Resilience (psychology)

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Resilience (from the Latin resilire , “jump back”, “bounce”) or psychological resilience is the ability to cope with crises and to use them as an opportunity for development through recourse to personal and socially mediated resources. Related to resilience are the emergence of health ( salutogenesis ), resistance ( hardiness ), coping strategy (coping) and self-preservation ( autopoiesis ).

In medicine, resilience also refers to the maintenance or rapid restoration of mental health during or after stressful living conditions and is defined as the result of adaptation to stressors.

The opposite of resilience is vulnerability ( vulnerability ).

Terminology

The term resilience has changed over time: in the past, resilience also referred to a special characteristic of people (especially children) who maintained their mental health under conditions under which most people would have broken down. In this sense, the term was used by Emmy Werner , for example . To define a child as “resilient”, lifestyle characteristics were often included. Often children were referred to as such who - despite conditions such as poverty or the refugee situation in childhood - exercised a qualified professional activity in adulthood, did not come into conflict with the law and were psychologically normal. The meaning was later expanded. This is connected with the realization that psychological resilience is not only beneficial in extreme situations, but always an advantage. Today, people with this trait are commonly referred to as resilient. The term is now also used, for example, for people who deal appropriately with the stresses and strains of the world of work and thus maintain their mental health.

Originally, resilience was only used to describe the strength of a person to endure life crises such as serious illnesses, long unemployment, loss of loved ones or the like without lasting impairment. This use of the word is still common today. For example, children are described as resilient if they grow up in a social environment that is characterized by risk factors , such as poverty, drug use or violence, and who are nevertheless able to lead a successful life as adults. Resilient people have learned that it is they themselves who determine their own fate (so-called internal control belief ). They don't trust luck or chance, but take matters into their own hands and have a realistic picture of their abilities.

Even people who do not give up after a trauma such as rape , the sudden loss of close relatives or experiences of war, but develop the ability to continue, are referred to as resilient.

In today's personality psychology , people are also referred to as resilient who have one of the three most common Big Five personality profiles, with a low neuroticism value and slightly above-average values ​​in the four other dimensions. In the longitudinal study by Asendorpf and van Aken, resilient children were described by their teachers as adaptable, resilient, attentive, efficient, clever, curious and full of self-confidence .

The negative counterpart to resilience is called vulnerability . Vulnerability means that someone is particularly easily hurt emotionally by external influences. Vulnerable people are particularly prone to developing mental illness.

History of Resilience Research

This article or section needs to be revised. Details should be given on the talk page. Please help to improve it , and then remove this flag.

The term resilience was introduced to psychology by psychologist Jack Block in the 1950s . However, resilience is often associated with the names of the American researcher Emmy Werner and that of her colleague Ruth Smith. In 1971 Werner presented a study on the children of the island of Kaua'i , which is considered one of the pioneering studies on the subject of resilience. As part of this study, 698 children born in 1955 from difficult circumstances were observed and tested from birth for over 40 years. A third of these children grew up to be able-bodied adults despite difficult conditions, with resilience changing over time and under different environmental conditions. Werner drew the conclusion from this that resilience can be learned. However, their study was not the first on resilience. She herself draws attention to other studies on the same subject in her book The Children of Kauai .

Norman Garmezy is often referred to as the “grandfather of resilience theory” because he discovered in the 1960s that many children of schizophrenic parents develop into successful, happy adults. His closest associate, Ann Masten, continued Garmezy's work at the University of Minnesota. Masten called resilience “ordinary magic” and said: “We are reprogrammable to a degree that the resilience pioneers could not even imagine. We are dynamic systems; we can change. "

Another pioneer was the American sociologist and psychologist Glen Elder . He found that many children in the United States were able to escape the poverty of the 1930s. Good family relationships and cultural factors would favor and promote resilience. The French ethologist , neurologist and psychiatrist Boris Cyrulnik , the Cameroonian educational scientist at the University of Hamburg Louis Henri Seukwa, the Swiss educator Corina Wustmann, the Indian psychologist at the state university in Arizona Suniya S. Luthar and many other researchers have worked intensively on resilience employed. The research topic of resilience and migration has gained international importance since around 2000.

Influencing factors

Essential factors that influence resilience are personal factors, environmental influences and process factors. Environmental factors include family support, culture, community, social and school environment. The personal factors include cognitive (e.g. intelligence , interpretation and meaning models of reality, religiosity) as well as emotional ones, e.g. B. his ability to control emotions and actions, his self-efficacy expectation , the tolerance for uncertainty, the ability to actively shape relationships or the more or less active attitude to problems (problem fixation or problem-solving orientation). Process factors include a. the perceived perspectives, the acceptance of the unchangeable and the concentration of all energies on the next thing to be mastered and the strategies developed in the process.

Some groups of people turn out to be particularly resilient in a variety of ways. These are usually those who have a strong cohesion , are more collectivist than individually oriented and are characterized by strong values ​​that are shared by most people from the corresponding group (referred to as shared values in resilience research ).

Resilience must not be interpreted statically. Like the process of trauma , the development of resilience can also be interpreted sequentially. In addition, factors or strategies that promote resilience in one situation may be more of a hindrance to the development of resilience in other situations. Poverty, for example, plays an ambivalent role in the development of resilience. Positive adaptation, which is interpreted as an expression of resilience and the growth of resources, can also be accompanied by strategies of self-reassurance, avoidance and repression, behind which considerable suffering is hidden.

poverty

Children growing up in poverty face more risks and frustrations than their better-off peers. The consequences of this include poorer school performance, more frequent criminal suspicions or drug addiction and more frequent occurrence of diseases such as ADD (in children and adults) or schizophrenia (in adults).

