be expanded in Germany and more early childhood education should be offered in public institutions.

Family background of poor children

A report by the DIW refers to the main victims of “solidified poverty”. These are mainly working - class families with a migration background and several children . According to the sociologist Olaf Groh-Samberg, interpreting poverty as a problem of a culturally neglected new lower class or dramatizing it as a collective threat of decline in society as a whole misses the reality.

Children of parents without school or vocational qualifications are particularly often affected. 42% of the parents of poor children have not learned a profession and children of single parents are more often poor than couples with one or two children.

Farmer's children

There are only a few farming families in Germany. With a monthly net per capita household income, they are among the poorest families of unskilled families in the country. Farmers have relatively large wealth at their disposal in the form of real estate, and income poverty for them does not go hand in hand with under-supply in the areas of nutrition, housing and education for their children. In many countries and possibly also in Germany there are less materially oriented value orientations in the agricultural milieu, which means that poverty among farmers' children does not have the negative consequences mentioned above. In view of a concept of poverty that is not only tied to money, but also takes into account the entire life situation of the population group concerned, it seems questionable whether one can speak of “real poverty”. The working hours of farmers are very high, especially in the months of the main harvest, and must be taken into account when assessing the living situation.

Criticism of the evidence of child poverty

The sociologist Paul Nolte has made the claim that there is no child poverty in Germany. He said: "We call poverty, which is actually just inequality." The lower class is not really poor, but just neglected . The main problem of the new lower class is not poverty, but the massive consumption of fast food and television. Former Federal Chancellor Helmut Schmidt also stated in 2009: “You can read headlines everywhere, for example, about the percentage of poor children living in Germany. Much of what is lamented as poverty today would almost have been petty-bourgeois prosperity in my childhood. "

Nolte complained that old bourgeois virtues such as a sense of duty, discipline and the pursuit of education are no longer important to the lower class. Instead, a culture of irresponsibility and neglect has developed.

According to Nolte, portraying children as a risk of poverty is only "half the story" . Children are primarily born “where there is a lack of education and opportunities for secure employment, where the skills to lead an independent life and bring up a responsible upbringing have been lost. Children do not make poor - poverty gives birth to children ”.

This was criticized by the special educator Hans Weiß as discriminatory because it neglects the diverse, also economic and socio-structural conditions of the emergence of social disadvantage, impoverishment and declassification and puts the blame on those affected. Restricting material conditions, especially if they persist for a long time, could lead to social and cultural inadequacy, just as, conversely, inadequate behavior intensified the effects of poverty on children too, resulting in a vicious circle of poverty. A study by the DIW also comes to the conclusion that a culturalist interpretation of child poverty such as that carried out by Nolte ignores reality.

In addition, this statement applies to all types of poverty in Germany, not only to child poverty, but also to adult poverty. In this context, it is probably even least true for children, since the poverty calculation in Germany may underestimate child poverty (see "Calculating child poverty").

Switzerland

In 2005, 237,000 people lived in Switzerland (= 3.3% of the population ). government support . The social assistance rate is higher in cities than in rural regions. Children and young people who grow up with one parent or in large families are particularly at risk. Almost 17% of households with only one parent received social assistance in 2005. Children and young people are clearly overrepresented among those receiving social assistance with a share of 31% compared to 21% in the total population.

Austria

Compared to other OECD countries, Austria spends considerably more money on financial support for families with small children. This leads to a comparatively low level of child poverty and to the fact that many women leave their jobs for several years in order to become housewives and mothers.

France

Burning car in a banlieue of Strasbourg 2005

In France in 1999, one million children lived below the poverty line set at 590 euros and were thus poorer on average than the rest of the population. For 2005, UNICEF determined a child poverty value of 7.5%. The well-developed childcare and the dense network of social assistance especially for young families help to prevent the major hardships and later enable better integration into the labor market. State aid decreases with the age of the children. This results in a significantly higher risk of poverty among families with older children. In a regional comparison, northern France leads the statistics negatively due to its high unemployment and birth rates. The risk of poverty of children with parents of non-French nationality, especially from countries outside the EU, is significantly higher. The situation in the banlieues appears to be particularly precarious . According to information from the Süddeutsche Zeitung, immigrant children there achieve just as good school-leaving qualifications as their French peers. After school, however, they would find no work. The already tense situation there escalated with the unrest in France in 2005 . There were violent outbreaks by young people who vented their displeasure with the prevailing conditions. The domestic secret service characterized the banlieue unrest as a " revolt in the Cités, without a leader, without demands and without a program", guided solely by the common feeling of the young people that they were punished by "their poverty, their skin color and their names".

Great Britain

Child poverty rate in the UK (children in households below 60% of median income)
year	All in all	after deducting the housing costs
1979	12%	14%
1995-1996	26%	35%
2003-2004	21%	28%
http://www.theyworkforyou.com/wrans/?id=2005-06-20a.807.h

Share of child poverty in the population

In Great Britain, the number of children in poor households with less than 60% of median income has more than doubled from 12% in 1979 to 26% in 1996 and has fallen slightly since then. In 2004, 21% lived in poverty. The number of children in poverty increased from 14% in 1979 to 35% in 1996 and then decreased again to 28% in 2004.

In Great Britain, public welfare is primarily designed as a safeguard against emergency and crisis situations. Social policy up until the 1980s was not characterized by general support for families, but rather targeted measures to prevent poverty for the needy. In the 1990s, the high proportion of single parents, a large proportion of whom were inactive, became a major cause of poverty. The UK had one of the highest rates of child poverty in single parent families in the EU. According to a 2007 UNICEF study on the situation of children in industrialized countries, Great Britain came last among 21 countries examined.

Political background in Great Britain

The labor, tax and family policy set the fight against child poverty as the most important goal. In this context, political efforts, particularly since the election of New Labor under Tony Blair in 1997, have focused on improving the design of transfer benefits for children in low-income families and on increasing the employment rate of single mothers. A better work-life balance was a subordinate goal for this purpose. Mothers became a labor market target group, largely for marginal, low-wage employment . Gradual abolition of the marriage-related transfer benefit Married Couples Allowance and expansion of the child benefit supplemented by the income-related additional child benefit Child Tax Credit increased the transfer benefits for children considerably. Childcare places were made available in large numbers for a few hours per week.

The child-related Children's Bill set out development goals for children and a variety of measures to achieve them. New centers to be accommodated in primary schools should combine the Early Excellence Center and the Sure Start programs into one program in the interests of preventive poverty reduction.

