Chinese state philosophy

As Chinese state philosophy (or state theory ) possible definitions, formation, forms , tasks and goals of the state as well as its institutional, social, ethical and legal conditions and limits with special reference to China are dealt with.

As a sub-area of political philosophy and the concretization of general political science, state theories often address issues that affect several individual sciences at the same time, including: philosophy , theology , political science , law , sociology and economics . Practical philosophy in Western culture has been concerned with the nature of the state at least since Plato. The legitimate origin of the state and its just organization played a major role here. The Axial Age of the ancient civilizations is inconceivable in this context without China, because the history of China gave rise to a multitude of philosophical schools of thought, which also included state philosophies. Early philosophers such as Confucius (孔子), Mozi (墨子) and Laozi (老子) were already concerned with the state and the way of governing.

The most important political schools of thought in China are classified by Gregor Paul as follows:

Aim and purpose
Rulers	Well of the "ruled" or "ruled"	Good for the rulers	Well-being of the rulers and the ruled	Individual wellbeing of everyone
people	Classical Confucianism , Mohism	Legalism , Maoism	Song Confucianism
Institutions	democracy
People and institutions	"Sunyatsenism", New Confucianism		Chinese Communist Party , New Confucianism
"Nature" or " Anarchism "				Daoism

Classic Confucianism

Kong Qiu (孔丘), a philosopher of the 6th and 5th century BC, who later also became known abroad under the Latinization of Confucius (from Chinese Kongfuzi 孔夫子) and whose teachings were to become synonymous there for East Asian culture, lived in a time of the collapse of the old order and warlike turmoil. For this reason, Kong placed the social order and humanism (ren 仁) and justice (yi 義) in the foreground of his considerations. These should already be realized at the lowest level in the family and continue up to the highest state level. Morality was therefore above the law and above the instructions of a ruler. Kong thoroughly respected the hierarchies of ruler over ruled, man over woman, old over young. For this reason, Kong warned against leading the people through administration and guiding them through punishment. Instead, he campaigned for a government through virtue (德) and morality (li 禮).

The school of thought of Confucianism , which goes back to Kong, also included other important philosophers, such as the Confucian Mengzi (孟子), who saw the people at the center of the benevolent work of a ruler. For this reason the ruler did not have a mandate from another ruler, but only through heaven in cooperation with the people. The people are the highest, the ruler the least important in the state. If the ruler acts against humanity and justice, he will lose the mandate of heaven and may be overthrown.

Another Confucian, Dong Zhongshu (董仲舒), defended General Zifan from the 6th century BC, who disregarded the orders of his prince and made peace with a besieged city because he felt sorry for the starving population. Dong relied on a saying by Confucius: “Nothing has priority over humanity.” Finally, among Confucians, Xunzi (荀子) shaped subsequent evaluations of power by emphasizing the idea of justice.

In the Han dynasty (206 BC - 220 AD), once "rebellious" Confucianism found its way into state practice by assuming regulatory functions. In the period that followed, however, the influences of legalism "trimmed back and quasi legalistically relocated" (Roetz).

Mohism

Mo Di (墨翟), later called Mozi (墨子), who lived in the late 5th century , placed justice and the benefit for the people in the foreground of government action as criteria. Since psychological misconduct, such as egoism, appreciation and pleasure, stand against it, the state must inform people about it and motivate them.

Daoism

The school of Daoism , which goes back to Laozi (老子), is considered by today's scientists as a protest ideology against existing conditions. In doing so, it stands radically against previous practices of rule, but also against philosophies of actively improving the state. Rather, he propagated the renunciation of unnecessary influence. In this way, the people will find solutions to problems that correspond to their nature.

Legalism

Legalists viewed human beings as bad. Education cannot improve people. This is only possible through penalties. The Confucian view that humanity should be above the law or above the law of the ruler, was the legalists Han Fei (韓非) as undermining the raison d'etat . He, who, along with Shang Yang (商鞅) is considered to be an important pioneer of legalism, did not consider the state concepts of Confucianism or Mohism nor the utopias of self-regulating order to be practicable. Rather, he developed concepts of totalitarian rule with a catalog of prohibitions, persecution of dissidents, a system of denunciation, draconian punishments and indoctrination for self-sacrifice. In its most extreme form, legalism was practiced when it was formed, the Qin Dynasty , but persisted in subsequent dynasties until 1912. Legalism experienced a renaissance in the terror of the Cultural Revolution of the 1960s and 1970s.