Researchers such as Emmy E. Werner, Elder , Haan, Moriaty and Toussing, Nuechterlein, Garmezy and Scarr studied children who grew up in extreme poverty and found that about ungefähr of all poor children who grew up had big problems in adulthood. The third that was not affected by poverty in this study was described as resilient .

In a study by the University of California (USA), on the other hand, the thesis was put forward that children of poorer and middle-class parents show more empathy than those from richer families: The people in question are much more dependent on cooperation with others in everyday life and thus developed an improved capacity for compassion.

family

The families of resilient children differ significantly from those of non-resilient children:

  • Parents of resilient children are more likely to have a better education than parents of non-resilient children.
  • Parents of resilient children are more likely to work than parents of non-resilient children; Parents' poorly paid employment also seems to strengthen their children's skills.
  • Resilient children often have fewer siblings than non-resilient children.
  • Resilient children grow up in single-parent families less often than non-resilient children. With regard to the development of resilience, it appears to be more difficult in single-parent families to grow up with a single mother than with a single father, although the latter is much less common. Daughters of single mothers are more likely to become pregnant than teenagers, and sons are more likely to become criminals or drug addicts. Growing up without a father seems to be more problematic for boys than for girls.
  • Parents of resilient children are friendly, empathetic, supportive and take an interest in their children's lives despite their problems.

Despite all the diversity and context-specific nature of protective factors, it has been shown that a continuous, secure bond with a caregiver can be rated as a decisive protective factor. If such a family caregiver is not available, resilient children often look for caregivers outside the family. In this case, they often leave the negative environment of their family after school and look for a “better” environment.

Wendy Mogel observed a lack of resilience in many children from well-off middle-class families. Despite their privileged living conditions (material prosperity, committed, loving parents), they suffered from a variety of fears, insecurities and inhibitions and appeared profoundly unhappy. Mogel, who wrote two influential books on resilience education, considers overprotection paired with inadequate teaching of values ​​to be the biggest stumbling block in teaching resilience.

migration

In the course of the waves of refugees that have been recorded in Europe, Africa and the Middle East since the 1990s, resilience research is playing an increasingly important role in addition to trauma research because it includes individual and socially responsible action. Intact social relationships, health care and health promotion are of great importance for the resilience of residents of the countries of origin.

Religion and other forms of strong ideological commitment

As Glen Elder and Mark Ragnar by analyzing the data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health was attended, on the 10,000 young people, show the involvement shown to increase resilience in a religious community. There was consistently a positive correlation between going to church and school grades, and the poorer a youth, the stronger the correlation. It could also be determined that the integration into a religious community, not the religiosity itself, leads to good school results. Poor young people who were pious but not part of a community had just as bad school grades as their less religious peers. In addition to school grades, mental and physical well-being were also positively influenced by being part of a faith community: "What we find in the church is a group of people who share values ​​and who care about the child's success," Elder commented Result. These non-deviant shared values ​​led, among other things, to better self-discipline and better internal control.

Main Street Missionary Baptist Church; Preparations for a street service after Hurricane Katrina in Biloxi, Mississippi
Orphans praying in Nyota, Kenya

Other studies came to similar results. For example, it has been found that after the devastation caused by Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans, the neighborhood around the Catholic Mary Queen of Viet Nam Church was one of the first to be rebuilt. It was one of the poorest neighborhoods in New Orleans. The Church started a program called the Mary Queen of Vietnam Community Development Corporation (MQVN CDC) . Neighbors helped each other build a new life after the devastation. The question arose how the willingness to take part in this program and to help one's neighbors came about, even if one had no direct benefit from it. Research showed that the common faith lived by many neighbors resulted in a tightly knit social network with the Mary Queen of Viet Nam Church as the center. According to studies by Caplan, Rumbaut and Ima as well as Bankston and Zhou, Catholic Americans of Vietnamese origin were even more successful than Americans of Vietnamese origin who belonged to another religious community. Frequent visits to the Catholic Church led to greater involvement in social networks, which on the one hand offered support services and on the other hand also conveyed values. This resulted in strong upward mobility.

A resilience-increasing effect is also attributed to the ideological commitment of young Israelis, which prevents them from being traumatized by political-military insecurity.

Genetic influences

The results of three twin studies from 2008, 2012 and 2014 suggest that 31–52% of resilience traits can be genetic.

A twin study examined the inheritance of resilience in adolescents based on information from mothers, fathers and children in over 1,300 families with over 2,600 twins. It turned out that around 40% of differences in resilience measured psychometrically can be explained by genetic factors. The remaining 60% are due to different (i.e. individually experienced) environmental factors within a pair of twins.

Gene MAO-A

There is evidence that the susceptibility to developing antisocial symptoms after abuse may be influenced not only by trauma but also by genetic predisposition . According to several studies, boys with an X-linked low MAO-A activity are more likely to develop behavioral disorders as a result of traumatic experiences than boys without this genetic variant. The gene-environment interaction in this area is highly complex and (as of 2020) only very poorly understood.