Tony Blair says he had the goal of reducing child poverty by a quarter between 1999 and 2005, halving it by 2010 and ending it by 2020. The 2005 target was not met with around 700,000 children lifted from poverty; 3.4 million still live in poverty. According to the 2005 UNICEF study on child poverty in rich countries, child poverty fell by 3.1% in Great Britain between 1995 and 2005, more than in all other OECD countries.

Government measures continue to be geared primarily towards low-income households. It is viewed critically that parents of the middle class often organize their childcare privately. So children from different social classes stay among themselves. Many children in peripheral areas still live in poverty, 59.6% in Craigmillar, Scotland .

According to a 2007 study by UNICEF, Great Britain is the one of the industrialized countries studied with the worst living conditions for children. This is mainly due to non-material factors that UNICEF incorporates into its definition of poverty. Relationships with parents and peers are bad here and the way of life is risky. In purely material terms, Great Britain ranks 18th out of 21 places.

The Child Tax Credit has been granted for the first and second child since April 2017, but not for a third child born after this point in time, unless certain exceptional conditions apply (e.g. multiple birth or rape).

Italy

Italy spends less than five percent of its gross national product on social benefits. Over 15% of children live in relative poverty. A lack of government support in the south of the country can be partially compensated for by intact family solidarity such as the increased involvement of grandparents and other members of the extended family .

Eastern Europe

According to a UNICEF study, every third child in the former Soviet Union and the reformed Central European countries lives in poverty. Hungary is mentioned in the UNICEF report as a particularly extreme example of the worsening situation of children. Based on the current sharp drop in average income, the poverty rate among children has increased from just under seven to nine percent since 1991. If the average income from 1991 is used as a reference value, child poverty has risen to over 20% since then. What is true of Hungary also applies generally to the situation in Poland and other Eastern European countries.

Even in the socialism that existed before 1990 there was usually considerable poverty. In 1975, 19.8% of the population of the USSR lived below the poverty line.

Poland

At the end of 2003, 12% of Poles lived in poverty. It is primarily a problem for the rural population and the population in the small towns of northern Poland. In contrast, the population in cities is more affluent. The north of Poland is poorer than the south. Large families are particularly affected. Of these, 42% live in poverty. Poverty in Poland goes hand in hand with poor family nutrition. Tarkowska was able to observe that the needs of the children in the families are mostly in the foreground, but the children are often malnourished and susceptible to infections. In the event of illness, families are often unable to pay for the medication. Living conditions are characterized by a lack of space as well as coldness and poor hygiene due to the need to save heating and water costs. Tarkowska believes that children from poor families in Poland have practically no childhood because they have to take on adult responsibilities from an early age. Farmer children are often forced to work on the farm from childhood. According to a study by UNICEF, Poland ranks last among the industrialized countries examined when it comes to material provision for children. Overall, however, when it comes to child poverty, Poland ranks in the middle and is thus just behind Germany. This is because UNICEF sees educational opportunities here in a special way. Here Poland is in 3rd place of all industrial nations. In addition, UNICEF sees little risk in lifestyle. Whether the educational opportunities in Poland are actually as good as UNICEF sees is controversial. According to Tarkowska, children from poor Polish families often end their school career after primary school and at the latest after vocational school. This is due on the one hand to material and on the other hand to cultural reasons, because in the poor Polish environment, starting a career and starting a family earlier is viewed more highly than education.

Romania

A 2006 study by UNICEF Romania showed that more than one million Romanian children lived in poverty that year, 350,000 of them in extreme poverty. Poverty among Roma children was three times higher than among children of the majority population. 27,000 Romanian children did not live in parental care, but in institutions or other state-recognized institutions. 73% of Romanian parents physically abused their children.

United States

→ Main article : Childhood and adolescence in the United States

Poverty rates and type of welfare

In 1992, the so-called Family Cap was introduced in New Jersey . Women who become pregnant while receiving government support do not receive any additional government support for the next child. In 1998, 22 states in the USA had family caps.

According to the August 2005 Census Bureau Poverty Report, the fourth year in 2004 was the number of people with incomes below the poverty line in the United States, which was set at less than $ 19,310 a year for a family of four and $ 9,650 a year for a single person Episode increased. 37 million people, so 12.7% of the population are poor. This is an increase of 0.2% compared to the previous year. The increase is mainly due to the higher proportion of poor whites .

In 1996 America's welfare system was regulated as follows: it can be received for two years in a row, for a total of five years for a lifetime. This has resulted in a considerable decrease in the number of social assistance recipients.

In 1996 state social welfare was reorganized as workfare with work obligations. Since then, it has been stipulated that welfare recipients after two years of receipt must work at least 30 hours a week in public work programs in order to continue to receive benefits.

Proponents of the reforms point out that these measures have reduced the number of poor children. Critics pointed out early on that this decrease in child poverty was mainly due to an increase in abortions and not to the fact that parents were enabled to care for their children. Between 1992 and 1996 alone, New Jersey welfare women gave birth to 14,057 fewer children than would statistically be expected if the birth rate remained the same. The abortion rate was 1,429 cases higher than expected. That increased the abortion rate among welfare recipients in New Jersey by 14%. 28,000 children in New Jersey were withheld from social benefits because of the Family Cap.

Ethnic Child Poverty Rate in the United States
year	All in all	African American	Hispanics
1996	20.5%	39.9%	40.3%
2001	16.3%	30.2%	28.0%
http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/ofa/annualreport5/chap09.htm

According to the results of the 2007 UNICEF study on the situation of children in industrialized countries, the USA ranked second to last after Great Britain among 21 countries examined. In this study, not only the material conditions were taken into account, but also the dimensions from the areas of health, education, relationships with parents and peers, lifestyle and risks, as well as self-assessment. Above all, it is poor health care, poor relationships with parents and peers, and the risky way of life that make America's values ​​worse. In purely material terms, the USA occupies 17th place.

In the US, 11.2% of all children under the age of 18 had no health insurance in 2005; among the poor children it is 19.0%. In the USA, this is also seen as an educational policy problem, as the resulting health problems for children lead to a loss in teaching.

Success despite poverty

Many of the Vietnamese " boat people " initially had neither material goods nor knowledge of the English language, had only a rudimentary education, lived in very poor housing conditions and had to make do with public schools. Their failure thus seemed predictable. Science was all the more astonished when the children in this group did better than middle-class children on all performance tests.

One of the most striking results of a study was that children with many siblings performed better than children with few siblings and only children. This can be understood because of the more collectivist-oriented Asian culture. The siblings benefit from mutual help.

