Birdoswald Castle

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Birdoswald Castle
Alternative name Banna
limes Britain
section Hadrian's Wall
Dating (occupancy) Hadrianic ,
2nd to early 5th centuries AD?
Type Equestrian and cohort fort
unit a) Legio XX Valeria Victrix (building vexillation ),
b) Legio VI Victrix (building vexillation ),
c) Cohors I Tungrorum milliaria ,
d) Cohors I Thracum ,
e) Cohors I Aelia Dacorum ,
f) Venatores Banniensis
size Area: 177 × 122 meters 2.1 ha
Construction a) wood and earth fort,
b) stone fort
State of preservation square floor plan with rounded corners,
barriers almost completely visible,
granary completely and parade hall partly. visible and preserved
place Waterhead / Birdoswald
Geographical location 54 ° 59 '21.8 "  N , 2 ° 36' 8.3"  W Coordinates: 54 ° 59 '21.8 "  N , 2 ° 36' 8.3"  W. hf
Previous Magnis Castle (east)
Subsequently Camboglanna Fort (west)
Upstream Fanum Cocidi Fort (outpost) (northwest)
Fortresses North Great Britain.png
Coin portrait of Hadrian
Reconstruction of the fort around AD 2oo
Philip Corke

Link to the picture
(please note copyrights )

Aerial view of the Birdoswald archaeological park
Webaviation

Link to the picture
(please note copyrights )

Findings sketch of the fort
View from the top of the steep slope of the Irthing river bend
Northwest corner
Foundation walls of the basilica
Reconstruction of the west gate
Remains of the east gate
South flank tower of the east gate
Arched side pillar at the east gate shortly after it was uncovered, engraving by John Storey, 1855
Window arch from the east gate
Interval tower on the east wall
Remains of the south gate
Attempted reconstruction of the south gate by John Storey, 1855
Remnants of the south wall
Southeast corner
Remains of the northern horreum
Detailed view of the southern horreum
Reconstruction of the double horreum (2nd century AD)
Reconstruction of the early medieval hall above the northern granary
Hadrian's Wall near Birdoswald
Ceramic finds from Birdoswald
Statue of Fortuna found in the praetorium of the camp
17th century farmhouse (today Birdoswald visitor center and museum)

Banna was a Roman fort of the auxiliary troops in the north-west of England , County Cumbria , District Carlisle , Parish Waterhead, district Birdoswald-Farm.

The camp belonged to the fortress chain of Hadrian's Wall ( per lineam valli ) consisting of a total of 16 forts and secured its western section. Initially just a simple wood-earth fortification, it was later converted into a stone warehouse, which was probably used by the Roman military from the 2nd to the 5th century AD. It is believed that a British warlord built the castle into his residence in the 6th century. Birdoswald had thus once again become an important fortress in Northern Britain and hindered the further expansion of the Saxons from Bernica to the west. Today it is one of the best preserved fortifications and is the only one where it could be proven beyond doubt that it was inhabited until the early Middle Ages.

Surname

The Roman place name is still controversial among experts. In the ancient sources, the location in question is referred to as either Banna or Camboglanna . Most historians prefer the former. Banna comes from the Celtic and can mean “peak”, “horn”, “spur” or “tongue” and clearly refers to the topographical conspicuousness of the place. This term was usually also used to denote a promontory. In the western Notitia Dignitatum , the Amboglanna fort appears to be the stationing place of the first Dacian cohort . In the cosmography of the geographer of Ravenna , Banna is given as a place between Esica (Great Chesters) and Uxelludamo ( Stanwix ). From the archaeological excavations one knows beyond doubt that there - apart from Carvoran on Stanegate - there were two fortifications. Unfortunately, cosmography does not give any further clues as to which of the two was meant by Banna . Even when it comes to the entry in the Notitia, researchers do not agree as to whether this refers to the warehouse in Birdoswald or the neighboring Castlesteads. The solution to this question only came a big step closer with the discovery of two antique drinking vessels in Wiltshire ( “Rudge Cup” ) and at Amiens in France ( Amiens patern ). On both of them, presumably “souvenirs” of Roman soldiers formerly stationed in the wall zone, the names of the forts in the western part of the wall are given. This suggests that Castlesteads Camboglanna and Birdoswald was the ancient Banna . A Silvanus altar found in the fort in the middle of the 19th century was donated according to the inscription by the " venatores Bannienses " (see also section Garrison), another important indication that Birdoswald can be addressed as Banna .

location

Banna is the eleventh link in the fortress chain of Hadrian's Wall ( vallum aelium ). The fort area is located in the northeast of Cumbria, about eleven kilometers from the nearest town, Brampton (west) and 1.75 km from Gilsland (east). From Banna his crew had an excellent view of the river valley, the ridge of the Whin Sills in the east, the Stanegate in the south and over the Midgeholme Moss Moor to the outpost fort Bewcastle ( Fanum Cocidi ) in the north. The fortress was on an important Roman highway, the Maiden Way. One of three Roman roads that led to the tribal areas north of the ramparts. It ended in Bewcastle, about seven miles from Birdoswold. Messages with light or smoke signals could be exchanged between the two fortresses with the help of the crews of two watchtowers located on this road. The fortification stands on an 80 meter high, triangular spur above the river Irthing, which rises slightly in steps to the north-east, but in the south-west and east ends in very steep slopes that descend towards the river. The south-east side also consists largely of unstable sand and clay and is also the slope of a bend in the river Irthing. As a result, it continued to wear away over the centuries. Due to the advanced erosion, the ruins of the camp are already dangerously close to the slope (distance approx. 50 meters). The ground level on the south wall of the grain store, near the west gate, is two meters higher than that of the south gate. The earth material was also accumulated there by the centuries of erosion. In the late 2nd century the region belonged to the province of Britannia inferior , from the 4th century to the province of Britannia secunda .

Research history and range of finds

The castle ruins were first described by the antiquarian Reginald Bainbrigg in 1599. His report was included in the Britannia by William Camden . After 1603, Lord William Howard , one of the founding members of the Society of Antiquaries, put on a collection of finds from Birdoswald, which he kept in his ancestral home, Naworth Castle . In the 18th century, John Horsley stayed at the fort and reported that the remains of the walls of the fort buildings were still clearly visible. In 1802, William Hutton visited the ruins on a hike along Hadrian's Wall. A first test excavation was carried out by Thomas Crawhall in 1831, during which the west gate was uncovered by him. In 1850 Henry Norman had more parts of the walls excavated. With Henry Glasford Potter and his brother HW Potter, Norman exposed the south gate and the west side gate in the same year. The first scientific research took place between 1896 and 1898. After the discovery of the wood-earth wall in 1895, Francis Haverfield examined the wall (in particular the section between the wall fort and the mile fort Harrows Scar) in order to document the connections between the various elements of the wall system. He was able to observe the course of the wood-earth wall and the Vallum up to the river Irthing. During this work he also found the remains of a Roman building that had been built over the filled in Vallum - the earliest evidence of the existence of a camp village (vicus) near Birdoswald.

