Fanum Cocidi

Bewcastle
Alternative name	a) Fanum Cocidi b) Fanocodi c) Fanococidi
limes	Britain
section	Line 2 (outpost)
Dating (occupancy)	Hadrianic , 2nd to 4th century AD?
Type	a ) Cohort fort b) Equestrian fort
unit	a) Legio XX (Bauvexillation), b) Legio VI Victrix (Bauvexillation), c) Legio XX Valeria Victrix (Bauvexillation), d) Cohors I Dacorum e) Cohors I Nervana Germanorum ? f) Numerus Exploratorum?
size	approx. 2.9 ha (plateau)
Construction	a) wood and earth fort, b) stone fort
State of preservation	hexagonal fortifications, not visible above ground
place	Bewcastle
Geographical location	55 ° 3 '50.4 "  N , 2 ° 41' 6"  W Coordinates: 55 ° 3 '50.4 "  N , 2 ° 41' 6"  W.
Previous	Banna Fort (southeast)
Upstream	Magnis Castle (southeast)

Coin portrait of Hadrian

The fort plateau seen from the south, lithograph by J. Kell from the 19th century

Ruins of the medieval castle in the NE corner of the fort

Findings plan from 1937, status in the 3rd century AD

View of the valley of the Kirk Beck

Remains of the south-western fort defenses

Silver plates for Cocidius from the principia of the fort

Building inscription of the Legio II Augusta

Building inscription of Legio II and Legio XX

Iupiter Altar of the Cohors I Dacorum

Cocidius Altar of the Cohors I Nerviorum

Building inscription of the temple of Iupiter

Cocidius Altar of Annius Victor

St Cuthbert's Church and the torso of Bewcastle Cross in the southern part of the fort

Fanum Cocidi was a Roman auxiliary fort in the parish of Bewcastle, District Carlisle, County Cumbria, England.

The first fortification that has been archaeologically proven there was built in the middle of the 2nd century at the same time as Hadrian's Wall . Initially designed as an earth and wood structure, it was converted a little later into a stone fort, which had an unusual floor plan for the time. It served to secure the ramparts, was rebuilt and renovated several times and abandoned again in the 4th century. A Roman road, the Maiden Way, connected Bewcastle with the Wallkastell Birdoswald. In the Middle Ages, a castle ( Bewcastle ) and St. Cuthbert's Church were built within the Roman fortress . The fort area and the castle are now under the protection of English Heritage. A free-to-visit exhibition - Bewcastle: Past and Present - explores the history of the frontier and village, wildlife and landscape. It is located in a specially adapted building in the cemetery and is open daily. The information boards on site refer to the fort and the medieval castle.

Surname

The Roman name is not certain for this place. William Camden and John Horsley assumed it was the Apiatorium station ; John Hodgson voted for Banna . However, both theories have now been clearly refuted. Fanum comes from Latin and means "temple" or "shrine". Cocidius was a Romano-British god of war who was also worshiped by the Roman soldiers stationed in Northern Britain. His representations were possibly painted with red paint, so his name could mean “the red one” (Celtic cocc- , Welsh coch ). The ancient place name is only mentioned in the Ravenna cosmography of the 5th century as Fanocodi , between the stations Bowness on Solway ( Maia ) and Brougham ( Brocavum ). In research, this entry is equated with the fort in Bewcastle, since six of the nine previously known Roman altars that come from there are also dedicated to Cocidius. Whether this interpretation is actually correct is only a conjecture that has not yet been confirmed by unequivocal epigraphic findings.

The place name in use today is derived from " búð, booth ". The term comes from Old Norse and means "provisional building". The part of the name "castle" in the place name probably refers to the Roman fort. Even long after they fell into disrepair, the forts remained visible landmarks and were popularly called “ ceaster ”.