Neoconfucianism

Although Confucianism and legalism were retained as elements in the rulership system after the Qin dynasty, the Song Dynasty (960-1279) saw a synthesis of the initially fundamentally contradicting philosophies of Confucianism and legalism. During this period, the Confucians made practical proposals for social reform by denouncing unequal property relations. Since they also saw the ruler's duty to ensure compliance with the cosmic moral principles, they were of the opinion that only an emperor of outstanding moral character should hold the office of emperor. For this reason the Confucians tried to influence the rulers accordingly.

State concepts of the Taiping movement

The Taiping Uprising (1851–1864) is one of the bloodiest events in recent Chinese history , along with the rule of Mao Zedong and the Second World War . China was in a desolate situation, weakened by the invasion of foreign powers and the opium consumption they promoted in the population. The mystic Hong Xiuquan (洪秀全) combined anti-Manchurian, social revolutionary and religious ideas to establish a "heavenly realm of supreme peace", which he presided over as king. His ideology combined Christian, Taoist, Buddhist and Confucian ideas of equality. Women had a higher rank in Taiping society than in the rest of China and could become civil servants. Hong had private property and social classes abolished, while opium, tobacco and alcohol consumption, as well as polygamy, slavery and prostitution were banned under threat of severe penalties. In the official examinations, the empire renounced the knowledge of the Confucian classics and instead tested knowledge of Christianity.

19th Century Concepts of Democracy

In the wake of China's decline after the invasion of foreign powers and the imperial government's inability to regain strength and modernize the country, Chinese dignitaries, officials and intellectuals within the self-empowerment movement made proposals for reforms that were long overdue. However, the movement failed because of the imperial court's unwillingness to reform. The preliminary climax of the apparent weakening of China was the First Sino-Japanese War , at the end of 1895 of which Japan emerged victorious, to which China had to cede parts of Manchuria and the island province of Taiwan . This process was the key experience for both monarchists around Kang Youwei (康有為) and revolutionary republicans around Sun Yat-sen (孫逸仙) to demand democracy as a stabilizing element of the state. In fact, Kang seemed to be heard by the recently enthroned Emperor Guangxu (光緒), who put Kang's proposals into practice with ever new decrees. After three months of being deprived of power by opponents at court, his reform projects also ended . This fact seemed to confirm Sun Yat-sen's accusation that the monarchy was no longer capable of reform.

Sun Yatsen's Three Principles of the People

With the collapse of the Empire, Sun Yat-sen seemed to have achieved his goal of founding a Republic of China whose state ideology of the Three Principles of the People would strengthen and modernize the country. The concept of the Three Principles of the People developed by Sun should be implemented by his party Kuomintang as an avant-garde and included the elements of 1) building an independent state and civic awareness (often translated as "nationalism", 2) social justice (as "Socialism" translated) and 3) democracy. These national goals were to be achieved in stages in which the population had to be instructed for the goals. Disputes with domestic and foreign restorative forces, particular rulers ("warlords"), with the Communist Party of China founded in 1921, and with internal party opponents in the Kuomintang contributed to the destabilization of the republic, so that no central authority could enforce Sun's ideology. Rudimentary reforms in the sense of Sun after the military unification of China under Chiang Kai-shek in 1928 and, after the Second World War, the constitution of 1946, which only became possible after the restoration of state order, are an exception. After Taiwan's retrocession to China in 1945 and the lost civil war in 1949, the Kuomintang government moved its headquarters to Taipei and achieved Sun's goals, including democratization.