Further investigations followed between 1927 and 1933. In 1929 two buildings were observed in the eastern praetendura . The construction warehouse at the southern tip of the Geländesporn was examined from 1931 to 1933. From 1949 to 1950, employees of the Ministry of Works preserved the walls and gates that had been exposed until then. In 1959 a burial ground was discovered west of the fort. The archaeological history of the fortress was summarized by Eric Birley until 1961 and by Charles Daniels until 1978. You start with the excavations in the middle of the 19th century. Between 1987 and 1992, extensive excavations took place in the garden area south of the farmhouse under the direction of English Heritage . In doing so, u. a. the two granaries, the basilica (found in 1989), the west gate and the dam over the south ditch examined. From 1997-1998 geophysical investigations were carried out on the burial ground and inside the fort. In 2000, the time team of the television station Channel 4 dug some search trenches in the vicus and in the burial ground and reconstructed the process of a Roman cremation on the banks of the Irthing ( experimental archeology ). In the years 1897, 1933 and 2000 excavations were carried out on the site of the civil settlement.

In the praetorium at the east gate, HG Potter came across a seated statue of the goddess Fortuna in the bath wing in 1852 (today in the Tullie House Museum). Around 1895 a gold-plated statuette of Hercules was recovered. A bronze purse with 28 silver coins from Hadrianic times was found in 1949 north of the east gate under the rear ramp of the wall. It was probably lost there when the wood and earth fort was being built. During excavations in 1931 a vessel with another coin hoard was discovered behind the Principia - in one of the crew barracks. It also came from the early reign of Hadrian and was probably deposited here during the occupation of the wood and earth fort. Other found coins discovered in Birdoswald included a. five copper pieces from the time of Trajan and three copies dating to the years after 375. The most notable of these are: six pieces from the time of Antoninus Pius (including a silver coinage), three copper coins from Constantine I and his successor Constantius II. Among them there are also coins with the inscription Fel Temp Reparatio (restoration of happy times). Other coins were discovered between 1987 and 1990, but details about them have not been published. In 2000 the Time Team u. a finger ring, coins and an almost completely preserved cremation grave ( bustum ) discovered. The presence of Anglo-Saxons in the fort is attested by a hairpin with a disc-shaped head from the 8th century, which was discovered during the bracing work on the east wall. Most of these finds are now in Carlisle.

development

In 122, Emperor Hadrian ordered a barrier wall to be built in northern Britain, reinforced by watchtowers and forts, from the Tyne to the Solway Firth, to protect the British provinces from the constant incursions of the Picts from the north. Most of the wall was built by soldiers from the three legions and men of the Classis Britannica stationed in Britain .

2nd century

Before Hadrian's Wall was built, there was a watch and signal tower on the fort plateau - built around the year 100 - which was part of the security system of the Stanegate border. After this work was completed, the Roman strategists changed their plans. Originally, the border troops were in the nearby forts on Stanegate . Instead, the decision was made to build new forts for the troops, advanced further north, which should stand directly against the wall at intervals of about seven Roman miles. Birdoswald was chosen as the location for one of these new fortresses. Before the fort was built, the area was covered with thick forest and a moor. In preparation, the soldiers first had to cut down the trees and drain the marshland. The construction crews were housed in a provisional warehouse fortified with palisades at the southern tip of the terrain spur. Its remains are the earliest evidence of the presence of Roman soldiers in this region. In his moat were u. a. discovered the remains of a leather tent. First a wood-earth warehouse was built, but it was replaced by a stone warehouse before the end of the 2nd century. The main purpose of the Banna garrison was to protect the highway and the rampart bridge over the Irthing, which was about 800 meters east of the fort. For civil border traffic, there were only three border crossings on Hadrian's Wall, these were, in addition to Banna, the Portgate at Onnum and a crossing at Uxelodunum (Stanwix). Hadrian's successor, Antoninus Pius (138–161 AD), later moved the border army further north, in order to have a second barrier wall ( Antoninuswall ) built from the Forth to the mouth of the Clyde. Birdoswald was not abandoned during the occupation of this wall (around 142-160 AD) because of its location on Maiden Way and the securing of the strategically important Irthing Bridge. But it was probably only guarded by a greatly reduced garrison. After the short interlude on Antoninuswall, Birdoswald was full again. Possibly from the Dacer cohort, which was to remain stationed there until the beginning of the 5th century. Due to the long period of peace and the connection to highways, a rapidly expanding civilian settlement soon developed outside the fort walls.

3rd to 4th century

Between 205 and 305 numerous repairs and renovations were carried out on the fort. However, there was no evidence of destruction by enemy action. Under the governorship of Alfenus Senecio (205–208), the two granaries were completely restored. An inscription reports on further renovation work on the east gate in 219. Some of the team barracks were also redesigned, the classic, strip-shaped rooms were replaced by individual chambers, comparable to those in Housesteads and Wallsend. Similar inscriptions have also been found in other camps in Northern Britain. Presumably it was a large-scale renovation and reconstruction program in this region, initiated by Emperor Septimius Severus . In the years that followed, the border was likely to have remained relatively quiet for a long time, presumably until the Probus reign (276–282). This is testified by the high number of consecration altars donated by the Dakerkohort during this time. During this period, however, the border army largely lost its former mobility. In the 3rd century, the vicus also expanded outside the camp, as soldiers were now officially allowed to marry during their active military service. With the expansion of the rampart bridge on the Irthing into a full-fledged road bridge in the early 3rd century, the military road replaced the Stanegate as the most important supply route - and probably also an east-west direct connection - on the rampart, which also considerably increased the importance of Banna as a stage destination. Interestingly, the vicus of the nearby Stanegate Fort Nether Denton , the predecessor of Birdoswald, which was located on the south bank of the Irthing, remained inhabited even after the fort was abandoned during the Antonine period. Perhaps it was largely able to maintain its status as the economic center of this region, which in the past was mainly supported by the garrison of the fortress and the through traffic at Stanegate. The castle in Birdoswald fell into disrepair again in the course of the 3rd century. According to the last inscription that can be dated (297–305), the fortress could even have been abandoned in the late 3rd century and only reoccupied in the early 4th. She reports u. a. from the reconstruction of the commandant's house, "... which was covered with earth and fell into disrepair ..." . Perhaps the Lagerbad and Fabricia came into being at this time. The fort seems to have been occupied by the regular military until the late 4th century.

Post Roman time

After the collapse of the Roman administration and economy in the early 5th century, the population on the northern border must have experienced a radical change in their previous living conditions. The civilian population living on the ramparts fled behind the walls of the forts, which became fortified settlements ( oppida ). Its inhabitants felt that they still belonged to the Roman world and stuck to its traditions.