location

The camp was located 11 km north of the Birdoswald ( Banna ) wall fort and 26 km from Carlisle ( Luguvalium ). Today it is mostly on the grazing grounds of Demesne Farm. It stood on a plateau sloping slightly to the southwest, which is protected on the east, west and south sides by a 12-meter-high steep edge. In addition, the loop of the Kirk Beck in the south and a swamp in the southwest formed an approach barrier. From the plateau one has a clear view of the river valley of the Kirk Beck, which flows past in the south. In the west the Hall Sike passes the plateau and in the east the Bride Gill. The plateau protruded somewhat into the valley of the Kirk Beck and lies in a natural basin, the north, east and south sides of which are surrounded in a semicircle by a somewhat higher, partly wooded chain of hills. Therefore the view was limited to 1.6 km to the north and south and 3.2 km to the east. Only the view to the west is unobstructed and you can see 3 miles up to the heights at Roadhead. The fort thus dominated a topographical dead end, so to speak. Like the outpost forts of Netherby ( Castra Exploratorum ) and Birrens ( Blatobulgium ) it was about half a day's march north of the wall. It was accessible via a Roman road (Latin: via Puellarum , Old English: Maydengathe ), now known as the Maiden Way, an approximately 32 km long road that connected Kirkby Thore ( Bravoniacum ) with Carvoran on Hadrian's Wall ( Magnae ). It ran first east near the Stanegate to Birdoswald, from there 11 km north to Bewcastle and perhaps even further to Liddesdale. Whether it was always the same road route is still a matter of dispute. They connected the central section of the northern border with the Roman highway network. Collingwood found that the road ran more or less in a straight line towards the fort and crossed Kirk Beck about forty feet east of Byer Cottage. Then she led up the slope to the plateau, directly to the east gate of the camp.

Research history

The Robin Hoods Butts signal station in 1901 was excavated by Francis Haverfield. Smaller excavations in the fort were carried out between 1922 and 1978, during which mainly the positions of some internal buildings were determined. The early history of the camp was summarized by Eric Birley. The excavation, directed by Ian Richmond in 1937, examined the east and south-west walls, the north-west gate, the principia, the praetorium and a barracks block. The bathhouse in the camp's praetentura was partially uncovered between 1949 and 1954, the northwest corner between 1977 and 1978. Paul Austen dug in the north-west corner of the camp from 1977 to 1978 and examined part of the defenses and some inner buildings. The excavation results from 1949, 1954 and 1956 were not published until 1993. Several geophysical surveys were carried out in the summer months of 2000, 2002, 2003 and 2008. In 2012 a march or construction camp was discovered south of the Kirk Beck.

Find spectrum

Nine altars were also found in the vicinity of the fort. Five were dedicated to the Germanic god of war Cocidius and another to his Romanized personification, Mars Cocidius. Only one was dedicated to Mars Belatucadrus, two to Iupiter Optimus Maximus . The most remarkable finds include the votive offerings for the god Cocidius. These are two silver plates measuring 89 × 113 and 57 × 79 cm from the 3rd century, which were found in 1937 in the basement under the flag shrine of the Principia. One depicts the god in a kind of shrine, with a spear in his right hand and a shield in his left hand, while the other depicts only a spear. Inscriptions, Deo Cocidio and D (e) o Coc (i) dịo Av (e) ntinus f (ecit) , were also embossed in both . The plates are now in the Tullie House Museum. They were recovered from the fourth century found layer mixed with artifacts from the third century. Also found were the stone base of an emperor's statue, fragments of two bronze letters, the fragment of an iron thunderbolt from an emperor's statue, seven iron sleeves on oak shafts for the setting up of banners or flags, an iron arrowhead and a bronze shaft fragment. Other Roman objects found near the fort include a well-preserved Sami bowl (form 37) discovered in 1934 and ceramic fragments. The coin finds were made in the course of the excavations of 1937 (a total of 15 pieces, including two illegible ones) and 1977 (nine pieces), as well as a further six pieces from the excavations between 1922 and 1962. Of the 28 datable coins, six were minted during the time of the last emperors of the Gallic Empire ( Imperium Galliarum ), Tetricus I and Tetricus II , plus four others from the middle of the 3rd century. The final coin dates from the early 4th century and could be an indication that the fort was occupied by the Romans up until this period.

development

Pre-Roman times

The Bewcastle plateau has been inhabited since the Bronze Age. The remains of round huts (stone circles) have been observed near the medieval castle and 800 meters east of Woodhead . The site should have been known long before the Romans and, as the place name suggests, it was the center of the Cocidius cult, which was visited by the local tribes to celebrate religious rites and devotions. Nowhere in Britain has a similar number of dedications to this deity been found.