It was shown that education was a more important value to the boat people and their children than to white Americans.

Children of impoverished farming families are successful in school and well integrated despite the poverty. Reasons for this are strong ties between the generations, socialization in productive roles, strong commitment from parents and commitment from churches, schools and the rural community.

In the USA (as of 2014) nearly 2.5 million minors are homeless , more than ever before. A report published in 2014 named as factors a high poverty rate, insufficiently affordable housing, the consequences of the economic and financial crisis , the origins of the children and single mothers or fathers.

Japan

Even in a highly industrialized country like Japan, child poverty, at 14%, is significantly higher than the OECD average. According to an OECD report, single parent poverty rates were a major contributor to this high figure in 2000. In 2002, the government reformed support for single parents and created incentives for them to take up employment. The poverty rate, especially among employed single parents, is over 50% higher than that among single parents who are not employed; the poverty rate of working single parents in OECD countries is, on average, much lower at 20%.

In contrast to Germany, child poverty in Japan affects families who are far more active than pure transfer recipients, but who do not get over the poverty line despite their own earned income. About 70% of working Japanese women withdraw from the labor market after having children. When Japanese mothers return to work when their children are older, they often do so under low-paid and insecure employment. Working Japanese women are under high pressure despite all-day schools and all-day care places for the youngest , because working hours are long and the expectation prevails that women will look after older family members. At present, some aspects of government policies and employer practices discourage women from returning to work after having children.

Republic of Korea

According to Amnesty International , a 2006 report by the World Food Program and UNICEF , which also analyzed data from the North Korean government, found that 7% of children in socialist North Korea are severely undernourished, 37% chronically undernourished and 23.4% are underweight . For the OECD state Republic of Korea (South Korea), a generally better picture was drawn despite serious regional deviations. “40 years ago, the income of families was comparable to that of families in the poorer countries of Africa. Today it is closer to that of the poorer countries in Europe. "

Countermeasures

Type of action

Various measures to combat child poverty and the vicious circle of poverty and poor education are discussed, some of which are controversial.

Educational measures

Care and education offers for socially disadvantaged families: more day-care centers, all-day schools and after-school care centers, more social pedagogues, school psychologists and supervised leisure activities are required. Afternoon childcare in schools has been controversial since the 21st Century Community Learning Centers failed to improve school performance and worsen the social behavior of poor children. The sociologist Jutta Allmendinger called for the introduction of a “system of community and comprehensive schools ” in order to break the cycle of poverty and educational poverty. The compensatory education is to increase the goal, the performance of children from low-income families. Of the various programs that are only partially successful, the US head-start program is the most extensive in the world. Self-help of the families affected, as in HIPPY , a program in which migrant parents practice German with their children, is a means of strengthening their own skills. In trials in the US with education vouchers that could be redeemed at private high schools or tutors, the group of those who had received vouchers showed hardly any significant performance improvements compared to the control group . For this reason, many academics do not see education vouchers as a suitable means of improving the school performance of disadvantaged groups. Another idea is to integrate the issue of child poverty into teacher training. This can be used to counteract the problem that teachers have little knowledge of child poverty. Courses with particularly high academic standards within the state school system are also being debated. In the USA these are called Career Academies . The student applies with a letter of motivation, in which he also describes the social situation of his family. Poor children are specifically given preference. Career academies mean that students graduate from school more often, graduate from college more often later and earn more. The sociologist Lord Ralf Dahrendorf calls for a minimum quota of students from educationally disadvantaged backgrounds. This quota should be similar to the American affirmative action .

Other measures

The constitutional anchoring of children's rights is demanded from child protection organizations . In addition, all industrialized countries should implement the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child . So it does not fully recognize the Federal Republic of Germany. The introduction and increase of transfer benefits such as child benefit, parenting allowance , parental allowance and earmarked allowances is another proposal. In Germany, with the introduction of Hartz IV in 2005, the federal government abolished the one-off subsidies for children's clothing and school supplies. This was criticized by the German Child Protection Association as exacerbating poverty, since the child share at Hartz IV in the amount of 208 euros does not cover the need and direct aid makes sense. A better compatibility of family and work in terms of the work integration of parents (especially single mothers) can eliminate a cause of child poverty, this is done by expanding all-day schools and promoting company kindergartens and family-friendly working time models. Also, soup kitchens and soup kitchens that offer a public food distribution for the needy, for free or for a small fee, can act, as nonprofit organization as " panels distribute" the perfect quality foods that are no longer used in the economic cycle and would otherwise be destroyed, to the needy . The number of boards has increased to over 700 in recent years.

Effectiveness of early support for poor children

There are hardly any German research findings, but those from America give cause for cautious optimism. According to these, the effectiveness of the intervention programs is tied to certain requirements, such as the earliest and most intensive intervention possible, based on the willingness of the affected family to cooperate and the provision of protection, security and reliable relationships with adult caregivers . Financial, social and emotional support, concrete help in organizing everyday life as well as advice and support in matters of beneficial coexistence with the children also help. It seems important to tailor the offers to the respective possibilities and needs of the child and the family and to ensure continuity of the measures, especially across the biographical transitions such as entry into kindergarten or school. For the long-term effect of promoting children through programs such as Head Start, it is necessary to improve both the family situation and relationships with the neighborhood.

Representation in the media

Since the beginning of industrialization , child poverty has been the subject of literary works, the most famous being Charles Dickens ' novel Oliver Twist . Erich Kästner wrote the songs "Legend, not quite house-trained" and " Christmas carol, chemically cleaned ". Paul Young is another songwriter who has dealt with child poverty. Monty Python address child poverty in British working-class neighborhoods in the sketch “Four Yorkshiremen” and in the film “ Monty Python's The Meaning of Life ”. Eli Reed made the 1988 documentary "America's Children: Poorest in the Land of Plenty" (German: America's children: The poorest in the land of plenty). More recent films with the 1993 released "Raining Stones" by Ken Loach and Stephen Daldry's " - Billy Elliot I Will Dance to name."