One of the most surprising discoveries on Hadrian's Wall was that some of its forts were in use well beyond the end of Roman rule. It is very likely that the camp was inhabited by the direct descendants of the Roman soldiers until the 6th century. Birdoswald's chief archaeologist Tony Wilmott suspects that it was used as a residence for a local warlord after the end of Roman rule . Presumably he descended directly from the last camp commandant or another officer of the late Roman garrison and derived his legitimacy as the ruler of this region. It is even possible that the farmers from the area, who had previously supplied the occupation with food due to their tax liability, continued this practice to provide protection and security. The most informative findings about this period were made in the granaries. By 500 at the latest, both had been completely canceled. At the location of the northern granary, a multi-phase wooden hall was then built. The remains of such buildings from the 5th and 6th centuries have been found across Britain. It appears to have been in use until around 520. Today the positions of their pillars are marked by wooden posts. Presumably the fort was abandoned by the last Romano-British residents around 520 . It is possible that a group of Anglo-Saxons stayed there for a longer period in the 8th century (discovery of a hairpin with a disc-shaped end).

Middle Ages to modern times

In the Middle Ages the fort was used as a cattle pen. The west gate was repeatedly rebuilt. The medieval settlement was probably in the northwest corner of the camp. In the 15th century, a small, tower-shaped building was erected next to the west gate. At that time, the border area between England and Scotland was made unsafe by marauders , the so-called " Border Reivers ". They consisted of fired mercenaries and bandits who used the remote region as a base and retreat for raids on farms or travelers. In the 16th century, the west gate was almost completely demolished by the Tweddle clan and a fortified farmhouse ( Bastle House ) was built instead (see also Housesteads ). King James I finally put an end to the activities of the Border Reivers in 1603. After this marked improvement in the security situation, well-known antiquarians began to take an interest in the castle ruins. It was redesigned in the 19th century to a garden landscape in the Victorian style, which should provide the representative framework for the pseudo-medieval farm building (built in 1745, expanded in 1858).

Fort

The preserved and visible remains of the fence enclose the south and east walls and the south and east gates. They cover about half of the west side and the northwest corner of the fort area. The modern road covers most of the north wall, the farmhouse with its gardens and the outbuildings cover the north sector of the former warehouse area. The foundations of the two granaries and a small part of the basilica can still be seen from the interior. The rest is used as pasture.

Several construction phases could be distinguished for the fort. The early fort was built after 112 using the wood and earth technique, but was never fully completed and was finally replaced by a stone structure - before the end of Hadrian's reign (138 AD).

Wood and earth fort

The wood-earth fort was oriented from SE to NW and half protruded over Hadrian's Wall (wood-earth version). In the event of an enemy attack through the three main gates, this allowed the fort's garrison to unfold quickly in front of the wall. The two side gates and the south gate stood south of the wall. Its earth walls rested on 3.5 meter wide stone foundations. Remnants of it could be detected at the SE corner in the early 1930s. As additional finds there could u. a. Pottery from the time of Traian will be recovered. The buildings inside the camp were made of wood. The sewers were also lined with wooden posts and wattle.

Stone fort

The stone camp had the typical playing card shape of that time, a rectangle with rounded corners. It measured approximately 177 × 122 meters and covered an area of ​​nearly 2.14 hectares. Most of the internal buildings are also from the Hadrian era. During an excavation in 1928 it turned out that the moat ( vallum ) describes a wide arc around the south side of the fort. This indicates that the original wood and earth fort was much smaller than the later stone warehouse. During its construction, the old moat was leveled. In the 19th century were found in the castle the remains of a cistern ( cisterna ), was apparently supplied from which the crew with drinking water. It was fed by a spring some 275 meters west of the fort. The supply line consisted of a channel sunk into the ground, which was lined with flat stones and covered on the top with stone slabs. When it was discovered, water was still flowing inside it. A kind of charcoal filter was used to clean the water. The sewage was discharged into the fort ditches via canals lined with stone slabs.

As an obstacle to the approach, the fort was surrounded by two weir ditches ( fossa ).

The existence of an external parade ground ( campus martis ) is confirmed by the discovery of dedicated inscriptions. Its location is still unknown.

Enclosure

With the exception of the northeast corner, the foundations of the fort wall have been almost completely exposed.

It had a width of 1.5 meters, was originally about 4.2 to 4.5 meters - as high as Hadrian's Wall - and consisted of a mortared quarry stone core that was faced on both sides with hewn ashlar stones. The parapet was probably about 30 cm wide battlements, covered at the top with a pair of flat stones that had been cut diagonally at the upper edges. Some specimens of the latter could be recovered in Birdoswald. At the base of the parapet, a strip of stone ran along the outside of the wall, which was supposed to divert rainwater from the wall. A particularly large number of repairs and alterations were found on the east wall. It was replaced by a wood-earth wall in late antiquity. Similar fortifications were also observed by archaeologists in Vindolanda and Vercovicium . In the event of an attack, the soldiers were able to quickly reach the battlements of the wall via the via sagularis , a street that ran around the entire camp.

The wall was provided with a sloping ramp made of earth and clay as a battlement path. Stairs ( ascensi ) were probably also built into it. At a few places on the wall, stone thresholds marked the end of the earth ramp at the via sagularis . The width of the base of the earth ramp must have been around 4.8 meters. Because of the high risk of fire there were u. a. also built in circular stone ovens. Some of them were found north of the west gate. Many of these ovens seem to have been set up during the fort's construction period. Some of the substructures were still three rows high. Clay domes served as cover. During the baking process, the ovens were first heated with a wood fire. When this had subsided, the ashes were removed and the bread was placed in the oven to bake it.

Gates

The camp could be entered through six gates, all of which are still visible except the one in the north. The east and south gates were uncovered in the middle of the 19th century, only the west gate was excavated at the end of the 1980s using the most modern scientific methods at the time. The four main gates ( portae principales ) - to the north, south, west and east - were similar to those of Housesteads, but were not made of massive masonry. They were provided with a double passage, which was separated from one another in the middle by two pillars ( spina ). The east and west gates were not in the center, as in the classic medieval castles, but a little further north. In addition, the main gates were flanked by two square towers about twelve meters high, probably with three floors. Whether they were crowned with battlements or covered with a tiled roof is disputed among experts. Between the towers, above the passage portals, there was either a battlements reinforced with battlements or a guardroom covered with a roof. Towers and guard rooms had arched windows that were either glazed or could be closed with hinged wooden shutters. The portals could be closed with two gate leaves made of oak. The outer facade of the gates could - as in Housesteads - have been decorated with architectural elements, pilasters or statues. So far, only a fragment of a waisted cornice has been found in Birdoswald , which was probably attached above an archway.