1st to 2nd century

The Maiden Way ran right past Bewcastle and was arguably one of the few ancient routes to the north that ox carts could take before the Romans entered the area around 79 AD. Perhaps a hill fort once stood here , which was reused for the Roman fort. The place also had a good water supply, building materials such as wood, stones and sand were plentiful in the vicinity. In 122 the Emperor Hadrian ordered a barrier wall to be built in northern Britain, reinforced by watchtowers and forts, from the Tyne to the Solway Firth, to protect the British provinces from the constant incursions of the northern barbarian tribes. Most of the wall was built by soldiers from the three legions stationed in Britain and the Classis Britannica . Five forts (two of which were supposed to additionally secure the tribal area of ​​the allied brigands ) were located as outposts north of Hadrian's Wall to warn in good time of unrest and possible attacks on the wall. During the second century, the greatest threat came from the Novantae and Selgovae tribes who settled in what is now Dumfries and Galloway. The outpost in Bewcastle was supposed to control a natural cut in the terrain or a potential approach to Hadrian's Wall, but probably not a supraregional traffic connection. There is so far no archaeological or written evidence that the Maiden Way continued beyond Bewcastle. It is believed that the Cohors I Aelia Dacorum first built a wood and earth fort (at least one of its gates and the Principia were made of stone from the start). During the occupation of the Antonine Wall it was abandoned in 142, after the abandonment of the wall it was occupied again around 163 and converted into a stone warehouse. Building inscriptions found in Bewcastle indicate that vexillations of all three legions stationed in Britain were involved in either the construction or renovation of buildings in the new fort.

3rd to 4th century

The fortress was therefore rebuilt on a large scale in the late second to early third centuries in order to accommodate an even larger garrison. It is likely that it was occupied with a Cohors milliaria equitata (around 800 to 1000 strong), as in the other outpost camps such as Risingham , High Rochester and Netherby . Richmond's digs found that the original wall on the southwest side had been demolished to make room for more housing. This section of the border was likely to have remained relatively calm until the end of the 3rd century. After that, he came under increasing pressure from a tribal coalition north of the wall, which the Romans referred to as Picts . The fort was burned down and abandoned in 297, but was reoccupied and rebuilt soon after. The final coin is from the year 309. Between 342 and 343 the Picts attacked again and destroyed several forts that existed north of the wall (including Bewcastle). After the concerted incursion of the Picts, Scots and Anglo-Saxons ( barbarico conspiratio ) in 367, it was probably finally destroyed. The Roman order in Britain could not be fully restored until 369. From 410 at the latest, Britain was left to its own devices by the Western Roman government in Ravenna. The abandonment of the fort, however, apparently falls into a much earlier period than the year 367 proposed by Richmond. Its garrison was probably withdrawn as early as 312 under Constantine I. His war against Maxentius in Italy was probably the reason for the march of large contingents of British troops to the continent, which were used to set up a new army, since the Rhine Army was indispensable for border security. The Bewcastle finds also seem to confirm this theory. The fort is also not mentioned in the relevant troop list of the Notitia Dignitatum . An additional indication that it was no longer occupied by regular soldiers in the late 4th century. Little evidence of post-Roman settlement was found.

Post Roman time

Even after the Romans withdrew from Britain, the Maiden Way served as a regional transport and trade route. Now the Anglo-Saxons immigrated to the region around Bewcastle. Presumably they also occupied the castle ruins. Remains of a loom from this time were u. a. found during the excavation of the fort bath. It could have served as a stage stop on the way to the north of the island at this time. The lineup of Bewcastle Cross shows that Bewcastle was of greater importance to them. This early medieval stone cross (its upper part is lost today) is said to stand over the final resting place of Alcfrith , King of the Angles of Deira (655 - 664). Recent findings suggest that it should mark the boundary of the Christianized area. The early Christians quite often took over ancient places of worship in order to rededicate them and use them in their own way. This may also have been the case here and was probably based on Bewcastle's long tradition as a local religious center. It also suggests that the fort was used until the 7th or 8th century. At that time there was probably a royal court or a monastery with a church (maybe both), probably the predecessor of today's St. Cuthbert Church. Such building complexes were u. a. observed in the Stanegate forts of Old Church (Brampton) , Kirkbride and Nether Denton . The most recent geophysical investigations actually revealed traces of an Anglo-Saxon settlement within the Roman fortress. The first written mention of the church comes from an inscription from 1277 (the stone belonging to it was taken from the Roman fort). Around 1092 the Normans built a castle in Bewcastle. A wood and earth structure was probably built first. Its builders apparently reused the Roman moats on the north and east sides. The stone castle was built between 1361 and 1371 by John de Strivelyn, who again used stones from the fort. The northeast corner of the fort was completely demolished for this. For many of the houses in the vicinity, material was later taken from the Roman fortress. The castle was destroyed by Oliver Cromwell's troops in 1641 during the English Civil War.