The gene for low MAOA activity also appears to lead to antisocial behavior , especially in men with high testosterone levels; in men with low testosterone levels the relationship is not as strong. In men without the gene, however, elevated testosterone levels did not lead to antisocial behavior. (see also: Warrior Gene )

Resilience and Mental Disorders

So far, the connections between high resilience and a lower risk of post-traumatic stress disorder after catastrophic life events have been well researched. In addition, there are indications that a high level of resilience can protect against depression or alleviate its symptoms.

Characteristics of child resilience and ways of promoting it

Big Brothers / Big Sisters, volunteers

Resilient children differ from non-resilient children in a number of ways:

  • There are more girls than boys. Resilient boys tend to be “atypical” boys. They are less aggressive and more related to others than unresilient boys.
  • Intelligent children tend to be more resilient than less intelligent children.
  • Resilient children are often overachievers ; H. they perform better at school than would be expected from their intelligence.
  • They are more likely to have their impulses under control than non-resilient children and are more disciplined.
  • They are more capable of delaying the reward than non-resilient children.
  • Resilient children are turned towards other people, they respond positively to attention.
  • Resilient children are more sensitive and emotional than non-resilient children.
  • They're more likely to talk about their feelings.
  • They are more trusting and less aggressive.
  • Contrary to the prejudice that many people may harbor, resilient children are not tough or “tough”. The opposite is the case, they are more likely to seek help from others than non-resilient children and are more likely to admit weaknesses.
  • Resilient children have realistic self-assessments and realistic ideas about the future.
  • They are more socially adapted than non-resilient children, are “easier to steer” and try to live up to the expectations of adults.
  • You are interested in people, things and ideas and enjoy learning. They usually enjoy going to school.
  • They have a stronger belief in internal control.

Studies have shown that parents and older siblings can help a child develop resilience. Nathan Caplan and others looked at refugee families in the United States who lived in poverty and whose parents had little education. They found that the majority of their children turned out to be resilient. According to studies, however, the most emotionally stable and most successful at school were the children from families where both parents (although these parents themselves did not have a good education) and older siblings placed a lot of value on education and also not as a means to an end but as an end in itself. It had a particularly positive influence when the parents read to the children. This was the case in 45% of the refugee families. It didn't matter whether they read English books or books in their native language. According to Caplan and Choy, it is more important that reading aloud strengthens the emotional bond between parents and children. Children benefit from parents who do not isolate themselves, but rather actively seek contact with like-minded people and take responsibility (for example in social groups ) .

Voluntary Mentor (Big Brothers / Big Sisters)

The grandparents could also play a role: children without contact with their grandparents had to be classified as " vulnerable " more often . According to studies, it is possible to promote resilience in children and adolescents in the school context with the help of various programs, including Head Start and the Big Brothers Big Sisters program. Like Tierney et al. a. and Werner have proven that both programs are successful: They reduce learning problems among younger children as well as drug addiction and delinquency among adolescents. A longitudinal study evaluating a Head Start program showed that the proportion of children under 15 who had to repeat a class was only 30% compared to 56% in the control group; in addition, the proportion of children who attended the equivalent of a special school or special class was 12% compared to 48% for children who were not supported.

The so-called Foster Grandparent Program has also proven successful in promoting resilience. It brings older people into contact with deprived children and young people. "Foster Grandmothers" work with pregnant young girls and their infants and help toddlers in preschool programs like Head Start . “Foster grandfathers” help delinquent teenagers with their schoolwork. The volunteers also care for sick children in children's clinics and work with traumatized refugee children. They also help elementary school students with learning problems. Positive effects could be proven. Small children who had a "Foster grandmother" showed significant progress in their motor and social development. Preschoolers improved their intelligence and social skills . Improvements in reading skills and social behavior were found in school children.

Children should also be given the opportunity to take on responsibility in the school or in other groups. Children given this opportunity are less prone to deviant behavior.

Opstapje is a game-learning program to promote resilience .

Examples of increased group-specific resilience

In psychology, pedagogy and sociology, not only individuals, but also population groups who endure difficult conditions without impairment are referred to as resilient. The focus here is on the resilience or vulnerability of groups in view of social and socio-psychological risk factors, such as B. lack of school education, child poverty, broken homes, care home, migration, etc. as well as the recent discussion about targeted resilience promotion in socialization facilities (Zander 2011) and preventive offers that go beyond the training of individual skills. Integration into social networks plays a major role here. However, only a few longitudinal studies exist on the long-term effects of these factors; most of the research was carried out in the USA.

Americans of Japanese descent

One of the first papers on this topic dates from 1956 and deals with Americans of Japanese descent . William Caudill and George DeVos wondered how they managed to deal with racism and prejudice in schools. Although the word resilience is not used in the thesis, the factors that were later addressed by resilience research are already mentioned here. Caudill and DeVos noted a high level of achievement motivation and high parental commitment. Today their work is criticized for methodological reasons, but they should be mentioned here as a forerunner.

European Jews in the USA

Nathan Caplan of the University of Michigan reports on the research by Judith R. Kramer and Seymour Leventman. These dealt with the descendants of poor Eastern European Jews who emigrated to the USA. Despite the great poverty of this population group, their children turned out to be well integrated and less criminal than the American population. They also attended a university more than the average. 90% of the immigrants' grandchildren attended a university. Caplan attributes this to cultural factors and strong parental involvement.

African American in Chicago

Typically, African Americans are unsuccessful in the US school system for a number of different reasons. One is considered to be the poverty that is widespread among African Americans . Another is a Eurocentric curriculum . There are exceptions, however. Caplan reports that Clark has seen exceptional success with children of some African American families in Chicago. These families lived in poverty, but their parents supported the school and teachers and structured their children's teaching context.