The social democracy

The social democracy, which originally emerged from former monarchist or constitutionalist circles around Liang Qichao and his progress party, remained little influential until the end of the war compared to the ruling party Kuomintang or the Communist Party of China . Their opposition policies were directed against the dominance of the Kuomintang in the state, which for a transitional period of both Sun Yat-sen and Chiang Kai-shek were indispensable for the stabilization of the Republic of China and for the guidance of the citizens about their rights and duties in the state was deemed. The Social Democrats were represented by the National Socialist Party of China (中國國家社會黨), which had nothing in common with the ideas of the National Socialists , but with those of their opponents, the German Social Democrats. Its distinguished chairman Zhang Junmai (張君勱) consequently criticized fascism and communism in equal measure . In 1941, the National Socialist Party of China became a member of the opposition Democratic League of China . In 1946 the party changed its name to "Democratic Socialist Party of China" (中國民主社會黨). In the same year, Zhang Junmai was in charge of the authors of the new constitution of the Republic of China, which, in addition to the constitutional ideal of the Weimar Republic, also introduced modern constitutional ideas. With the polarization between the Kuomintang and the Chinese Communist Party , a large part of the Social Democrats left the Democratic League, while the other part - without maintaining the party structures - was absorbed into the league and became allies of the CP. After the victory of the communist revolution, the Democratic Socialist Party of China moved its headquarters to Taiwan. Since the constitutional organs of the Republic of China continued to exist there, the Young China Party was one of the small parties in the National Assembly and in the Legislative Yuan .

Communist ideas of the state

Under the slogan "New Democracy", Mao Zedong (毛泽东) had tied part of the political forces that were in opposition to the Kuomintang and President Chiang Kai-shek . After the revolution he led won and the People's Republic of China was proclaimed, Mao tolerated their associations as " Eight Democratic Parties and Groups " because they had unconditionally submitted to the Chinese Communist Party . During the crushing of the opposition and the persecution of large sections of the population, democratic centralism was invoked as the organizational form of the parties and the dictatorship of the proletariat . Mao Zedong's conception of the state, part of the world of thought of “ Maoism ”, was based on a Chinese way of Marxism-Leninism , from the leading class of the peasants instead of the industrial workers in the revolutionary transformation and from the permanent, violent exercise of revolution and class struggle. In doing so, Mao accepted that his own law would be suspended and state organs unable to act. After Mao's death and Deng Xiaoping's assumption of power , the state organs and state administration were reactivated. The Chinese Communist Party continued to be a determining factor in government action. A progressive legalization of these framework conditions followed under the party chairmen Hu Yaobang , Zhao Ziyang , Jiang Zemin , Hu Jintao and Xi Jinping .

Newer democratic developments

Wei Jingsheng and other political activists' calls for a democratic system to be introduced in China were met with political persecution of the opposition under Deng Xiaoping . After the Communist Party leadership was seized by liberal currents, after nationwide demonstrations in 1986/87, Communist Party Secretary General Hu Yaobang and, following the Tian'anmen massacre in 1989, his successor Zhao Ziyang, were ousted. Hus and Zhao's successors Jiang Zemin , Hu Jintao and Xi Jinping always used the term “democracy” without connecting the elements of liberalism, freedom of expression and media, freedom of opposition, free party formation or independent candidacies and unhindered elections . In this respect, Chinese scholars like Yu Keping, who approve of more democracy in the People's Republic of China, are often viewed by foreign observers as actors in Chinese propaganda.

The restoration of the constitutional rights of the Republic of China to Taiwan in 1986 created a democracy that would last for decades within a Chinese society. The British crown colony of Hong Kong , on the other hand, received a democratic system from the colonial administration shortly before the retrocession to China, which was restricted again after the cession by the People's Republic of China in 1997.

New Confucianism

A return to Confucian values has been a noticeable phenomenon since the 20th century. The social democrat Zhang Junmai was one of the earliest representatives of New Confucianism in the first half of the 20th century. There is now a fourth generation of New Confucianism, the most famous representative of which is Jiang Qing (蒋庆). His humanistic interpretation of Marxism and the question of the legitimation of political power attracts great attention in the People's Republic of China.