Fort

The hill above the valley of Kirk Beck was apparently not chosen as a fort site because of its defensible position. It can also be assumed, on the basis of the current state of research, that it was at the end of the Maiden Way; in a way in a dead end and probably in a very dangerous unrest area. It served to accommodate a larger, mobile armed force that was supposed to nip any aggression in the bud and was apparently not intended to take on a purely defensive role.

All that remains of the fort is a few elevations in the ground - a severely mutilated earth wall, about 4 m high - to the west of Demesne Farm, next to the northwest gate and possibly also to the southeast. Traces of ditches can be seen next to the approach road in the northwest. The remains of the ramparts that are still visible date from the early 3rd century. The walls secured a plateau made of glacial sand and gravel with an area of ​​almost 2.9 hectares, which is bordered on each side by gently sloping slopes. The Norman castle ruins are in the northeast of the area. The north-western quarter is built on with the buildings of the Demesne farm (late 17th century). Most of the southern part of the site is occupied by St. Cuthbert's Church and a cemetery. Apparently a Bronze Age or Iron Age defensive work was reused there by the Roman builders. In 2008 earth walls were found on the north wall, which are undoubtedly Roman and had a military purpose. In this annex, livestock such as B. horses or other military equipment.

During the excavations, Richmond could distinguish four construction phases from one another;

• In phase I, the wood-earth fortification was built between 122 and 142 AD, surrounded by a ditch. It had at least one stone gate and internal buildings made of wood or stone and a thermal bath within the walls. The earth wall was reinforced on the enemy side with stone blocks. One of the inscriptions found on site suggests that it was built by the Dacer cohort.

• In phase II the wood and earth fort was leveled and then completely rebuilt in stone. The inner earth ramp was also partly removed to make room for a rampart road ( Via sagularis ). The southern passage of the NW gate was walled up and possibly converted into a guardroom. The praetorium was also rebuilt in stone. According to a building inscription, a vexillation of the Legio VI Victrix - as a garrison or construction team - may have been there at this time .

• In phase III, the last hadrianic interior buildings were demolished during the late 2nd and early 3rd centuries and rebuilt in stone. Apparently new barracks were added at that time as well. These structures were probably destroyed by fire in 297. The inner earth ramp was completely removed to enlarge the storage area.

• Phase IV falls at the end of the 3rd century, the fort was once again extensively redesigned. A new wall was erected on the southwest side and the NW gate removed. It is possible that the north wall was also removed and realigned, so that the area around the demolished NW gate and a barracks block were now outside the fort. The walled area was significantly reduced, which indicates a greatly reduced garrison in the late 3rd and early 4th centuries. Some of the interior buildings have also been redesigned and given new functions. The bathhouse was probably also converted into a barracks. The archaeological evidence suggests that the fort was increasingly neglected after these final renovations.

For a mid-imperial fortification, the stone camp had an atypical, almost hexagonal ground plan, which was largely adapted to the course of the plateau edges. Normally, the Roman forts of this time had a standardized playing card shape that had developed from the temporary marchers. So far there is also no evidence of a previous warehouse in the traditional rectangular shape at this location. Each of the wall sections was a different length. The wall was supported by an inner ramp made of sand and closed off with stones at its base. The camp was also surrounded by at least one ditch as an obstacle to the approach. The best preserved section of the wall is in the southwest, where it follows a natural ridge line. Traces of the external trench were also observed there. The remainder of the fence was destroyed over time by erosion and stone robbery. Intermediate or corner towers have not yet been proven. The fort probably had three access gates in the south, east and northwest (the latter was the main gate). There is no evidence of the existence of a north gate. The north-west gate on the inside had two passages, separated by two pillars ( spina ), but no guard rooms on either side. It was built at the same time as the fort wall.