literature

General

• Heinz Gerhard Beisenherz: Child poverty in the welfare society: the badge of globalization. Leske + Budrich, Opladen 2002, ISBN 3-8100-3086-4 .
• Bruce Bradbury, Stephen P. Jenkins, John Micklewright: The Dynamics of Child Poverty in Industrialized Countries. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge et al. 2001, ISBN 0-521-00492-6 .
• Christoph Butterwegge: Poverty and Childhood - A Regional, National and International Comparison. VS Verlag, 2004, ISBN 3-531-33707-6 .
• Andreas Gestrich , Jens-Uwe Krause , Michael Mitterauer : History of the family (= Kröner's pocket edition . Volume 376). Kröner, Stuttgart 2003, ISBN 3-520-37601-6 .
• Karin Holm, Uwe Schulz (Ed.): Childhood in poverty worldwide. Leske + Budrich, Opladen 2002, ISBN 3-8100-3311-1 .
• Lucinda Platt: Child Poverty in Historical Perspective - From 1900 to the Present. Routledge Advances, 2008, ISBN 978-0-415-33948-3 .
• Koen Vleminckx: Child Well-Being, Child Poverty and Child Policy in Modern Nations: What Do We Know? Policy Press, 2001, ISBN 1-86134-253-5 .
• Margherita Zander: Child poverty: Introductory manual for research and social practice. VS-Verlag, 2005, ISBN 3-531-14450-2 .
• Margherita Zander: poor child - strong child? The chance of resilience. VS - Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, 2008, ISBN 978-3-531-15226-4 .

Germany

• Kurt Bangert : Child poverty: in Germany and worldwide. SCM Hänssler, Holzgerlingen 2010, ISBN 978-3-7751-5253-2 .
• Jörg Fischer, Roland Merten (Hrsg.): Poverty and social exclusion of children and young people: problem definitions and intervention approaches. Schneider Verlag Hohengehren, 2010, ISBN 978-3-8340-0724-7 .
• Klaus Hurrelmann; TNS Infratest; Sabine Andresen ; World Vision Germany (Ed.): Children in Germany 2010: 2nd World Vision Children's Study . Fischer 2010, Frankfurt, ISBN 978-3-596-18640-2 .
• Klaus Hurrelmann: Children in Germany 2007-1. World Vision Children's Study. Fischer paperback, 2007, ISBN 978-3-596-17720-2 .
• Daniel Schniering: Child and Youth Poverty in Germany. Fundamentals, dimensions, effects. VDM Verlag Dr. Müller, 2006, ISBN 3-86550-210-5 .
• Wolfgang Lauterbach : Poverty in Germany: Consequences for families and children. Oldenburg University Speeches , Oldenburg, ISBN 3-8142-1143-X .
• Christian Palentien: Child and Youth Poverty in Germany. VS-Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, Wiesbaden 2004, ISBN 3-531-14385-9 .
• Christoph Butterwegge: Child poverty in Germany. Causes, manifestations and countermeasures. Campus textbook, 2000, ISBN 3-593-36502-2 .

United States

• Barbara A. Arrighi, David J. MaumeChild: Poverty in America Today. Publishers Inc. US, 2007, ISBN 978-0-275-98926-2 .
• John Clausen : American lives - Looking back at the children of the great depression. University of California Press, 1995, ISBN 0-520-20149-3 .
• Glen H. Elder: Children of the Great Depression. Chicago University Press, 1974, ISBN 0-8133-3342-3 .

Great Britain

• Report on Child Poverty in the UK - Reply by the Government to the Second Report of the Work and Pensions Select Committee Session 2003-2004 (HC 85-1): Cm. 6166 Stationery Office Books, 2004, ISBN 0-10-162002-0 .

Web links

• Federal Agency for Civic Education (bpb): Child poverty. (= From politics and contemporary history. 26/2006). bpb, June 26, 2006.
• Comprehensive, updated list of literature: List of literature on child poverty and disadvantage