The two side gates ( portae quintanae ) were built into an interval tower, had only one passage and were on the east and west side of the raetendura . They were a relic of the early wood-earth fort, the praetendura of which was still north of the wood-earth wall. Through them the southern military road was also led as via quintana through the wood-earth fort. After the stone wall was completed, they were walled up.

East gate

It served as the main gate ( porta praetoria ) and is the best preserved example on Hadrian's Wall. Like its counterpart, it was built directly over the remains of the wood-earth wall and its filled-in moat. The outer side pillar of the northern passage is one of the highest standing examples on the wall. The approach (wedge stone) of the archway can also be seen on it. During the excavations, fragments of the superstructure were also recovered, including several window arches carved from one piece. They served u. a. during the reconstruction of the west gate in Fort Arbeia as a template for its window design. According to a building inscription found near the gate, it was again extensively renovated in the third century. The northern passage was later walled up on both sides and adapted as a workshop or storage room, the walling on the inner portal can still be seen. In the northern flank tower, a furnace with an indefinite function was probably installed.

West gate

Its gate wings could be turned on tenons that were embedded in holes with iron spouts (pivot stones) either in the gate threshold or next to the side pillars. One of the iron spouts can still be seen at the south portal of the west gate. Five surviving voussoirs were probably built into one of the windows of the gate. A small phallic symbol was carved into one. The gate building was renovated in the 3rd century. The southern flank tower was even built from scratch. In the lower part of the south tower, stone blocks of relatively high quality were built. They probably came from a monument or a representative building and had been reused for renovations in the early 3rd century. A gem (possibly from a ring) was found in its foundations . A portrait head was carved into it, probably representing one of the sons of Septimius Severus , Caracalla or Geta. Presumably it comes from a workshop in York ( Eburacum ) and was left there as a ritual building sacrifice. Around 230 its southern passage was walled up. A blacksmith's workshop was then set up in the guardroom of the north tower. The south tower was also used for craft purposes. In the 13th century the northern passage and the floors of the gate building were repaved. Newly hewn stones were used for this, which demonstrably did not come from the structure of the gate. Furthermore, medieval ceramics were found scattered in the passage. The Roman road leading through the gate had turned into a ravine at this time, which indicates a heavy traffic load. At that time, the gate probably served as the main entrance to a medieval settlement. All of this suggests that it was largely preserved, at least until this time.

South gate

The passages were 3.3 meters wide. In late antiquity both passages were blocked. Because of its proximity to the steep slope, they were largely useless anyway. The guard rooms in the flank towers were then used as bakeries. The pivot stones of the gate leaves can still be seen on both sides of the outer pillars.

East side gate

The gate construction was exposed in 1992. It was demolished after the stone version of Hadrian's Wall was completed. The passage was walled up. Your south pillar is still upright in full. A voussoir has been preserved from the stone arch of the passage. After it was blocked, an earth ramp was raised behind it.

Towers

The walls and corners of the fort were additionally reinforced with a square tower attached to the inside. The remains of the NW corner tower can still be seen at the entrance to the show grounds. The latter were rectangular in plan and thus adapted to the rounded corners of the warehouse. The interval towers of the ramparts were very similar to the watchtowers on Hadrian's Wall. Two of these interval towers were discovered north of the east and west gates, two stood on the north wall, and two more were probably also on the south wall. It is unclear whether they were crenellated or covered with tiled roofs. Baking ovens were later installed in all of the interval towers. The tower between the northwest corner and the north gate was partially demolished, then equipped with three round ovens and only used as a bakery. The fort was surrounded by two moats on the outside. Only a few slight indentations are still visible from them.

Interior development

The development plan of the fort is difficult to reconstruct afterwards. Inside, the standard buildings for medieval camps are presumed: in the center a headquarters ( principia ), directly above or near the demolished watchtower 49A. In the west two granaries ( horrea ) and barracks blocks in the north ( centuria ). Only the western half of the praetendura has been excavated . A total of nine buildings were discovered there. They were all oriented from east to west and took up the space between via praetoria and via sagularis . In the north-west corner one came across a total of two team barracks, south of them there was a parade hall. Geophysical investigations showed that there were also crew barracks in the eastern part of the praetendura . However, their floor plans are not known. A building inscription found inside the fortress in 1929 tells of the restoration work carried out on some of the fort buildings by an unknown unit at the turn of the fourth century. It was proof that there was also a commandant's house ( praetorium ) there.

Warehouse streets

The camp roads consisted of a layer of large river pebbles, which were probably brought from the Irthingtal. A 300 mm thick gravel layer was then applied over this. The main street of the camp ( via principalis ) connected the west and east gates. The two side gates were connected by the military road ( via quintana ). The Maiden Way crossed the camp from north to south and formed the via praetoria .

Principia

In the center, a clearly visible knoll marks the location of the largely unexplored camp headquarters and the watchtower 49A below. The area is otherwise significantly lower than the rest of the fort area, as the peat bog that was drained when the wood-earth fort was built was once here. It can be assumed that the camp was equipped with a main building from the start. The back wall was uncovered by Ian Richmond in 1931. When it was discovered, it was still standing twelve rows of stones upright, that was about 2.5 meters. The rest of the building was also relatively well preserved when it was excavated. The foundation walls were buried under rubble and sediment deposits that had got there through the slides of the southern steep slope. The floor plan of the building corresponded to the mid-imperial standard plan of such functional buildings. It consisted of a forecourt, a transverse hall, a sanctuary with flags and administrative rooms. The entrance to the forecourt was at the intersection of via principales and via praetoria . The forecourt was surrounded by a portico . Its pillars were made of wood. A central passage led into a transverse hall that took up the entire width of the building. It consisted of a central nave and two side aisles separated by arcades. The central nave was higher and was illuminated through glazed windows in the walls above the arcades. Behind the basilica was the flag sanctuary ( aedes ) in which the standards of the garrison were set up. The flag shrine was probably separated from the transverse hall by stone barriers decorated with reliefs. A stone fragment, probably part of such a barrier, was later reused as a threshold stone in one of the grain stores. On the flanks of the flag sanctuary stood several chambers that served the staff of the camp administrator ( Cornicularius ) as offices and were used, for example, to pay wages. The standard bearer of the unit ( Signifer ), who acted as paymaster, also performed his service here. In several forts on Hadrian's Wall, a brick cellar was found in the Principias in which the troop coffers were kept. In Birdoswald very clear geophysical traces indicate that this basement room is in the southwest corner of the building. Its walls are likely to have endured remarkably well over the centuries. It is even possible that its barrel vault is still completely intact.