Vietnamese (Boat People) in the USA

Boat people family on an American ship
Rescued boat people on an American ship

However, Caplan's main interests are the children of the Boat People . In the 1970s and early 1980s, Vietnamese refugees became known as "Boat People", who fled across the South China Sea in boats after the Vietnam War for fear of the new communist regime (the Viet Cong ). Many of these refugees were looking for a better future in the USA. They seemed to have no chance, often only had the clothes they arrived in and spoke no English. Over half of the parents had only attended school for five years or less. These refugees often lived in the poorest residential areas of large cities. According to the parents' income, the children went to the (underfunded) public schools. Science was amazed when the refugee children did better than middle-class children on all performance tests.

Nathan Caplan, Marcella H. Choy, and John K. Whitmore looked for reasons for this. They looked at a random sample of 200 boat people families. These families together had 536 school-age children. First it was tested whether the observation that the children of the Boat People are particularly productive also applies to these children. The children were tested with a performance test called CAT (Computer Aided Adaptive Testing). As expected, the children in this sample also performed better than children from the white middle class in almost all areas, especially in the math area. Only in the linguistic area did the children do slightly worse than children of the white middle class.

One of the most striking results of the study was that children with many siblings were more productive than children with few siblings or even only children. To understand this, one has to understand the role the family plays in Vietnamese culture. Vietnamese culture is more collectivist-oriented: the wishes of the individual are less important than the needs of the family as a group.

Older siblings are expected to help their younger siblings with their homework. The children benefit enormously from this. They learned not only facts from their siblings, but also academic strategies and values. Often younger children who were not yet of school age were also present. They too apparently learned through play by watching their siblings.

Homework was mostly done in the kitchen at the kitchen table; A child's room or a desk of their own only rarely existed. However, it is not the material conditions but the love of learning that seem to be important for a school career. It was shown that the children of the Boat People spent an average of three hours and ten minutes a day studying and doing their homework. On average, American students only spent an hour and 30 minutes per day doing these activities.

It was shown that education was a more important value to the children of Boat People than to the children of white Americans. In Vietnam, education used to be a privilege, and only a few wealthy families could afford to give their children a good education. According to Caplan, Choy, and Whitmore, this is one of the reasons the Vietnamese children are so successful. Although it cannot be said that origins play no role in education in America, this is where they saw their opportunities. They noticed that they had more opportunities than their parents in Vietnam, and they wanted to take advantage of them. Even the parents, who in many cases had not had the opportunity to get a good education, wished that their children would have it better one day, so that they motivated them, because they had recognized the importance of a good education.

American middle class during the Great Depression

Homeless mother (documentary photo, Dorothea Lange , 1936)

Glen Elder (1974) examined the lives of children from different backgrounds whose families had fallen into poverty as a result of the Great Depression . To do this, he used data from a longitudinal study by the University of California, Berkeley . It appears that poverty has had positive rather than negative consequences for American middle-class adolescents. They seemed to grow from it and their personality seemed to get stronger. They even tended to be somewhat more successful than children from middle-class families that were never impoverished. Working-class children from impoverished families, on the other hand, were less successful in later life than middle-class children. The effects of poverty were also evident here: for example, they were less likely to graduate from university than working-class children from families that were never impoverished. But there were also many social climbers among them. Both men from working-class families and men from middle-class families have a strong influence of poverty on values, but this does not necessarily have to be negative. For example, men who grew up in poverty have a more positive attitude towards children than men who have never been poor. You have strong family values ​​and a conservative family image.

In summary, the poverty at the time of the Great Depression had surprisingly few negative effects on the lives of these boys. Clausen makes similar observations. The reasons for this are diverse.

The following table compares two groups of Oakland men . Both groups come from homes that belonged to the middle class before the time of the Great Depression. Sections of the middle class were impoverished by the Great Depression. Men who had to grow up below the subsistence level because of the Great Depression are compared with men whose families have never been poor. There were no negative effects of poverty. Men who grew up below the subsistence level tend to be somewhat more successful at work.

never poor Grew up below the subsistence level
Age at first marriage in years (median) 23.8 23.3
Age at birth of first child (median) 26.5 26.2
Achieving a university degree 61% 60%
Professional status in 1958 (1 = high, 7 = low) 2.5 2.2
1958 member of the upper middle class 39% 45%
1958 member of the lower or middle middle class 48% 45%
1958 member of the working class 13% 10%

Children of poor American farmers

In later years Elder studied the children of American farmers. In the 1980s there was a crisis in American agriculture. Some of the farming families now had to live below the poverty line. But their children mastered the hardships associated with it. They were both successful academically and socially well integrated. Elder and Conger see the following reasons for this:

  • strong intergenerational ties,
  • Socialization in productive roles,
  • strong commitment from parents,
  • Commitment of the churches, schools and the rural community.

Traumatized adopted children

Clark and Hanisee studied the development of children adopted from third world countries who were malnourished and had traumatic childhood experiences. The children were adopted by upper- middle-class American families . Contrary to the assumption that these children would suffer from severe impairments, they turned out to be above average intelligent and above average socially competent. They achieved an intelligence quotient (IQ) of 120 in the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, and 137 points on the Vineland Social Maturity Scale (100 points are average, 137 are extremely good). Clark and Hanisee came to the conclusion that malnourished and traumatized children prove to be surprisingly resilient when they are adopted into stable family relationships.