Individual evidence

1. ↑ Michael Ready: Child poverty in Germany and the OECD lecture series “Social reforms and social justice”, July 6, 2005 (accessed on November 25, 2007).
2. ↑ Stefan Weick: Relative income poverty among children: Studies on living conditions and quality of life in Germany from 1984 to 1996. Dissertation (sociology), Justus Liebig University Gießen, July 8, 1999, p. 37 geb.uni-giessen.de
3. ^ Living conditions in Germany - The first report on poverty and wealth by the federal government. ( Memento of June 11, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) 2001, p. 9.
4. ↑ Tilman Weigel: Does net equivalent income underestimate child poverty? Statistician blog from February 11, 2013.
5. ↑ ^{a b c d e} UNICEF Report: Child Poverty in Rich Countries 2005. (PDF; 222 kB). Innocenti Report Card, No. 6 Downloaded on January 20, 2008.
6. ↑ Christoph Butterwegge, Karin Holm, Margeritha Zander, among others: Poverty and Childhood - A regional, national and international comparison. P. 124.
7. ↑ ^{a b c d e} Poverty and Early Childhood Intervention - What Happens to Children Living in Poverty. ( Memento from June 10, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) Download on December 9, 2007; World Vision Germany (Ed.): Children in Germany. Beltz, Weinheim 2013; Shell Germany (Ed.): Jugend 2010. Fischer, Frankfurt.
8. ↑ AWO press office: AWO / ISS study on child poverty in Germany ( Memento of the original from June 20, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The  archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. www.awo.org Download on December 9, 2007.
9. ^ Rolf Becker Markus Nietfeld: Hard times for families. Theoretical considerations and empirical analyzes on the effects of unemployment and socio-economic deprivation on the quality of family relationships in Dresden families. In: Journal for Sociology of Education and Socialization. 19, 1999, pp. 369-387.
10. ^ Rolf Becker: Dynamics of rational educational decisions in the family and household context. An empirical study of the educational success of East German young people in poverty. Manuscript. Technical University, Dresden 1998.
11. ^ Nathan Caplan et al: The Boat People and Achievement in America. A study of family life, hard work, and cultural values. University of Michigan Press, 1989, ISBN 0-472-09397-5 .
12. ↑ Glen H. Elder, Rand D. Conger, Children of the Land: Adversity and Success in Rural America. University of Chicago Press 2000, ISBN 0-226-20266-6 .
13. ↑ On the way to the “soup kitchen state”? More and more children in Germany live in poor conditions. www.3sat.de, September 2006, accessed on January 20, 2008.
14. ^ Andreas Gestrich: History of the family. Kröner, Stuttgart 2003, ISBN 3-520-37601-6 .
15. ↑ ^{a b c} Melanie Longerich: Hartz IV, the next generation: young people between state aid and resignation. In: Deutschlandfunk. August 9, 2010.
16. ^ John Clausen: American lives: looking back at the children of the great depression. University of California Press, Berkeley 1995, ISBN 0-520-20149-3 .
17. ↑ Wolfgang Lauterbach: Poverty in Germany - possible consequences for families and children. University of Oldenburg, Oldenburg University Speeches 2003, ISBN 3-8142-1143-X , p. 14.
18. ↑ Deutsches Kinderhilfswerk e. V .: Children's Report 2007 .
19. ↑ Katharina Belwe: Editorial. In: child poverty. (= From politics and contemporary history . 26/2006). Federal Agency for Civic Education, June 26, 2006, accessed December 30, 2007.
20. ↑ Toni Mayr: Developmental Risks in Poor and Socially Disadvantaged Children and the Effectiveness of Early Help. In: Hans Weiß (Ed.): Early intervention with children and families in poverty. Ernst Reinhardt Verlag, Munich / Basel 2000, ISBN 3-497-01539-3 , p. 144.
21. ^ Hans Boeckler Foundation: Magazine Mitbestigung. 1 + 2/2006 ( Memento from September 27, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) Download on January 20, 2008.
22. ↑ ^{a b c} Thorsten Stegemann: Inherited lack of opportunities. November 8, 2007.
23. ^ ^{A b} Fritz Haverkamp: Health and social situation. In: Ernst-Ulrich Huster, Jürgen Boekh, Hildegard Mogge-Grothjahn: Handbook of poverty and social exclusion. 2008, p. 331.
24. ↑ Gerhard Trabert: Child poverty: two-class health. Downloaded December 20, 2007.
25. ↑ Alexander Schulze: Smoking and Social Inequality - Consequences for Tobacco Control Policy.  ( Page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg 2004, download on December 19, 2007.  
26. ↑ Women with children smoke more often than childless people. ( Memento from April 27, 2004 in the Internet Archive ) In: Doctors newspaper online. May 31, 2005.
27. ^ Melike Sümbül: Child poverty in Germany. ( Memento from June 28, 2007 in the web archive archive.today ) In: www.evrensel.de , September 1, 2007, accessed on January 20, 2008.
28. ^ ^{A b c} Gerhard Trabert: Child poverty: two-class health. In: Deutsches Ärzteblatt. 99, 3, January 18, 2002, pp. A93-A95.
29. ↑ A. Mielck (Ed.): Illness and social inequality. Leske + Budrich, Opladen.
30. ↑ Antje Richter: Poverty Prevention - An Order for Health Promotion 2005, p. 205. In: Margherita Zander: Child poverty. VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, Wiesbaden, ISBN 3-531-14450-2 .
31. ↑ Planet Knowledge: POVERTY IN GERMANY: Dennis' experiment. ( Memento of March 14, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) November 7, 2005.
32. ↑ Larissa Kessner: Eating healthily - A question of money? . In: UGB forum. 2/07, pp. 89-92. (download on November 25, 2007)
33. ↑ ^{a b} UNICEF Germany: "Excluded" - child poverty in Germany. As of January 28, 2008.
34. ↑ ^{a b} Roland Merten: Psychosocial Consequences of Poverty in Childhood and Adolescence. In: Christoph Butterwegge, Michael Klundt (Ed.): Child poverty and intergenerational justice. Leske + Budrich, Opladen 2002, ISBN 3-8100-3082-1 , p. 149.
35. ↑ Poverty means: “There is nothing more.” Documentation of the youth social summit of November 11, 2006. ( Memento of July 18, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Download on November 30, 1007.
36. ^ Jeanne Brooks-Gunn, Greg J. Duncan: The Effects of Poverty on Children. In: The Future of Children. 7 (2), 1997, pp. 55-71, ISSN  1054-8289 .
37. ↑ New Thinking on Children, Poverty & IQ ( Memento of the original dated November 30, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Downloaded November 30, 2007. 
38. ↑ Glen H. Elder: Children of the Great Depression. Chicago University Press, 1974, ISBN 0-8133-3342-3 , p. 311, Table A-18, IQ tests were performed with the Stanford-Binet .
39. ↑ Glen H. Elder: Children of the Great Depression. Chicago University Press, 1974, ISBN 0-8133-3342-3 , p. 167.
40. ↑ Bertelsmann study: "The economic costs of inadequate education are enormous". on: nachdenkseiten.de , December 1, 2009 (October 18, 2010).
41. ↑ Hans Schlack: Lebenswelten von Kinder. In: Hans Schlack (Ed.): Social paediatrics - Health - Illness - Lifeworlds. Gustav Fischer Verlag, Stuttgart / Jena / New York 1995, ISBN 3-437-11664-9 , p. 90/91.