Double horror

The fort's two granaries stood at the west gate. As is known from Roman military chroniclers, the grain was usually stored in the storehouses of the auxiliary troop camps for a year. They were erected between 205 and 208, as reported by a building inscription that was reused as a spoil in a barracks floor in the eastern praetendura . Although this is often used as the date for the construction of the granaries, it has been pointed out several times in research circles that the details of such inscriptions are not as precise as one would generally believe. The texts often exaggerate the actual extent of the work carried out. In this case, built could also mean just renovated. It is more likely that they were built after the return of the border troops from the Antonine Wall in the 160s. Around 350 the southern Horreum was repaired or rebuilt again. In the late 4th century, the North Warehouse was just an unusable ruin. A coin from the year 353 was recovered from its rubble. Apparently its building materials were used for repairs to the southern granary. This was further maintained and a stove built into it. Perhaps it was also used for residential purposes during this time. In the intermediate floor there were rubble and debris as well as ceramic shards from the late 4th century. A rectangular wooden hall was built over the foundations of the north storage facility in the 5th century. When it was also dilapidated, a second copy was erected along with two smaller outbuildings.

Its foundations were very well preserved when they were discovered. In some places the rising masonry was up to 2.5 meters high. The long axes ran from east to west so that they could be better embedded in the slope. They each measured 28.38 × 8.26 meters. The walls were 1.05 meters wide. The wall facing and the quarry stone core were bound in an extremely hard, white mortar. Due to the thickness of the walls and the pilasters, it is believed that the buildings were two stories high. Double floors enabled continuous air circulation to keep the grain dry and protect it from rodents. The floors were initially only supported by wooden pillars, later these were replaced by stone pillars ( pilae ) and continuous stone walls (south storage). A small passage was built into the east wall of the north storage facility. Through it, dogs were let into the false floor to eat the rats and mice that had nested there. In the southern warehouse in particular, the paved floor and on both buildings the substructures of the nine massive side pillars ( pilasters ), all of which are evenly spaced on the southern outer walls, are still very well preserved. There were two additional pillars on the east and west sides. The pilasters carried the roof and supported the side walls. The roofs were tiled. It is estimated that 5300 pieces were needed per roof. Each of them must therefore have weighed around 49 tons. The standard plan for such granaries provided for pillars on both long sides. At Birdoswald, the south side of the building stood on the slope; you needed the pillars there to support them. Presumably they were left out on the north side to save space. Ventilation slots were built in between each pair of pillars. Judging by the grain finds, wheat was stored in one store for baking bread, and in the other barley to feed the horses.

Praetorium

East of the Principia was the residence of the commander and his family. The geophysical investigations carried out there indicate that it went through a multi-phase and therefore very complex building history. In such buildings the living and utility rooms were usually grouped around a central courtyard, as in the perystyle houses in the Mediterranean region. Such houses were also equipped with heating systems and bathrooms. In the bathroom of the commandant's house, one came across a finely crafted seat sculpture of the goddess Fortuna . Excavations under the floors of the building showed that foundation trenches had originally been dug there. The foundations themselves were made of clay and river gravel. They were oriented from north to south. On the outside one could see the approaches of small, square support pillars, as they are typical for Roman warehouses. But the trenches had been filled in again. It was probably originally the intention of the builders to build warehouses here.

basilica

The presence of a rectangular, 43 × 16 meter, three-aisled parade hall ( basilica exercitatoria ) was unusual for an auxiliary camp . Today only the foundations of its south wall can be seen, the rest is covered by the visitor center. To date it is the only building of its kind that has been excavated in an auxiliary troop fort. The exterior walls of the building enclosed a rectangle, although they were not the load-bearing parts of the building. The weight of the main roof was supported by two parallel rows of arcades. The pillar bases stood on continuous foundations that were set in shallow trenches and ran the entire length of the building. The arcades divided the hall into a 7.5 meter wide main aisle, flanked by two 2.5 meter wide side aisles. The pillar bases were 1.32 meters long and 2.3 meters apart, with the exception of the central pairs, which were only 1.9 meters apart. At the western end of the hall there were two small rooms separated by stone walls at both corners. The floor of the hall consisted of stone slabs and gravel that had been piled on a layer of clay. The building resembled the main hall of the Principia, but was many times larger. The interior was illuminated through a row of windows in the upper part of the main nave. The main nave was probably covered by a tile-covered gable roof, the side aisles by sloping pent roofs that reached under the upper aisles . On the north side of the basilica you came across a 6.2 meter wide square, presumably the main entrance to the hall was located here. The only comparable building in Britain was in the Caerleon legionary camp ( Isca Silurum ). It was a little wider but the same length. It is possible that the length of the hall was also dictated by its function. Especially for javelin throwing, as described by Vegetius , which could be carried out in such a building in bad weather in the dry, because this region is still notorious for its bad weather. Therefore, its length must be well beyond the range of such weapons. Experiments at South Shields have shown that an inexperienced person could throw a spear anywhere from 20 to 25 meters. Perhaps Banna served as a training center for those soldiers who were to be deployed on the northern border. Also in Netherby ( Castra Exploratorum ), according to a building inscription found there, there was such a hall ( Basilica Equestris Exercitatorius ), which was primarily used for the training of riders. However, it has not yet been uncovered.

On the south wall of the hall (distance to the hall 60 mm) stood a narrow, long rectangular building, approx. 4.5 meters wide and 43 meters long. It was provided with a flagstone floor. A division into rooms could not be determined. It is difficult to determine its function. Maybe it was a shop ( tabernae ) or a workshop ( fabrica ). Its entrance must have been on the south side and opened up to the main camp street. The medieval tower house was first built on its foundations, followed by the fortified farmhouse in the 16th century. Its remains can still be seen today.

Barracks

The western part of the pratendura was occupied by crew quarters ( centuria ). Two of these team barracks stood north of the parade hall. They were just very badly preserved. Presumably they were divided into ten residential units ( contubernia ), which in turn were divided into a rear bedroom ( papilio ) and a front chamber for the soldiers' equipment ( arma ). Each housing unit was designed to accommodate eight men. The entrances to the crew block in the NE were protected from the weather by a portico . At the western end of the barrack, near the rampart, there was a multi-room accommodation for an officer and his household (head building). It protruded 1.8 meters in front of the team block to the south and ended in a line with the portico. Some of the rooms were equipped with hypocaust heating. Excavations in the eastern half of the praetendura in 1929 and subsequent geophysical investigations showed that it was probably also built with barracks. All four buildings discovered there were divided into contubernia , but no officers' quarters were attached to any of these barracks blocks. The buildings may have been altered by later renovations, but it seems that these barracks are different from those in the western praetendura . One of them, in the eastern praetendura , directly on the via principalis and next to the east gate, was probably rebuilt in the 3rd century. It was then also equipped with underfloor heating and should also have served as an officer's quarters.

latrine

A latrine ( latrivina ) has probably existed since the early phase of the Birdoswald camp. It has not yet been located. The housesteads and Vindolanda latrines are located on the ramparts, at the lowest point of the fort area, so that the wastewater could drain quickly from the fort. The Birdoswald latrine could have been on the east, west or south side. In this case, the sewage would have flowed into a swamp directly in front of the fort wall. On the north side they could have been lowered into the Midgeholme Moss. The western part of the north wall was excavated, but no latrine was found there. It was probably on the northeast corner. There the terrain drops steeply to the south and east.