Spanish immigrants in Germany

Another example of resilience are the children of Spanish migrant workers who came to Germany as guest workers. The question of whether migration itself is a risk factor is usually answered positively. However, successfully managed migration risks can strengthen resilience. Because of the widespread poverty and the dictatorship of Francisco Franco , many Spaniards came to Germany in the 1970s to find a better future there. The bulk of Spanish immigrants were relatively uneducated and came from disadvantaged areas of the country. The Franco regime had little developed the education system; the schools did not offer enough places for the children. The children of the Spanish migrants had to struggle with the typical guest worker problems. Today they have reached the middle of society and occupy similar professional positions as Germans. This upswing can be explained by the strong self-organization of the Spanish immigrants and a targeted affirmation of full integration into the German school system. This was partly enforced against the authorities who wanted to create special classes for migrants. This led to good school qualifications, early success in finding apprenticeships and corresponding professional success. Hardly any Spanish student leaves school without a degree. It is worth noting that the professional and academic successes of the Spanish are not accompanied by a loss of their cultural identity . Many Spaniards still consider themselves to be ethnic Spaniards, they send more money home than migrants from other ethnic groups, and they plan to return home more often.

training

There are numerous indications that resilience can be trained at least to a limited extent. Many psychotherapeutic approaches and management training argue that negative life events must be understood as an opportunity for emotional growth "( post-traumatic growth )". However, many who cannot do this are quickly considered “mentally immature”. “Be resilient!” Thus becomes “an invitation to unlearn your own sensitivity and to immunize yourself against the unreasonable demands of unacceptable living conditions”.

Initiation rites

Also initiation rites can be understood as a kind of Wittedness. They have a psychological protective function and can possibly erase childish trauma and lead to awareness of one's own strength. Even the war represented such an initiation rite for many young men, even if it often led to new traumas. Today, especially in western societies, numerous initiation rites are dropped, so that this protective function is in question.

Some authors assume that the participation of male Palestinian youths in the Intifada with subsequent arrest and possible torture represents a new initiation ritual in a patriarchal society in which youths and young adults are politically excluded and have no resources for marriage.

Resilience training in the army

The US Army has partnered with the University of Pennsylvania since 2009 a complex Wittedness for soldiers and their families and civilian employees on the basis of positive psychology program developed by the University and tested. The emotional, social, spiritual, familial and physical resilience are trained. Today the training is offered by private institutions. The training volume is over 100 million US dollars per year. The training takes place both during the basic training of the soldiers ( Battlemind - Lifecycle ) and in the specific pre- and post-deployment support ( Battlemind - Deployment Cycle ). The soldiers' resilience is assessed using a Comprehensive Soldier & Family Fitness Score . This test is also available in the form of an online self-assessment.

The "strengthening of psychological resources" is also gaining in importance in the Bundeswehr , after around 2500 soldiers with mission-related mental illness were treated in a Bundeswehr hospital from the beginning of 2009 to July 2011.

Limits of resilience and criticism of the approach

Resilient people have the ability to seize opportunities where they are presented. But where there are no options, e.g. B. in permanent economic crises, even resilient people are powerless. With reference to the aftermath of the Great Depression in the years after 1929, Elder warns: [...] not even great talent and industry can ensure life success over adversity without opportunity ( Eng .: not even great talent and diligence ensure that adversity is overcome, if the opportunity is missing ).

Critics such as Klaus Ottomeyer or Thomas von Freyberg see the ubiquitous use of the term resilience as an indication of the tendency towards the individualization of social risks and the privatization of social responsibility. Ottomeyer even speaks of " neoliberalism in psychotherapy". The resilience hype suggests that a panacea for crises and problems of all kinds has been found.

The criticism of dealing with the term resilience does not see the problem in strengthening people's resilience and helping people to protect themselves from disasters; however, in the associated tendency to accept violent conditions for granted and only find a way to deal with them. This leads to this, so the further criticism at a conference on the topic “Fit for the disaster? - The Resilience Discourse in Politics and Aid ”, organized by medico international in 2015 , so that the burden and structural problems get out of focus and are accepted as given. Thus, changing and combating existing or emerging problems and their causes takes a back seat. This supports a tendency to relieve political actors of dealing with and avoiding the causes, towards an individualized way of dealing with the symptoms. Thus, it stabilizes the precarious or violent conditions that potentially lead to trauma, instead of working on them. The British professor of political theory Marc Neocleous from Brunel University therefore even called for resistance to the enthusiasm for resilience. "The language of resilience prepares us for war," he postulated at the medico conference. The talk of psychological resilience creates a "culture of preparedness for disaster".

Resilient societies

The sociology commenced Resilienzbegriff and to whole groups ( Samtschaften ) and companies expanded. However, compared to individual and organizational resilience research, research into social resilience is still comparatively underdeveloped, although this system level is far more complex and multi-layered.

In the social discourse, “resilience” has established itself primarily as a direct counter-term to “ vulnerability ”. The main focus is on the resilience and regenerative capacity of societies in the face of modern and increasingly unpredictable risks (Birkmann 2006), e. B. due to environmental changes and disasters. This discourse ties in with research on the vulnerability and interdependence of societies , which dates back to the 1970s , in particular on the part of developing country research (Bohle et al. 1994) and human ecology (Birkmann 2006). In addition, man-made security risks also play a role, such as B. Terrorism (Coaffee / Wood 2006). From a political and social science perspective, the resilience of authoritarian regimes to civil revolutions has been the focus of interest for some years now (Goldstone 2011; Fathi / Karolewski 2014).