literature

Oliver Aumann: Daoism . In: Gregor Paul (Ed.): State and Society in the History of China, p. 57 ff.
Norbert Campagna: Philosophy . In: Voigt, Handbuch Staat. P. 77 ff.
Cord Eberspächer: The origin of virtue is heaven. Christianity, Chinese tradition and the beliefs of the Taiping Heavenly Realm . In: Gregor Paul State and Society in the History of China, p. 173 ff.
Hans van Ess : Daoism . Beck, Munich, 2016. ISBN 978-3-406-61218-3
Hans van Ess: Confucianism . Beck, Munich, 2016. ISBN 978-3-406-48006-5
Sebastian Heilmann: The political system of the People's Republic of China . Springer, Wiesbaden, 3rd edition 2016. ISBN 978-3-658-07228-5
Peter Nitschke: The process of civilizations: 20 years after Huntington's disease. Analysis for the 21st Century . Frank & Timme, Berlin 2014. ISBN 978-3-86596-512-7
Nele Noesselt: Chinese Politics . Nomos, Baden-Baden, 2016. ISBN 978-3-8252-4533-7
Gregor Paul: Legalism . In: Gregor Paul: State and Society in the History of China, p. 67 ff.
Gregor Paul: Maoism . In: Gregor Paul: State and Society in the History of China, p. 115 ff.
Gregor Paul: Mohism . In: Paul, State and Society in the History of China, p. 51 ff.
Gregor Paul: Categories, characteristics and valuation of Chinese state theories . In: Gregor Paul: State and Society in the History of China, p. 13 ff.
Gregor Paul: Confucius . Herder, Freiburg im Breisgau 2001. ISBN 3-451-05069-2
Gregor Paul: State and Society in the History of China. Theory and reality . Nomos, Badan Baden, 2016, ISBN 978-3-8487-3245-6 .
Wolfgang Ommerborn: Concepts of political rule and the importance of state and social practice in the Neo-Confucianism of the Song-Zei . In: Gregor Paul: State and Society in the History of China, p. 73 ff.
Wolfgang Ommerborn: New Confucian reflections on the political and ideological function of Confucianism for a modern Chinese state . In: Gregor Paul: State and Society in the History of China, p. 135 ff.
Heiner Roetz : Classical Confucianism: Lunyu, Mengzi (Menzius), Xunzi . In: Gregor Paul: State and Society in the History of China, p. 25 ff.
Helwig Schmidt-Glintzer: Mo Ti: From the love of heaven to people . Eugen Diederichs, Munich, 1992, ISBN 978-3-424010-29-9 .
Rüdiger Voigt (Ed.): Handbook State . Springer, Wiesbaden, 2018.
Thomas Weyrauch: China's Democratic Traditions from the 19th Century to the Present in Taiwan . Longtai, Heuchelheim, 2014, ISBN 978-3-938946-24-4 .
Thomas Weyrauch: Democracy in the Chinese Context . In: Paul, State and Society in the History of China, pp. 161 ff.
Thomas Weyrauch: Sanmin Zhuyi - Sun Yatsen's theory of the state . In: Paul, State and Society in the History of China, pp. 103 ff.
Thomas Weyrauch: Taiwan's common color . Longtai, Heuchelheim, 2016. ISBN 978-3-938946-26-8
Yu Keping: Democracy and Rule of Law in China . Brookings, Washington, 2009, ISBN 978-0-81572218-2