Interior development

The functional buildings typical of auxiliary troop camps were located inside. In the center these were the commandant's house ( praetorium ), the camp headquarters ( principia ), team barracks ( centuria ), various functional buildings and one or two grain stores ( horrea ). However, so far there is no archaeological evidence of such granaries. The character of the buildings between the Principia and the Praetentura differ somewhat from those in the Retentura, as they do not seem to be so close together and are more diverse in their construction.

The positions of the principia, the praetorium, the bathhouse and two barracks at the northwest corner of the camp are archaeologically secured. The execution of these corresponded to the architectural style of the 2nd century. The Principia, which was badly damaged when it was discovered, measured 21.9 meters from north to south and 30.5 meters from east to west. The praetorium was at least 26.8 meters long from north to south and 23.8 meters from east to west. Here the construction teams had even processed profiled marble slabs. To the west of Richmond behind the Principia, traces of further buildings, probably horse stables ( stabula ) or barracks, were observed.

A bathhouse ( therme / balineum ) - built in Hadrianic times - was located within the walls in the south-eastern part of the fortress. However, part of the reconstruction of its wall structures is based on speculation. The building was of the so-called row type (like the baths of Netherby, Chesters and Carrawburgh) and is an almost identical replica of the bath house of Benwell . Richmond later came across the remains of a hypocaust heater in the churchyard . During the geophysical investigations, a large building was discovered near the NW gate. The building measured about 15 by 10 meters and had six rooms. One chamber in the NW in particular showed very high magnetic values, which may indicate ceramic or other burnt material. This building could also have served as a bathhouse.

The west-east main road of the camp, the Via praetoria , crossed behind the Principia with the north-south main road, the Via principalis . The latter was disturbed by a structure that runs south of Via praetoria first from east to west and then to the south. This could have been a canal or aqueduct that supplied the bathhouse with fresh water. Traces of the Via decumana (starting from the north-west gate) could not be found.

garrison

Fanum Cocidi was probably occupied by regular Roman soldiers from the 2nd to the 4th century. A garrison of up to 1,000 men could be accommodated in the fort. The Dacer cohort was garrisoned there under Hadrian, which cohort was stationed in Bewcastle from the 3rd century onwards is not known or is still controversial. During its existence, it housed auxiliary soldiers ( auxilia ) and legionaries at times. The legions were usually not assigned to garrison service on the border, but usually dispatched special forces to carry out the more demanding construction projects in the forts. The centurion Annius Victor (from which legion is unknown) donated an altar to Cocidius. The names of the tribunes Aurunceius Felicessemus , Quintus Peltrasius Maximus and Aelius Vitalianus are also known from such altars . The inscriptions did not reveal which units they commanded. The fort may also have had a number of scouts ( explorers ). These units were later disbanded because they had actively participated in the 367 Barbarian Conspiracy.

The following units either provided the fort's crew or may have stayed there for a limited time:

Time position	Troop name	description
2nd century AD	Legio secunda Augusta ("the second legion of Augustus")	A total of three inscriptions from this legion have been discovered in Bewcastle so far. She donated one of them together with the Legio XX , with whom she carried out construction work in the fort (see below). It probably dates from the year 126, when Trebius Germanus held the office of governor of Britain. The other is on a Jupiter altar, on which the Cohors I Dacorum is also called.
2nd century AD	Legio sextae Victrix ("the sixth legion, the victorious")	The presence of members of the Legion is attested by a building inscription from the middle of the 2nd century.
2nd century AD	Legio vicesimae Valeria Victrix ("the twentieth Valerian legion, the victorious")	The presence of members of the Legion is attested by the building inscription that was recovered in the cemetery of St. Cuthbert in 1732; it was donated together with the Legio II (now lost).
2nd century AD	Cohors primae Dacorum milliaria peditata (the first cohort of the Dacians, 1000 strong)	The troops were recruited from tribesmen from the Dacia province , whose territory included parts of what is now Romania, Hungary and Serbia. The only inscription from Bewcastle that mentions this auxiliary unit is an altar for the highest Roman state god Iupiter Optimus Maximus , which she donated together with the Legio II Augusta . The unit is also known from numerous inscriptions from the Birdoswald ( Banna ) wall fort from the early 3rd century and from an undated building inscription from Hadrian's Wall in the section between Tower 7b and Mile Fort 8 . A tombstone was found near the outpost fort of High Rochester ( Bremenium ), on which this cohort is also named. The interpretation of the inscription, of which only a mark from the 18th century exists, is controversial. The deceased could also have been a member of the Cohors I Dalmatarum .
3rd century AD?	Cohors primae Nervanae Germanorum equitata ("the first partially mounted cohort of the Germanic Nervii")	In 1772 an altar carved from white sandstone was found in Netherby ( Castra Exploratorum ) , which was dedicated to the Celto-British god Cocidius . The founder was Paternius Maternus , tribune of the nervous cohort, which was originally set up in the Gallia Belgica . It was probably commissioned in the second half of the 3rd century. Due to its geological nature (altars from Netherby were usually made of red sandstone) the historian Eric Birley assumes that it was dragged from Bewcastle to Netherby. Perhaps the Nervier Cohort (or one of its departments) was also stationed in Bewcastle for a period. The altar is now in Netherby Hall.
2nd to 4th century AD?	Numerus Exploratorum (scout / scout)	These special forces also belonged to the auxiliary forces and were recruited from tribes in the border region who were known for their good local knowledge and perseverance in hunting. They were only lightly armed and were mainly used as scouts in enemy reconnaissance. The name and serial number of the reconnaissance troops stationed in Bewcastle are - due to a lack of related findings - unknown to date.

Signal towers

Tumulus at "Robin Hood's Butts", right on the road to Churchingford

In the vicinity of the fort, the remains of three stone watchtowers from Roman times were discovered. They probably served as signal stations through which the crew of the Wallkastell von Birdoswald could be alerted by means of light or smoke signals. Bewcastle was even more at risk than the other outposts, as it stood at the end of a military road while the others were on main supply routes. If the signal stations that maintained contact with the wall were destroyed, the garrison was left on its own. The first signal station was at "Barron's Pike", 1 km east of Bewcastle, from where there was still a direct line of sight to the outpost fort. From Barron's Pike one could see the Gillalees station, from which one could also contact the wall fort of Carvoran . The signal tower of "Gillalees Beacon" stood on a flat hill between Bewcastle and Birdoswald, a third at "Robin Hood's Butts", about 3.2 km southeast of Bewcastle, directly on Maiden Way. He could no longer be seen from the outpost camp, but at this point a direct line of sight to Birdoswald was already possible. Haverfield excavated the foundations of a stone tower there, which was about 6 square meters in size at the base and had walls about 1 meter thick, which were still preserved up to a height of about 1.75 m. It was also surrounded by a ditch.

Marching camp

In 2012 earth walls were discovered south of Kirk Beck, which presumably belonged to a temporary Roman march or construction camp. The rectangular facility is 154 meters from the river bank, measures 124 meters from east to west and 145 meters from north to south and covers an area of ​​2.15 hectares. Traces or remnants of internal buildings are not visible. There are also no gates of the tituli or clavicula type , as is common in such camps. Some gaps in the enclosure can be seen, but they could only have been created as access routes to the enclosure at a later time. From the camp you could see the Maiden Way crossing at Kirk Beck. From there, the road could be followed for about 100 meters to the east. To the south and west of it flows the White Beck, which flows into the Kirk Beck. The Cocidius Altar of a legionary centurion was discovered in the camp between 1863 and 1864 (see also the Garrison section).

Vicus and burial ground

Evidence for a vicus is minimal. Without re-excavation it is also not possible to confirm that the building remains discovered outside the fort in the course of the latest geophysical investigations are all of Roman origin. So far there are no archaeological or epigraphic indications that a burial ground was created around the camp. Presumably the fort was exposed too much, and there was no long-distance traffic connection, often the most important indicator for the development of a vicus . It is possible that there were several cult buildings there, as the name of the fort suggests. It is not known where the Cocidius shrine was located. Only the building of a temple for Iupiter Dolichenus is documented in writing . East and north of the fort, however, the geophysical investigations of 2008 came across foundations of stone buildings, post holes, roads and probably also a lime kiln. Some of these buildings, particularly the ones near the river crossing, are likely of Roman origin. During the investigation in Bewcastle only slight traces of agricultural activity could be found around the fort. The only exception are traces of civil development in an area east of the camp, but their origins are probably medieval and not Roman. The lack of conclusive evidence of the existence of a vicus reinforces the assumption that the site was used purely for military purposes. The indigenous tribal communities that settled in the run-up to the border were mostly particularly hostile towards the Roman occupiers, so it was probably unsuitable for typical Vicani to settle.