In disaster sociology , resilience is understood as the robust resistance of entire societies to widespread devastation and is treated above all in the area of ​​the social requirements for effective self-protection (see resilience (urbanism) ).

In ecological research, the term is used to describe the ability of ecosystems to recover after interventions or disasters (see Resilience (ecosystem) ).

Thus, very different disciplines have appropriated the terms "resilience" and "vulnerability" and concentrate in their studies on different dimensions of resilience. The focus is usually still heavily on the "hard" factors. "Soft factors" such as For example, the role of religion and spirituality (Bönsel 2012), the influence of virtues that promote resilience (Palin 2011) and the question of the social construction of threat (Christmann et al. 2011) were given comparatively little consideration. An integration of the different perspectives in the discourse on the resilient society in an interdisciplinary context has only been attempted to date, as in the work of Roland Benedikter and Karim Fathi (Fathi / Benedikter 2013; Fathi 2019). In some research contributions, resilience appears partly as a factor that accelerates change, and partly as a factor that favors systemic inertia and slows down social change. Critics accuse the resilience discourse in environmental and development policy that it distracts from the need to consistently pursue sustainability goals.

See also

literature

  • Fathi, K. (2019): Resilience in the area of ​​tension between development and sustainability - requirements for securing the future of society in the 21st century . Springer Verlag, 2019, ISBN 978-3-658-26940-1 .
  • J. Birkmann: Measuring Vulnerability to Natural Hazards: Towards Disaster Resilient Societies. United Nations Univ. Pr., 2006.
  • G. Christmann, O. Ibert, H. Kilper, T. Moss: Vulnerability and resilience in a socio-spatial perspective - conceptual clarifications and theoretical framework. IRS Leibniz Institute for Regional Development and Structural Planning. Erkner 2011. irs-net.de
  • Klaus Fröhlich-Gildhoff, Maike Rönnau-Böse: Resilience. Reinhardt, Munich 2009, ISBN 978-3-497-02100-0 .
  • Günther Opp, Michael Fingerle (Ed.): What strengthens children. Education between risk and resilience. Reinhardt, Munich 2007, ISBN 978-3-497-01908-3 .
  • Christine Tschöll: Resilience in the event of job loss. A case study in the peripheral Passeier Valley. Nomos, Baden-Baden 2018, ISBN 978-3-8487-4579-1 .
  • Rosmarie Welter-Enderlin , Bruno Hildenbrand (ed.): Resilience - thriving despite adverse circumstances. Auer, Heidelberg 2006, ISBN 3-89670-511-3 .
  • Albert Wunsch: With more self to the stable I! - Resilience as the basis of personality development. Springer Spectrum, Heidelberg 2013, ISBN 978-3-642-37701-3 .
  • Margherita Zander: Handbook Resilience Promotion. VS, Wiesbaden 2011, ISBN 978-3-531-16998-9 .

Web links

Wiktionary: Resilience  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations

items

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Paul Ludolph et al.: Resilience-promoting interventions in patients with cancer. In: Deutsches Ärzteblatt. Volume 116, Issue 51–52, December 23, 2019, pp. 865–872.
  2. ^ Emmy Werner: Vulnerable, but Invincible. Adams, Bannister and Cox, New York 1982.
  3. ↑ JB Asendorpf, FJ Neyer: Psychology of personality. Springer, 2012.
  4. ↑  ( page no longer available , search in web archives ) TUD, seminar developmental psychology, resilience department. Downloaded December 19, 2007.@1@ 2Template: Toter Link / www.tu-darmstadt.de
  5. ^ Wolfgang Battmann, Katrin Warnke: resilient.de
  6. ^ Emmy E. Werner: The children of Kauai: a longitudinal study from the prenatal period to age ten. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu 1971, ISBN 0-87022-860-9 .
  7. ↑ Stefanie Maeck: Secret of psychic strength: The invulnerable. Some people seem to survive traumatic experiences untouched. Psychological strength is often based on an early life plan and belief in oneself. Resilience can be learned to some extent - but some looks also have to fit. In: Spiegel Online , February 3, 2013.
  8. ↑ Michaela Haas: Strong as a phoenix. OW Barth, p. 328.
  9. ↑ Michaela Haas: Strong as a phoenix. OW Barth, p. 328.
  10. ↑ Andrea Michel: Resilience among young people with a migration background. In: Starke Jugend - Starke Jugend: Selected contributions from the 12th German Prevention Day. Forum Verlag, Merching 2008.
  11. ↑ Viola Schreiber, Ernst-Ludwig Iskenius: Refugees: between traumatization, resilience and further development. 2013, p. 5 ff. Amnesty-heilberufe.de (PDF)
  12. ↑ Schreiber: Iskenius. P. 9.
  13. ↑ dpa: Children of rich parents are less empathetic. on: badische-zeitung.de , Panorama , May 11, 2011, in: Psychologie Heute , May 15, 2011.
  14. ↑ a b N. Haan: Proposed Model of Ego functioning: Coping and defense mechanisms in relationship to IQ changes. In: Psychological Monographs: General and Applied. 77, 1963, pp. 1-23.
  15. ^ A b N. Haan: Coping and defending: Processes of self-environement organization. Academic Press, New York 1977.
  16. ^ A b S. Goldberg: Social competence in infancy: a model of parent-infant interaction. In: Merril-Palmer Quarterly. 23, 1977, pp. 163-177.
  17. ↑ a b A. Moriarty, P. Toussieng: Adolescent Coping. Grune and Stratton, New York 1976.
  18. ↑ a b L. Murphy, A. Moriarty: Vulnerability, coping and growth from infancy to to adolescence . Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn. 1976.
  19. ↑ a b K. H. Nuechterlein: Competent disadvantaged children: A review of research. PhD thesis. University of Minnesota, 1970.
  20. ↑ a b N. Garmezy: Children at risk: The search for antecedents of schizophrenia. In: Schizophrenia Bulletin. 8 and 9, 1974.
  21. ↑ a b N. Garmezy: The study of competence in children at risk for severe psychopathology. In: EJ Anthony, C. Koupernik (eds.): The child in his family: Children at psychiatric risk. Volume III, Wiley, New York 1974.
  22. ↑ a b N. Garmezy, KH Nuechterlein: Invulnerable children: The fact and fiction of competence and disadvantage. 1972.
  23. ↑ Wendy Mogel: The Blessings of a Skinned Knee : Using Jewish Teachings to Raise Self-Reliant Children. Scribner, New York / London / Sydney / Singapore 2001, ISBN 0-684-86297-2 . limited online version in Google Book Search - USA
  24. ↑ See e.g. BRK Papadopoulos: Refugees, trauma and Adversity-Activated-Development. In: European Journal of Psychotherapy and Counseling. 9 (3), 2007, pp. 301-312; R. Schweitzer, JH Greenslade, A. Kagee: Coping and resilience in refugees from the Sudan: A narrative account. In: Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry. 41 (3), 2007, pp. 282-288.
  25. ↑ Brigit Obrist: How health and resilience are related. UniNova, science magazine of the University of Basel, Basel.
  26. ↑ Amber Anderson Johnson: Want Better Grades? Go to Church. In: Christianity Today. May 2002.
  27. ↑ a b Emily Chamlee-Wright, Virgil Henry Storr: Club Goods and post-disaster community return. In: Rationality and Society. 21 (4), 2009.
  28. ^ Carl L. III Bankston, Min Zhou: Effects of Minority Language Literacy on the Academic Achievement of Vietnamese Youths in New Orleans. In: Sociology of Education. 68, 1995, pp. 1-17.
  29. ↑ Raija-Leena Punamäki: Can Ideological Commitment Protect Children's Psychosocial Well-Being in Situations of Political Violence? In: Child Development , Vol. 67, Issue 1 (1996), pp. 55-69.
  30. ↑ KW Choi, MB Stein, EC Dunn, KC Koenen, JW Smoller: Genomics and psychological resilience: a research agenda. In: Molecular Psychiatry. Volume 24, number 12, 12 2019, pp. 1770–1778, doi : 10.1038 / s41380-019-0457-6 , PMID 31341239 , PMC 6874722 (free full text) (review).
  31. ^ Trine Waaktaar, Svenn Torgersen: Genetic and Environmental Causes of Variation in Trait Resilience in Young People . In: Behavior Genetics . tape 42 , no. 3 , May 2012, ISSN  0001-8244 , p. 366–377 , doi : 10.1007 / s10519-011-9519-5 , PMID 22101958 , PMC 3350764 (free full text) - ( springer.com [accessed May 12, 2020]).
  32. ↑ KW Nilsson, C. Åslund, E. Comasco, L. Oreland: Gene-environment interaction of monoamine oxidase A in relation to antisocial behavior: current and future directions. In: Journal of neural transmission. Volume 125, number 11, 11 2018, pp. 1601–1626, doi : 10.1007 / s00702-018-1892-2 , PMID 29881923 , PMC 6224008 (free full text) (review).
  33. ↑ A Non-Additive Interaction of a Functional MAO-A VNTR and Testosterone Predicts Antisocial Behavior .
  34. ↑ S. Ahmand et al. a .: Earthquake impact in a remote South Asian population: Psychosocial factors and posttraumatic symptoms. In: Journal of Traumatic Stress. 23, 2010, pp. 408-412.
  35. ^ CS North, CR Cloninger: Personality and major depression among directly exposed survivors of the Oklahoma city bombing. In: Depression Research and Treatment. 2012, Article ID: 204741
  36. ↑ O. Hjemdal et al. a .: The relationship between resilience and levels of anxiety, depression, and obsessive-compulsive symptoms in adolescents. In: Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy. 18, 2011, pp. 314-321. doi: 10.1002 / cpp.719 .
  37. ^ B. Engmann: Could Resilience Predict the Outcome of Psychiatric Rehabilitation Patients? In: Journal of Depression. 02 (2), 2013, p. 7. doi: 10.4236 / ojd.2013.22002 .