Hadrian's Wall

The wall near Birdoswald, west of the Irthing River, initially consisted only of wood and sod . The mile fort also consisted of this material, only the watchtowers had been built entirely of stone from the start. One of these towers with the number 49A was built on the later fort site. Shortly after the construction of the wood-earth wall, the south ditch ( vallum ) was relocated further south - almost to the edge of the plateau spur on the river - to make room for a larger camp. After the stone warehouse was completed, Hadrian's Wall was also replaced, probably around 130, by a continuous stone wall. In the course of this, the milestones 49 and 50 and the watchtowers 49B , 50A and 50B were rebuilt. The wood-earth wall connected to the early fort at the east and west gates, as was customary with the cavalry camps on the wall. The line of the stone wall, however, ran about 50 meters further north and formed the north wall of the stone camp. As a result, a two-kilometer section of the foundations of the wood-earth wall west of Birdoswald was preserved. The reasons for laying the wall are unclear. David Woolliscroft suspects that this way the horn and light signals from the guards on the wall could be passed on better. The wall section near Birdoswald is so far the only area where the archaeologists have been able to study both construction variants. To the west of the fort, the south ditch exactly followed the original wood and earth wall and could be crossed on an earth dam at the south gate. He also cuts through the makeshift camp set up for the construction crews. A significant number of pottery shards from the Vallum backfill date from around 150, which suggests that the trench was either leveled or increasingly neglected during the occupation of the Antonine Wall. Today nothing can be seen of the Vallum and Damm.

Wall bridge

About 600 meters east of the camp, at the foot of the steep bank of the Irthing, are the remains of the Willowford Wall Bridge . The stone wall originally ended there and joined the wood-earth wall.

Construction warehouse

In the early 1930s, the remains of a wood-earth fortification were discovered south of the fort. It was a semicircular earth wall with three upstream trenches that secured the southern tip of the terrain spur. A wooden palisade served as a fortification . In it were probably those soldiers who built the wall section near Birdoswald. In the trenches, a few leather coglomerates were found that had been perfectly preserved in the damp earth and in the absence of air. It was the remains of tents ( papilio ) that served as accommodation for the camp residents.

garrison

Building inscription of the Legio VI , found. 1599
Building inscription of the Cohors I Dacorum from the east gate, found. 1852
Altar of Silvanus of Venatores Banniensis

Birdoswald Fort was probably occupied by regular Roman soldiers from around AD 125 to 400. Banna hosted several cohorts of auxiliary troops ( auxilia ) during its existence . Legionaries were usually not assigned to garrison service on the border, but sent special forces for the more demanding construction projects on Hadrian's Wall. In late antiquity, the crews on the Wall were part of the Limitanei . It is possible that the Banna garrison force was on its own decades before the final collapse of Roman rule over Britain. The occupation, or at least part of it, evidently did not leave the fort and was still there in the 5th century.

The following units either provided the crew for the fort or could have stayed there for a limited time:

Time position Troop name description
2nd century AD Legio secunda Augusta ("the second Augustan legion") This legion is mentioned on two inscriptions from Birdoswald, a building inscription that it shares with the Legio VI Victrix and an altar for Iupiter Optimus Maximus, who was donated by the cohors I Aelia Dacorum and a centurion of the Legio II . It is likely that this centurion, Aulius Julius Marcellinus, was either to train the Banna garrison himself or to advise the commanders of the Dacer cohort. Altar stones for Jupiter were usually commissioned by the camp commanders. Marcellinus presumably only temporarily commanded the fort.
2nd century AD Legio sextae Victrix ("the sixth legion, the victorious") The Legion is mentioned on three inscriptions from Birdoswald; On a damaged altar stone for an unknown god who o. E. Building inscription and on a soldier's tombstone.
2nd century AD Cohors prima Tungrorum milliaria ("the first cohort of Tungrians, 1000 strong") The identity of the unit that occupied the wood-earth fort is not known, but the first occupation of the stone fort. It was probably a vexillation of the Tungrian cohort, which is known from building inscriptions from the neighboring fortress Camboglanna (Castlesteads). This one-thousand-man mixed unit of cavalry and infantry ( equitata ) would have been much too big to be completely housed in Birdoswald. Presumably it had been distributed between the two camps. It emerged from the Tungrer tribe who settled in the eastern Belgica , today's Brabant and Hainailt districts, south-east of Brussels. Their main town was Atuatuca , now Tongeren near Maastricht in Belgium. The unit was mentioned on four military degrees at the beginning of the second century. For Britain it is still a garrison of the castles

known where it was until the end of the fourth century. The Tungrians also stood on the Antonine Wall between 139 and 161 .

2nd to 3rd century AD Cohors primae Thracum Civium Romanorum ("the first cohort of the Thracians , Roman citizens") The first written evidence of the presence of a garrison unit is a building inscription from the years between 205 and 208. According to this inscription, the Thracians, together with the Dacian unit (see below), were involved in the restoration of some fort buildings. The unit is believed to have moved here at the beginning of the third century. It was a mixed troop of infantry and cavalry, recruited from the battle-hardened tribes of the province of Thrace (today's Bulgaria). It is possible that the Dacians replaced the Thracian cohort during the construction work.
3rd century to 5th century AD Cohors prima Aelia Dacorum ("the first Aelian cohort of the Dacians ") This cohort was originally recruited from tribesmen from the Roman province of Dacia . Today eastern Romania including south-east Hungary and northern Serbia. The unit should have been erected around 125. Since no epigraphic evidence has yet been found in any other province to confirm that the troops were there, they could have been relocated to Britain immediately after their formation. By then most of his men were likely to have been recruited in Northern Britain. It had probably proven itself in battle during the reign of Hadrian and was allowed to use the emperor's gentile name (Publius Aelius Hadrianus) as an award. The cohort was first stationed in Bewcastle ( Fanum Cocidi ) and was then transferred to Birdoswald. A veteran's tombstone suggests that the unit must have resided in the fort for several generations. Some altars were also found there, on which the sickle-shaped curved sword of the Dacian warriors, the falx , and palm branches are depicted. The names of some commanders of the troops are known of such inscriptions: A building inscription (east gate) dedicated to the legate Modius Julius from the year 219 names the tribune Marcus Claudius Menander , another the tribune Aurelius Iulianus . An altar for the deity Cocidius was donated by the tribune Terentius Valerianus . Two other altars name the tribune Ammonius Victorinus . A Iupiter altar was donated by the tribune Aurelius Verinus . A centurial stone gives the name of a centurion, Decius Saxa.