See also

• Hadrian's Wall
• Mile fort and watchtowers on Hadrian's Wall

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• N. Pevsner: The Buildings of England: Cumberland and Westmorland, 1967, pp. 66-70.
• Paul Austen: Cumbria and Westmoreland Antiq. And Arch. Soc. Research Series. Bewcastle and Old Penrith: A Roman Outpost Fort and a Frontier Vicus, Vol. 6, 1991, pp. 1-50.
• JF Curwen: Trans. Cumbria & Westmoreland Antiq. & Arch. Soc. Extra edition. Castles and Towers of Cumbria, Westmoreland and Lancs. North of the Sands. Vol. XIII, 1913, pp. 138-141.
• Pete Wilson: Britannia, Vol. 47, Chapter 4, Northern England, Cumbria (1) Bewcastle, 2016.

Remarks

• RIB = Roman inscriptions in Britain

1. ↑ Ravenna No. 155, Gough 1789, p. 200, Bruce 1867, p. 354, Rivet / Smith 1979-1982, p. 363, Birley 1961, p. 233, Green 1992, p. 62.
2. ↑ Bruce 1867, p. 354. Michie 1863, p. 73, Haverfield 1895, p. 428 ff, Taylor / Biggins 2012, p. 87, Lees / Overing 2010, pp. 49-50.
3. ↑ Topping 1987, pp. 298-300.
4. ↑ Silver plates: RIB 986 , RIB 987 , Shotter 1990, pp. 49-50, Taylor / Biggins 2012, p. 82.
5. ↑ Transactions of the Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian & Archaeological Society, No. 22, 1922 pp. 169-185 and No. 38, 1938, pp. 195-237, Bedoyere 1998, p. 125, Taylor / Biggins 2012, p. 81 –83, Lees / Overing 2010, p. 52.
6. ↑ Taylor / Biggins 2012, pp. 87 and 90, Lees / Overing 2010, pp. 47–49.
7. ↑ Jones / Woolliscroft 2001, p 141, Sainsbury / Welfare, pp 39-146, Collingwood, pp 169-182, Transactions of the Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian & Archaeological Society no. 35, 1935 pp 182-205, Society for Promotion of Roman Studies The journal of Roman studies, 'Roman Britain in 1937', No. 28, 1938, pp. 175–176 and Goodburn 1978, p. 421, Bedoyere, 1998, p. 124, Taylor / Biggins 2012, Pp. 82-87.
8. ↑ Taylor / Biggins 2012, p. 83, RIB 985 , RIB 988 , RIB 993
9. ^ RIB 995 , RIB 996
10. ^ RIB 995
11. ^ RIB 995
12. ↑ Bewcastle: RIB 991 , Birdoswald: RIB 1365 , High Rochester: RIB 1289 Hadrian's Wall Section 8: RIB 1365 , RIB 1392 .
13. ^ RIB 966
14. ↑ Topping 1987, pp. 298-300, Bedoyere, 1998, p. 123, Taylor / Biggins 2012, pp. 83 and 90.
15. ↑ RIB 985 , Wilson 2016, p. 303.
16. ↑ RIB 992 , Bedoyere 1998, p. 124, Lewis 1966, p. 123, Biggins / Taylor 2012, p. 88 and 91.

Web links

• Roman Inscriptions of Britain (English)
• Fanum Cocidi on ROMAN BRITAIN
• Robin Hood's Butts signal station on ROMAN BRITAIN
• Bewcastle on CASTLES FORTS BATTLES
• Fanum Cocidi on PASTSCAPE
• Location of the fort on Vici.org.
• Robin Hood's Butts signal tower location on Vici.org.
• Barron's Pike signal tower location on Vici.org.
• Bewcastle on Tynedale Hadrian's Wall Group
• Bewcastle on Historic England
• The Bewcastle Cross and its Context
• DJATaylor, JA Biggins: 2012, 'A Geophysical Survey at the Roman Fort at Bewcastle