  38. ↑ Nathan Caplan et al. a .: Indochinese Refugee Families and Academic Achievement. In: Scientific American. February 1992.
  39. ↑ a b c The Iowa Youth and Families Project ( Memento December 12, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) Downloaded December 19, 2007.
  40. ↑ Institute for Social Work and Social Pedagogy ; Documentation of the symposium Resilience - What makes children from poor families strong. on September 13, 2005 in Frankfurt am Main
  41. ^ Herbert Fröhlich: Risk and protective factors: Research results and intervention options with special consideration of poverty. In: Federal Conference for Educational Advice e. V .: Poor families well advised. Help and support for children and parents. Advice materials. Volume 12, 2004.
  42. ↑ Alexandra Sann, Kathrin Thrum: Opstapje - step by step. Practical Guide. German Youth Institute e. V., 2005.
  43. ↑ Andrea Michel: Resilience among young people with a migration background. In: Erich Marks, Wiebke Steffen (Hrsg.): Strong youth - strong future. Mönchengladbach 2008, pp. 95-106.
  44. ^ William Caudill, George De Vos: Achievement, Culture and Personality: The Case of the Japanese American. In: American Anthropologist. Volume 56 (6), 1956, pp. 1102-1125.
  45. ^ Richard N. Adams: Cultural Components of Central America. ( Memento from April 16, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) In: American Anthropologist. Vol. 58 (5), 1956, pp. 881-907. Downloaded January 31, 2008.
  46. ↑ a b Nathan Caplan u. a .: Indochinese Refugee Families and Academic Achievement. In: Scientific American. February 1992, p. 24.
  47. ↑ Jawanza Kunjufu: Black Students / Middle Class Teachers. African American Images, 2002, ISBN 0-913543-81-0 .
  48. ↑ A. Wish: With more self to the stable I !: Resilience as the basis of personality development. P. 27, line 2 f.
  49. ↑ Nathan Caplan et al. a .: The Boat People and Achievement in America: A study of family life, hard work, and cultural values. University of Michigan Press, 1989, ISBN 0-472-09397-5 ; David W. Haines (Ed.): Refugees as immigrants: Cambodians, Laotians and Vietnamese in America. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 1989, ISBN 0-8476-7553-X ; Nathan Caplan et al. a .: Indochinese Refugee Families and Academic Achievement. In: Scientific American. February 1992, pp. 18-24.
  50. ^ John A. Clausen: American lives: looking back at the children of the great depression . University of California Press, Berkeley CA et al. a. 1995.
  51. ^ GH Elder: Children of the Great Depression: Social Change in Life Experience . University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1974.
  52. ^ GH Elder: Children of the Great Depression. University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1974, p. 160.
  53. ↑ Glen H. Elder, Rand D. Conger, Children of the Land: Adversity and Success in Rural America. University of Chicago Press, 2000, ISBN 0-226-20266-6 .
  54. ↑ Audry Clark, Janette Hanisee: Intellectual and Adaptive Performance of Asian Children in Adoptive American settings. In: Developmental Psychology. Volume 18, No. 4, 1982, pp. 595-599.
  55. ↑ “The migration situation means a serious break in the course of life and requires profound reorientation efforts, such as B. the loss of ties and the familiar living environment as well as the creation of new social networks, language problems, cultural orientation problems, status or recognition deficits, difficulties in comparing norms and values ​​or legal and social problems. "Michel 2008, p. 102.
  56. ^ B. von Breitenbach: Italians and Spaniards as employees in the Federal Republic of Germany. Munich / Mainz 1982, p. 120 f .; D. Thränhardt: Immigrant Cultures and Social Capital. In: D. Thränhardt, Uwe Hunger (Ed.): Immigrant networks and their integration quality in Germany and Israel. Münster / London 2000, p. 32 f.
  57. ^ B. von Breitenbach: Italians and Spaniards as employees in the Federal Republic of Germany. Munich / Mainz 1982.
  58. ↑ Arrived safely . In: Die Zeit , No. 28/2006.
  59. ^ Dietrich Thränhardt: Spanish immigrants create educational capital: Self-help networks and integration success in Europe . ( Memento of June 30, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) Retrieved November 20, 2007.
  60. ↑ Dagmar Schedewy: Psychotherapy Congress in Berlin: The unconditional self-optimization. In taz.de , March 8, 2018.
  61. ↑ Ahmad Baker, Nadera Shalhoub-Kevorkian: Effects of political and military traumas on children: the Palestinian case. In: Clinical psychology review , Vol. 19, Issue 8, pp. 935-950.
  62. ↑ Film on YouTube
  63. ^ US Army website. Retrieved June 26, 2014.
  64. ↑ Website of the Resilience Training Institute ( Memento of the original from July 14, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Retrieved June 26, 2014. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.resiliencetraininginstitute.com
  65. ↑ csf2.army.mil ( Memento of the original dated November 11, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / csf2.army.mil
  66. ↑ Strengthening mental resources among UN observers for the prevention of mission-related mental disorders - a pilot study .
  67. ^ GH Elder: 25th Anniversary Edition of Children of the Great Depression. Westview Press, Boulder CO 1999, ISBN 0-8133-3342-3 , p. 26.
  68. ↑ That was the title of his lecture at the symposium Fit for the Catastrophe? The resilience discourse in politics and aid. medico international foundation, Frankfurt, June 6, 2015.
  69. ↑ Thomas Gebauer: Current concepts for crisis management stabilize precisely those conditions that cause crises. In: medico international : circular 02/15.
  70. ↑ Usche Merk: From trauma to resilience . On medico.de .
  71. ↑ Thomas Gebauer: Current concepts for crisis management stabilize precisely those conditions that cause crises. In: medico international: circular. 02/15.
  72. ↑ Ulrich Schnabel: The strength from the crisis . In: Die Zeit , No. 45/2015.
  73. ↑ See Protection Commission at the Federal Ministry of the Interior : Third Hazard Report. (= Civil defense research. New series. Volume 59). Federal Office for Civil Protection and Disaster Relief, Bonn 2006.
  74. ↑ Axel Schaffer, Eva Lang , Susanne Hartard (eds.): Systems in crisis in the focus of resilience and sustainability. Metropolis Verlag, Munich 2014.