42. ↑ Vodafone Foundation Germany : Grading and school recommendations promote inequality in education. ( Memento of the original from February 11, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Press release. December 14, 2011. (December 16, 2011). 
43. ↑ dpa : Poor students get worse grades. In: badische-zeitung.de , December 15, 2011 (December 16, 2011).
44. ^ Ruby Payne: A Framework for Understanding Poverty. Aha! Process Inc, Highlands 2006, ISBN 1-929229-68-2 .
45. ^ Michael F. Shaughnessy: An Interview with Ruby Payne About Teaching Students from Poverty. ( Memento from June 12, 2008 in the web archive archive.today ) In: ednews.org , 2005, download on December 12, 2007.
46. ^ San Francisco Chronicle: Self-control is the key to success. ( Memento of the original from October 17, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Downloaded December 16, 2007. 
47. ↑ Donna Beegle: Educating children 0f Poverty. ( Memento of July 9, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) Downloaded on December 16, 2007.
48. ^ Christian Palentien: Child and youth poverty in Germany. VS - Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, Wiesbaden 2004, ISBN 3-531-14385-9 , pp. 218 and 219.
49. ^ West Lothian - Health Improvement. ( Memento from April 12, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) Download on December 25, 2007.
50. ↑ Teenage pregnancies: Cleared up because of it. Downloaded December 25, 2007.
51. ↑ Ronald Inglehart: The silent revolution. About the change in values. Athenaeum, 1982.
52. ↑ Ronald Inglehart: Cultural upheaval. Change in values ​​in the western world. Campus Verlag, 1989.
53. ↑ DL Vandell, J. Ramanan: Effects of early and recent maternal employment on children from low income families. In: Child development. 63, 1992, pp. 938-949.
54. ↑ MB Woods: The unsupervised child and the working mother. In: Developmental psychology. 6, 1972, pp. 14-25.
55. ^ AM Milne, DE Myers, ASH Rosenthal, A. Ginsburg: Single parents, working mothers and the educational achievement of school children. In: Sociology of Education. 59, 1986, pp. 125-139.
56. ^ Rolf Becker, Markus Nietfeld: Unemployment and educational opportunities for children in the transformation process. In: Cologne journal for sociology and social psychology. Vol. 51, Issue 1, 1999, p. 62.
57. ^ Rolf Becker, Markus Nietfeld: Unemployment and educational opportunities for children in the transformation process. In: Cologne journal for sociology and social psychology. Vol. 51, Issue 1, 1999, p. 69, table.
58. ↑ Glen H. Elder: Children of the Great Depression. University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1974, p. 160.
59. ↑ Andreas Lange, Wolfgang, Lauterbach, Rolf Becker: Poverty and educational opportunities. In: Christoph Butterwegge, Michael Klundt (Ed.): Child poverty and intergenerational justice. Leske + Budrich, Opladen 2002, ISBN 3-8100-3082-1 , p. 165.
60. ↑ AWO / ISS study on child poverty in Germany. ( Memento of the original from June 20, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Downloaded December 9, 2007. 
61. ↑ ^{a b} Spi: Arrived safely . In: time online. 2006, as of January 26, 2008.
62. ^ B. von Breitenbach: Italians and Spaniards as Employees in the Federal Republic of Germany Munich / Mainz 1982, pp. 120f .; D. Thränhardt: Immigrant Cultures and Social Capital. In: D. Thränhardt, Uwe Hunger (Eds.): Immigrant networks and their integration quality in Germany and Israel Münster / London 2000, p. 32 f.
63. ^ B. von Breitenbach: Italians and Spaniards as employees in the Federal Republic of Germany. Munich / Mainz 1982.
64. ↑ Dietrich Thränhardt: 2006_Spanische_Einwanderer_schaffen_Bildungskapital.pdf Spanish immigrants create educational capital: Self-help networks and integration success in Europe  ( page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. .  egora.uni-muenster.de 2006, as of January 26, 2008.
65. ↑ Olaf Beuchling: From boat refugee to German citizen - migration, integration and school success in a Vietnamese community in exile. Waxmann, 2003, ISBN 3-8309-1278-1 .
66. ↑ Marina Mai: Vietnamese children particularly clever . taz.de, 2008, as of January 26, 2008.
67. ↑ Karin Weiss, Mike Dennis (ed.): Success in the niche? Vietnamese in the GDR and in East Germany. LIT Verlag, Münster 2005.
68. ↑ Marina Mai: Ostlehrer integrate migrant children better. Interview with Karin Weiss. taz.de 2006, download on January 18, 2008.
69. ↑ Andreas Helmke, Vo Thi Anh Tuyet: The Prussians of Asia - Why Vietnamese students do better than Bavarian students. In: Stern . 40/02, p. 204, quoted in Pisa - echo of the results. ( Memento from January 15, 2006 in the Internet Archive ) at www.lesekompetenz.th.schule.de, as of January 28, 2008.
70. ↑ ^{a b}  ( page no longer available , search in web archives ) OECD countries: 40 to 50 million children live in poverty - child poverty has risen in most OECD countries. UNICEF Switzerland, March 1, 2005 (accessed December 30, 2007).
71. ↑ ^{a b c} UNICEF report on the situation of children in industrialized countries: Germany only mediocre Study on the situation of children in industrialized countries 2007 (PDF; 92 kB) Download on January 20, 2008.
72. ^ Child poverty in perspective: An overview of child well-being in rich countries. ( Memento of February 16, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) Unicef ​​Innocenti Research Center Report Card 7, 2007.
73. ^ Michael Ready, Marcus Tamm: Influence of family-related transfers. In: Michael Ready, Marcus Tamm: Child poverty in rich countries. (= From politics and contemporary history. 26/2006). Federal Agency for Civic Education, 2006 (accessed December 29, 2007).
74. ↑ Table: Child poverty in industrialized countries - percentage of children below the relative poverty line in% . www.learn-line.nrw.de as of January 26, 2008.
75. ↑ UNICEF Information Summary of the UNICEF study on child poverty in rich countries(PDF; 218 kB). March 1, 2005 (accessed December 30, 2007).
76. ^ Elisabeth Zimmermann: New UNICEF study: Child poverty is increasing in rich countries . www.wsws.org, March 18, 2005 as of January 28, 2008.
77. ↑ World Vision Germany (Ed.): "Children in Germany 2007." - 1st World Vision Children's Study. ( Memento from May 30, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) As of January 28, 2008.
78. ↑ mk / gx / AFP : Poverty in Germany - Children benefit from working parents. In: Panorama. December 16, 2011. (December 16, 2011).
79. ↑ UNICEF comparative study on child poverty 2012 .
80. ↑ dpa: Every fourth child in Europe is at risk of poverty. In: time online. August 2, 2016, accessed August 2, 2016 . 
81. ↑ Torsten Lietzmann, Claudia Wenzig: Material undersupply of children . Ed .: Bertelsmann Foundation. July 21, 2020 ( bertelsmann-stiftung.de [PDF; accessed on August 7, 2020]).
82. ↑ Maria Fiedler, Hans Monath, Anna Thewalt: Life in need . Millions of children and young people in Germany are affected by poverty. How can that be? In: Der Tagesspiegel . 23 July 2020, p. 2 .