In the Notitia Dignitatum , the Cohors primae Dacorum is given as the garrison of Castlesteads (" Amboglanna "). Either the Dacer cohort was moved to this camp in the late 4th or early 5th century, for which there is no evidence so far, or it is a copyist error made by the medieval copyists. According to the Notitia, its commanding officer also had the rank of tribune. His immediate superior was the Dux Britanniarum , the commander in chief of the border troops in Northern Britain. Service in the cohort had probably become hereditary in late antiquity. That is, most of the sons from the soldiers' families residing in Banna also joined the army. After the collapse of Roman rule, cut off from the high command and supplies, the remaining troops in the fort probably formed the armed entourage of the last official fort commander, who later became independent as a warlord .

4th century AD Venatores Banniensis ("the hunters of Banna") The presence of this troop in Banna is known from an altar for the forest god Silvanus. For a long time it was believed that the inscription refers to the outpost fort Fanum Cocidi (Bewcastle), also because one has difficulties with the interpretation of the Notitia entry. These men may have been relocated to Birdoswald from neighboring Castlesteads camp sometime during the fourth century. However, this theory is still controversially discussed in research.

Vicus

Geophysical investigations revealed that the fort was surrounded by a civil settlement ( vicus ). It extended over an area that was much larger than the fortress and is still largely unexplored. In 1897 window glass and ceramics were discovered for the first time on the area of ​​the Vicus. In 1933 traces of stone buildings east of the fort were found. A number of hills to the east of the fort can be seen in aerial photographs and also appear on early plans of the site. It could also be debris from various excavations. During excavations in 2000, traces of the settlement were again observed to the west, east and south of the fort. Surprisingly, some of the buildings may also have stood north of Hadrian's Wall. Since the terrain was heavily altered by erosion in the previous centuries, most of the southern vicus was also destroyed by landslides. It is possible that the western part of the settlement also had to be abandoned in Roman times. Today only slight elevations and ditches about one meter high can be seen east of the fort. During the geophysical investigations, numerous wall remains as well as hearths, pits and trenches were discovered there. The buildings went through at least three construction phases. The western part of the settlement seems to have developed more systematically than the eastern part. There was a paved main road there, possibly also a market square and numerous stone buildings. Second century ceramics were also found in the West. There was probably a thermal bath in the south. In the majority, however, traces of simple wooden stand constructions and ceramics from north-western Europe (Friesland) were found. Presumably the fighters of an irregular troop lived here, which apparently had largely retained their traditional lifestyle, perhaps the venatores Banniensis and their relatives. The settlement reached its greatest extent in the 3rd century.

Burial ground

The burial ground of the fort residents is to the west of the civil settlement, on a small hill on the edge of the steep bank of the river. At the end of the 1950s, seven burials were found there that still contained urns, some with remains of bones and iron nails. Including a stone sarcophagus of a child who was buried again. They came from the third or first half of the fourth century. In geophysical investigations in the late 1990s, evidence of other graves was found. However, part of the investigated area in the east had been destroyed by agricultural activity. Eight exploratory trenches were dug by the Time Team in 2000. Three more burials could be excavated. Two of them had been severely disturbed by plows, the third was almost completely salvaged. It was the only surviving cremation that could be excavated from a cemetery on Hadrian's Wall. Soldiers and civilians were buried in the cemetery. The tribune of the Dakerkohort, Aurelius Julianus, lost his little son Aurelius Concordius during his stay in Birdoswald, his tombstone was installed in a building on Birdoswald Farm until 1783.

Hints

Today the fort is looked after by English Heritage. The exhibition in the visitor center deals with life in the Roman Empire, the history of Banna through the centuries and the knowledge gained from archaeological excavations in the 19th and 20th centuries. A reconstruction model of the Roman fortress can also be seen. The excavated and preserved remains of the camp can be viewed in the archaeological park.

See also

literature

  • Eric Birley: Research on Hadrian's Wall. 1961.
  • JC Bruce, I. Richmond: Handbook to Roman Wall with the Cumbrian Coast and outpost forts. 12th edition, 1966.
  • Guy de la Bédoyère : Hadrian's Wall: history and guide. Tempus, 1998, ISBN 0-7524-1407-0 .
  • John Collingwood Bruce: Roman Wall. Harold Hill & Son, 1863, ISBN 0-900463-32-5 .
  • John Collingwood Bruce: The Roman Wall: A Description of the Mural Barrier of the North of England. 3rd edition, Longman, Green, Reader and Dyer, London, Andrew Reid, Newcastle et al. T., 1867.
  • John Collingwood Bruce: The Handbook to the Roman Wall. 8th edition, 1927, p. 49.
  • John Collingwood Bruce: The Handbook to the Roman Wall. 10th edition, 1947, pp. 183-184.
  • Frank Graham, The Roman Wall, Comprehensive History and Guide. 1979, ISBN 0-85983-140-X .
  • GDB Jones, DJ Woolliscroft: Hadrian's Wall From the Air, Tempus, Stroud, 2001.
  • Ronald Embleton, Frank Graham: Hadrian's Wall in the Days of the Romans. Newcastle, 1984, pp. 187-192.
  • RG Collingwood, RP Wright: The Roman Inscriptions of Britain. Oxford 1965.
  • A. Rivet, Colin Smith: The place-names of Roman Britain. Batsford 1979, therein: Mark Hassall: Aspects of the Notitia Dignitatum.
  • JA Biggins, DJ Taylor: A Survey of the Roman Fort and Settlement at Birdoswald. Cumbria, Britannia. 30. pp. 91-110.
  • JA Biggins, DJ Taylor: Geophysical Survey of the Vicus at Birdoswald Roman Fort. Cumbria 2004, Britannia 35, pp. 159-178.
  • David Breeze, Brian Dobson, Hadrian's Wall, Penguin, 4th Edition, 2000, pp. 294-295.
  • David Breeze: The Frontiers of Imperial Rome. Pen and Sword Books Ltd., Barnsley 2011.
  • David Breeze: Roman Forts in Britain. Shire Archeology, Oxford 2002.
  • David Devine: The Northwest Frontier of Rome. Pp. 129-130.
  • Tony Wilmott: Birdoswald: Excavations of a Roman Fort on Hadrian's Wall and its Successor Settlements: 1987–1992, English Heritage Archaeological Report 14, Swindon, 1997 ( digitized ).
  • Tony Wilmott, Hilary Cool, Jerry Evans: Excavations at the Hadrian's Wall fort of Birdoswald (Banna), Cumbria: 1996-2000. In: Tony Wilmott (Ed.): Hadrian's Wall: archaeological research by English Heritage 1976-2000. English Heritage, Swindon 2009, ISBN 978-1-848-02158-7 , pp. 203-395 ( digitized version of the entire volume ).
  • Tony Wilmott: Cohors I Aelia Dacorum: a Dacian unit on Hadrian's Wall. Acta Musei Napocensis, 38/1, 2001, pp. 103-122; Wilmott, op cit (1997), 195-196.
  • Tony Wilmott: Birdoswald Roman Fort: 1800 Years on Hadrian's Wall, 2001.
  • Tony Wilmott: Birdoswald Roman Fort. English Heritage, London 2010.
  • J. McIntyre, IA Richmond: Tents of the Roman army and leather from Birdoswald. Transactions of the Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian and Archaeological Society, new series, 1934.
  • JA Biggins, DJA Taylor: A survey of the Roman fort and settlement at Birdoswald, Cumbria. Britannia, No. 30, 1999.
  • JA Biggins, DJA Taylor: Geophysical survey of the vicus at Birdoswald Roman Fort, Cumbria. Britannia, No. 35, 2004.
  • R. Cramp: Anglo-Saxon pin from Birdoswald. Transactions of the Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian and Archaeological Society, new series, No. 64, 1964.
  • JM Todd, The Lanercost Cartulary (Cumbria County Record Office MS DZ / 1), Surtees Society, No. 203, Durham, 1997, No. I.10 and II.168.
  • JE Prescott: The Registry of the Priory of Wetherhal, Kendal, 1897, No. 125, 127, 128.
  • T. Graham: The Lanercost foundation charter, Part II. Transactions of the Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian and Archaeological Society, new series, No. 22, 1922, pp. 24-43.
  • A. Burton: Hadrian's Wall Path. Aurum Press Ltd., London 2010.
  • Duncan B. Campbell: Roman Auxiliary Forts 27BC-AD378. Osprey, Oxford 2009.
  • Nic Fields: Rome's Northern Frontier AD 70-235. Osprey, Oxford 2005.
  • A. Moffat: The Wall. Birlinn Ltd., Edinburgh 2009.
  • D. Shotter: The Roman Frontier in Britain. Carnegie Publishing Ltd, London 1998.
  • J. Waite: To Rule Britannia. The History Press, Stroud 2011.
  • English Heritage: An Archaeological Map of Hadrian's Wall, 1: 25,000 Scale. English Heritage, London 2010.
  • Nick Hodgson: Hadrian's Wall 1999-2009.
  • Wolfgang Moschek: The Roman Limes: a history of culture and mentality. BoD - Books on Demand, 2011.
  • J. Heurgon: Découverte à Amiens d'une patère de bronze émaillée avec une inscription relative au mur d'Hadrien. Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres, 93/2, 1949.
  • J. Heurgon: The Amiens patera. Journal of Roman Studies, No. 41, 1951.