Remarks

↑ Campagna, Philosophie, pp. 77 ff.
^ Paul, Categories, Characteristics and Valuation of Chinese State Theories, p. 19.
↑ Roetz, Klassischer Konfuzianismus, pp. 25–49.
↑ Schmidt-Glintzer, Mo Ti, p. 108 f .; Paul, Der Mohismus, p. 51 ff.
↑ Aumann, Der Daoismus, pp. 57 ff., 62.
^ Roetz, Klassischer Konfuzianismus, p. 31; Paul, Der Legalismus, p. 67 ff.
↑ Ommerborn, Concepts of Political Rule and the Significance of State and Social Practice in Neo-Confucianism of the Song Period, pp. 78 ff., 83.
↑ Nitschke, The Process of Civilizations, p. 147 f .; Eberspächer, The Origin of Virtue is Heaven, p. 173 ff.
↑ Weyrauch, Thomas: Chinas democratic traditions, S: 33 ff .; Weyrauch, Sanmin Zhuyi - Sun Yatsens Staatslehre, p. 104 ff.
^ Weyrauch, Thomas: Chinas Democratic Traditions , S:; Weyrauch, Sanmin Zhuyi - Sun Yatsens Staatslehre, p. 108 ff.
↑ Weyrauch, Chinas democratic traditions, pp: 143, 152 ff., 158, 210 ff., 233; Wikipedia engl .: China Democratic Socialist Party https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_Democratic_Socialist_Party .
↑ Heilmann, The political system of the People's Republic of China, pp. 27 ff., 77 ff .; Noesselt, Chinespolitik, pp. 37, 60 ff., 85 ff., 106 ff .; Paul, Der Maoismus, p. 115 ff.
↑ Noesselt, Chinese Politics, pp. 80 ff .; Weyrauch, Chinas Democratic Traditions, p. 406 ff .; Weyrauch, Democracy in Chinese Context, pp. 161 ff .; Yu, Democracy and Rule of Law in China, pp. 11, 22, 31 ff.
↑ Noesselt, Chinese Politics, pp. 80 ff .; Weyrauch, Chinas Democratic Traditions, S: 322 ff., 382 ff., 455 ff .; Weyrauch, Democracy in Chinese Context, pp. 161 ff .; Weyrauch, Taiwan's Common Color, pp. 15, 274 f .; on the current situation in Hong Kong: Protests in Hong Kong 2019/2020 .
^ Ommerborn, New Confucian Reflections on the Political and Ideological Function of Confucianism for a Modern Chinese State, pp. 143 ff .; Noesselt, Chinese Politics, p. 35 f.

[1] Campagna, Philosophie, pp. 77 ff.

[2] Paul, Categories, Characteristics and Valuation of Chinese State Theories, p. 19.

[3] Roetz, Klassischer Konfuzianismus, pp. 25–49.

[4] Schmidt-Glintzer, Mo Ti, p. 108 f .; Paul, Der Mohismus, p. 51 ff.

[5] Aumann, Der Daoismus, pp. 57 ff., 62.

[6] Roetz, Klassischer Konfuzianismus, p. 31; Paul, Der Legalismus, p. 67 ff.

[7] Ommerborn, Concepts of Political Rule and the Significance of State and Social Practice in Neo-Confucianism of the Song Period, pp. 78 ff., 83.

[8] Nitschke, The Process of Civilizations, p. 147 f .; Eberspächer, The Origin of Virtue is Heaven, p. 173 ff.

[9] Weyrauch, Thomas: Chinas democratic traditions, S: 33 ff .; Weyrauch, Sanmin Zhuyi - Sun Yatsens Staatslehre, p. 104 ff.

[10] Weyrauch, Thomas: Chinas Democratic Traditions , S:; Weyrauch, Sanmin Zhuyi - Sun Yatsens Staatslehre, p. 108 ff.

[11] Weyrauch, Chinas democratic traditions, pp: 143, 152 ff., 158, 210 ff., 233; Wikipedia engl .: China Democratic Socialist Party https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_Democratic_Socialist_Party .

[12] Heilmann, The political system of the People's Republic of China, pp. 27 ff., 77 ff .; Noesselt, Chinespolitik, pp. 37, 60 ff., 85 ff., 106 ff .; Paul, Der Maoismus, p. 115 ff.

[13] Noesselt, Chinese Politics, pp. 80 ff .; Weyrauch, Chinas Democratic Traditions, p. 406 ff .; Weyrauch, Democracy in Chinese Context, pp. 161 ff .; Yu, Democracy and Rule of Law in China, pp. 11, 22, 31 ff.

[14] Noesselt, Chinese Politics, pp. 80 ff .; Weyrauch, Chinas Democratic Traditions, S: 322 ff., 382 ff., 455 ff .; Weyrauch, Democracy in Chinese Context, pp. 161 ff .; Weyrauch, Taiwan's Common Color, pp. 15, 274 f .; on the current situation in Hong Kong: Protests in Hong Kong 2019/2020 .

[15] Ommerborn, New Confucian Reflections on the Political and Ideological Function of Confucianism for a Modern Chinese State, pp. 143 ff .; Noesselt, Chinese Politics, p. 35 f.