83. ↑ Marcel Fratzscher: Child poverty: A question of calculation. In: Zeit Online. August 7, 2020, accessed August 7, 2020 . 
84. ↑ "Poor children are the corona losers" . In: Westdeutsche Zeitung . August 6, 2020, p. 27 .
85. ↑ Institute for Social Work and Social Pedagogy: Poor (?)! Life situations and life chances of children and adolescents. On poverty and disadvantage in Germany. ( Memento of the original from September 27, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. October 7, 1998, as of January 28, 2008. 
86. ↑ ZEFIR ( Memento of the original from December 18, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. -Data pool: Recipients of social benefits according to SGB II under the age of 15 in June 2005 ( memento of the original from October 18, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (accessed November 25, 2007).  
87. ↑ Every sixth child lives in poverty. ( Memento from May 11, 2009 in the Internet Archive ) at: tagesschau.de , November 15, 2007, as of January 28, 2008.
88. ↑ Germany with family poverty top. ( Memento from November 3, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) In: netzeitung.de , as of November 15, 2007.
89. ↑ Unicef: Every sixth German child in Germany is poor. ( Memento from March 14, 2009 in the web archive archive.today )
90. ^ Carolin Reisslandt, Gerd Nollmann: Child poverty in the district: Intervention and prevention. In: From Politics and Contemporary History. 26/2006.
91. ↑ ^{a b} Miles Corak, Michael Fertig, Marcus Tamm: A Portrait of Child Poverty in Germany. ( Memento of the original from February 9, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 241 kB). Innocenti Working Paper No. 2005-03. Florence, UNICEF Innocenti Research Center, 2005 as of January 28, 2008. 
92. ↑ Poverty is also a feeling. ( Memento from November 16, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) In: Tagesspiegel. November 16, 2007, accessed January 13, 2008.
93. ↑ Deutsches Kinderhilfswerk: Catalog of demands to combat child poverty in Germany ( Memento of the original from May 30, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The  archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. . undated, p. 2, as of January 28, 2008.
94. ↑ ^{a b c d} Fight child poverty? It takes a little courage . In: Böckler Impulse. 9, 2005, accessed November 19, 2007.
95. ↑ Support brings more than cash . In: Hans Böckler Foundation (Ed.): Böcklerimpuls . No. 16 , 2009 ( boeckler.de [PDF; 83 kB ; accessed on November 8, 2009]).
96. ↑ Olaf Groh-Samberg: Poverty is solidifying. (PDF; 576 kB). DIW weekly report No. 12/2007, volume 74/21. March 2007, p. 177 as of January 29, 2008.
97. ↑ Poverty means: “There is nothing more.” Documentation of the youth social summit on November 11, 2006. ( Memento from July 18, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Download on December 25, 1007.
98. ^ Child poverty in rich countries. (PDF; 218 kB) Download on December 25, 2007.
99. ^ Rainer Geissler: The social structure of Germany. VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, Wiesbaden 2006, ISBN 3-531-42923-X , p. 82.
100. ^ Geissler Rainer: The social structure of Germany. VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, Wiesbaden 2006, ISBN 3-531-42923-X , p. 90.
101. ↑ ^{a b} H. G. Beisenherz: Child poverty in the welfare society - The Cains mark of globalization. Leske + Budrich Verlag, 2002, ISBN 3-8100-3086-4 , p. 310f.
102. ↑ for America this has been set out, for example, in: Glen H. Elder, Jr., Rand D. Conger: Children of the land: Adversity and success in Rural America. University of Chicago Press, Chicago 2002.
103. ↑ HG Beisenherz: Child poverty in the welfare society - The Cains mark of globalization. Leske + Budrich Verlag, 2002, ISBN 3-8100-3086-4 , p. 310.
104. ↑ ^{a b c d} Hans Weiß: Poverty as a development risk - possibilities of prevention. ( Memento of the original from October 20, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 41 kB). Downloaded November 25, 2007. 
105. ↑ Paul Nolte: The big food: Not poverty is the main problem of the lower class. But the massive consumption of fast food and TV. In: The time. No. 52, December 17, 2003.
106. ↑ Helmut Schmidt, Giovanni Di Lorenzo: On a cigarette with Helmut Schmidt. Publishing house Kiepenheuer & Witsch, Cologne 2009, p. 73.
107. ^ Paul Nolte: Risky Modern. Beck, Munich 2006, ISBN 3-406-54084-8 .
108. ↑ Of course, children are a risk of poverty - there are hardly any in the middle classes. In: welt.de , January 26, 2005.
109. ↑ Olaf Groh-Samberg: Poverty is solidifying. (PDF; 576 kB) DIW weekly report No. 12/2007, volume 74/21. March 2007, p. 177.
110. ↑ ret, ap, sda: The risk of poverty increases with children. ( Memento from June 13, 2008 in the web archive archive.today ) June 26, 2007 as of January 29, 2008.
111. ↑ Working mothers in Japan, Ireland and Austria need support, according to OECD experts . www.oecd.org, November 4, 2003 as of January 29, 2008.
112. ^ Institut National de la Statistique et de Études Économiques: Les enfants pauvres: une autre image de la pauvreté? (PDF; 669 kB). October 2003 As of January 29, 2008.
113. ^ Child poverty in Europe. ( Memento of the original from September 19, 2009 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. www.arte.tv On the theme evening January 10, 2005 as of January 29, 2008. 
114. ^ Conseil de l'emploi, des revenues et de la cohésion sociale: Les enfants pauvres en france . (PDF; 759 kB). www.ladocumentationfrancaise.fr as of January 29, 2008.
115. ↑ Alex Rühle: Outside, below, below . on: sueddeutsche.de , March 29, 2007, download on January 19, 2008.
116. ^ Banlieue riots . In: Der Fischer Weltalmanach. Published on Federal Agency for Civic Education 2007, download on January 19, 2008.
117. ^ Margaret Hodge: Written answers . June 20, 2005 As of January 30, 2008.
118. ↑ ^{a b c d e} Seventh Family Report of the Federal Government , Sections II.3.3.4 “The Example: United Kingdom” and Section II.3.4 “Comparative Assessment”, subsection “United Kingdom” April 26, 2006 as of January 30, 2008.
119. ↑ George Jones: Blair sets out mission to end child poverty within a generation . www.telegraph.co.uk March 19, 1999 as of January 30, 2008.
120. ↑ Hamish MacDonnell: Scots lead fight on child poverty . news.scotsman.com March 10, 2006, as of January 30, 2008.
121. ↑ Michael Blackley: Children trapped in poverty miss out on basics . June 19, 2007 news.scotsman.com as of January 30, 2008.
122. ↑ ^{a b c} Germany only mediocre. Table “The situation of children in industrialized countries: an overview of the ranking list”, p. 3. Accessed on April 10, 2018.
123. ↑ 2 child limit: claiming benefits for more than 2 children. In: gov.uk. November 23, 2017, accessed April 10, 2018 . 
124. ^ Heinz Gerhard Beisenherz: Child poverty in the welfare society - the mark of globalization. Leske + Budrich, Leverkusen 2002, p. 42.