Remarks

  • RIB = Roman inscriptions in Britain
  1. ^ RIB 1905 , Breeze / Dobson 1987, p. 272, Guy de la Bedoyere 1998, p. 103.
  2. ↑ Tony Willmott 2001, p. 16, Guy de la Bedoyere 1998, p. 101.
  3. ↑ Tony Willmott 2001, pp. 19-20, 86 and 74, Eric Birley 1961, p. 203, Guy de la Bedoyere 1998, p. 106., J. C. Bruce 1867, pp. 257-259.
  4. ↑ Notitia Dignitatum Occ. XL 6, Guy de la Bedoyere 1998, pp. 103-104; Tony Willmott 2001, pp. 91-92.
  5. ↑ RIB 1914 , Biggins, Taylor 1999, pp. 91-110 and 2004 pp. 159-177, R. Cramp, 1964, pp. 90-93, JM Todd, 1997, No. I.10 and II.168, JE Prescott 1897, No. 125, 127, 128, Tony Wilmott 1997, pp. 1987–1992 and 2001, p. 19, Guy de la Bedoyere 1998, pp. 104–105, Wolfgang Moschek, 2011, p. 213.
  6. ↑ Tony Willmott 2001, pp. 57-58, JC Bruce 1867, p. 261.
  7. ↑ Tony Willmott 2001, pp. 65-67 and 157, JC Bruce 1867, p. 256.
  8. ↑ Tony Willmott 2001, p. 93
  9. ↑ Tony Willmott 2001, pp. 65, 88, 93 and 137.
  10. ↑ Tony Willmott 2001, p. 93
  11. ↑ Tony Willmott 2001, pp. 61, 74 and 89, Guy de la Bedoyere 1998, pp. 105-106, JC Bruce 1867, p. 257.
  12. ↑ Tony Willmott 2001, p. 93.
  13. ↑ Tony Willmott 2001, p. 59.
  14. ↑ Tony Willmott pp. 68-69
  15. ↑ Tony Willmott 2001, pp. 83-85.
  16. ↑ Tony Willmott 2001, pp. 69-70.
  17. ↑ RIB 1912 , Tony Wilmott, 2001, pp. 71-72 and 2009, pp. 203-387, J. McIntyre, IA Richmond 1934, pp. 62-90, T. Wilmott, 1997, pp. 49-54, Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies Britannia: a journal of Romano-British and kindred studies. No. 19, 1988, pp. 436-437 and No. 20, 1989, pp. 274-275, Guy de la Bedoyere 1998, pp. 103-105.
  18. ↑ Tony Willmott 2001, pp. 72, 89.
  19. ↑ Tony Willmott 2001, pp. 65-67
  20. ↑ Bruce / Richmond 1966, pp. 163-169, Society for Promotion of Roman Studies. The journal of Roman studies. No. 36, 1946, p. 135, Guy de la Bedoyere 1998, p. 102, Tony Willmott 2001, pp. 74 and 82.
  21. ↑ Tony Willmott, 2001, pp. 41-42.
  22. ^ RIB 1916 , RIB 1880
  23. ↑ RIB 1907 , RIB 1916 , RIB 1929c
  24. ^ RIB 1981 , RIB 1909
  25. ^ RIB 1918 , RIB 1909 , RIB 3438
  26. ^ RIB 1872 , RIB 1874 , RIB 1906 , RIB 1914 , RIB 1921 , ND Occ. XL 26.
  27. ^ RIB 1905 , Guy de la Bedoyere 1998, p. 103.
  28. ↑ English Heritage archaeological reports, 1997, Wilmott / Cool / Evans, 2009, Biggins / Taylor, 1999, pp. 91–110 and 2004, pp. 159–178, N. Hodgson 2009, therein: T. Wilmott: Birdoswald - Banna , Pp. 127-131, Peter Salway 1965, The frontier people of Roman Britain. Cambridge classical studies, pp. 96-97, Transactions of the Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian & Archaeological Society, No. 15, p. 184 and No. 34, 1934, p. 130.
  29. ^ RIB 1919 , Eric Birley 1961, Research on Hadrian's Wall. 203, Transactions of the Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian & Archaeological Society. In it: T. Wilmott: The Roman Cremation Cemetery in New Field, Birdoswald. No. 93, 1993, pp. 79-85.

Web links