125. ^ Ministry for Schools and Education NRW: UNICEF: Child poverty in Eastern Europe. ( Memento of February 12, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) October 13, 2004, as of January 31, 2008.
126. ^ Elisabeth Zimmermann: Child poverty is increasing in rich countries . March 18, 2005 www.wsws.org As of January 31, 2008.
127. ↑ Leah Smith: Poverty in the Russian Federation Today . March 23, 2004 www.weltpolitik.net Status January 31, 2008.
128. ↑ Elzbieta Tarkowska: Child poverty and social exclusion in Poland (translation from English by Rudolph Müllan). In: Margherita Zander: Child poverty . VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, Wiesbaden 2005, ISBN 3-531-14450-2 , p. 34.
129. ^ Elzbieta Tarkowska: Child poverty and social exclusion in Poland. (Translation from English by Rudolph Müllan). In: Margherita Zander: Child poverty . VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, Wiesbaden 2005, ISBN 3-531-14450-2 , p. 36.
130. ^ ^{A b} Elzbieta Tarkowska: Child poverty and social exclusion in Poland. (Translation from English by Rudolph Müllan). In: Margherita Zander: Child poverty . VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, Wiesbaden 2005, ISBN 3-531-14450-2 , p. 39.
131. ^ ^{A b} Elzbieta Tarkowska: Child poverty and social exclusion in Poland (translation from English by Rudolph Müllan). In: Margherita Zander: Child poverty . VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, Wiesbaden 2005, ISBN 3-531-14450-2 , p. 40.
132. ^ Elzbieta Tarkowska: Child poverty and social exclusion in Poland. (Translation from English by Rudolph Müllan). In: Margherita Zander: Child poverty . VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, Wiesbaden 2005, ISBN 3-531-14450-2 , p. 42.
133. ^ Elzbieta Tarkowska: Child poverty and social exclusion in Poland. (Translation from English by Rudolph Müllan). In: Margherita Zander: Child poverty . VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, Wiesbaden 2005, ISBN 3-531-14450-2 , p. 45.
134. ^ Elzbieta Tarkowska: Child poverty and social exclusion in Poland. (Translation from English by Rudolph Müllan). In: Margherita Zander: Child poverty . VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, Wiesbaden 2005, ISBN 3-531-14450-2 , p. 47.
135. ↑ frommelt.ag , Street Children in Bucharest, 2003.
136. ^ ^{A b} Teresa Malcolm: New Jersey "family cap" increases abortion rate. ( Memento of July 8, 2012 in the web archive archive.today ) In: National Catholic Reporter. November 20, 1998, as of February 1, 2008.
137. ↑ André Richter: The influence of religion on fields of work of American 'youth welfare' and its characterization. Dissertation. Dortmund 2003, p. 259 (accessed November 1, 2009).
138. ^ Office of family assistance: Child Poverty and TANF. ( Memento from May 9, 2006 in the Internet Archive ) September 14, 2004 as of February 1, 2008.
139. ↑ Jennifer Preston: With New Jersey Family Cap, Births Fall and Abortion Rise. In: The New York Times. November 3, 1998.
140. ^ Ted Joyce et al .: Family Cap Provisions and Changes in Births and Abortions . As of January 31, 2008.
141. ↑ ^{a b} Welfare Policy: TANF Reauthorization February 2002 Download on January 17, 2008.
142. ↑ US Census Bureau: Health Insurance Coverage: 2005. ( Memento of January 13, 2008 in the Internet Archive )
143. ^ Tony Pugh: Children without health insurance lose out on learning at school. ( Memento of September 21, 2009 in the Internet Archive ) November 18, 2007.
144. ^ Nathan Caplan et al .: The Boat People and Achievement in America: A study of family life, hard work, and cultural values. University of Michigan Press 1989.
145. ↑ David W. Haines (Ed.): Refugees and immigrants: Cambodians, Laotians and Vietnamese and America. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 1989.
146. ^ Nathan Caplan et al: Indochinese Refugee Families and Academic Achievement. In: Scientific American. February 1992, pp. 18-24.
147. ↑ Glen H. Elder, Rand D. Conger, Children of the Land: Adversity and Success in Rural America. University of Chicago Press, 2000, ISBN 0-226-20266-6 .
148. ↑ Report from the National Center on Family Homelessness: America's Youngest Outcasts - A Report Card on Child Homelessness. ( Memento of the original from November 29, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (pdf, November 2014). 
149. ↑ America's Youngest Outcasts. ( Memento of the original from November 29, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. P. 74ff. 
150. ^ Economic Survey of Japan 2006: Income inequality, poverty and social spending. ( Memento of December 23, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) OECD, July 20, 2006.
151. ↑ hrw: Poverty in Japan . September 13, 2007 www.labournet.de Status February 2, 2008.
152. ↑ Tina Stadlmayer: Are women starting a silent revolution? Change at a snail's pace. In: der Freitag 07, Die Ost-West-Wochenzeitung. February 11, 2000, accessed October 7, 2006 . 
153. ↑  ( Page no longer available , search in web archives ) An Overview of Child Poverty in North Korea. www.seeingtechnologies.com as of February 2, 2008.
154. ↑ Why children in South Korea need your help. ( Memento of the original from December 29, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. www.childfund.org.au as of February 2, 2008. 
155. ↑ In Germany, poverty is inherited. Download on January 16, 2008.
156. ^ Daniel P. Mayer, Paul E. Peterson , David E. Myers, Christina Clark Tuttle, William G. Howell: School Choice in New York City After Three Years An Evaluation of the School Choice Scholarships Program. In: Mathematica. February 19, 2002.
157. ^ Alan Krueger, Pei Zhu: Another Look at the New York City School Voucher Experiment. In: American Behavioral Scientist. Vol. 47, No. 5, April 2003, pp. 658-699.
158. ^ Paul E. Peterson, William G. Howell: Latest Results from the New York City Voucher Experiment. November 3, 2003.
159. ↑ Ellen Esen: Talking About Poverty . In Christoph Butterwegge, Michael Klundt (ed.): Child poverty and intergenerational justice. Leske + Budrich, Opladen 2002, ISBN 3-8100-3082-1 , p. 201 ff.
160. ↑ Christine Prußky: Sociologist Ralf Dahrendorf calls for a quota of migrants . In: Spiegel-online. September 21, 2007, as of February 3, 2008.
161. ↑ Money alone does not help against child poverty. ( Memento of the original from October 11, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. September 24, 2007, German Child Protection Association (accessed December 14, 2007). 
162. ↑ More help for poor children? In: time online. August 27, 2007 (accessed December 14, 2007).
163. ↑ Critical about this: Klaus Heck: ... you can't see them in the dark . In: Telepolis. July 26, 2005.
164. ↑ Handbook of the Social Pedagogical Family Aid Project in the Federal Republic of Germany (1994 to 1997): Handbook, Chapter 9.4.2 What is the importance of the family for child welfare, what is parental upbringing? ( Memento of the original from April 25, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. BMfFSFJ as of February 3, 2008. 
165. ↑ Erich Kästner: Christmas carol, chemically cleaned. (~ 1928).