Maia Castle

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Bowness-on-Solway Fort
Alternative name a) maia ,
b) maize
limes Britain
section Hadrian's Wall
Dating (occupancy) Hadrianic ,
2nd to 4th century AD?
Type a) cohort fort,
b)  replenishment depot ?,
c) fleet station?
unit a) Cohors millaria equitata ?,
b) Classis Britannica ?
size Area: 2.38 hectares
Construction a) wood and earth fort,
b) stone fort
State of preservation square floor plan with rounded corners, not visible above ground
place Bowness-on-Solway
Geographical location 54 ° 57 '11.5 "  N , 3 ° 12' 54"  W Coordinates: 54 ° 57 '11.5 "  N , 3 ° 12' 54"  W.
hf
Previous Congavata Fort (east)
Subsequently Bibra Fort (southwest)
Fortresses North Great Britain.png
Coin portrait of Hadrian
Coastline at Bowness
The main street of Bowness, looking west, its route probably coincides with the via Principalis of the Roman fort
Plan sketch by Henry McLauchlin, around 1857
Diagnosis plan
Findings sketch excavation Mill Field, 1973
Findings sketch intermediate tower NO
Building inscription of the Legio VI
Consecration altar of Sulpicius for Iupiter
Consecration altar of Sulpicius for the Augusti
Consecration altar for the mother goddesses from Port Carlisle
Dedication of Antonianus to the matrons
Roman iron and bronze finds from Bowness

Castle Maia was a Roman auxiliary troops camp on the territory of the municipality ( Parish ) Bowness-on-Solway , District Allerdale , County of Cumbria , England .

It belonged to the chain of fortresses of Hadrian's Wall (per lineam valli) , which consisted of 16 forts , was the second largest on the wall and secured its western end. The site was initially secured by a wood-earth mile fort . When the wall was rebuilt there in stone, it was demolished again and replaced by a larger wood and earth fort, which was also rebuilt in stone at a later date. Initially, it probably also served as a supply port for the western sector of the wall. It should have been occupied by Roman troops until the late 4th century. There were some marching camps that were only used briefly in the vicinity. A larger civil settlement was found outside the fortified wall. The ruins of the fort later formed the core for the development of today's Bowness. The Hadrian's Wall Path , a hiking trail along the wall, starts and ends there.

Surname

The fort is mentioned in three ancient written sources. It appears in the Ravenna cosmography of the geographer of Ravenna (7th century) as "Maia" and "Maio". The second and third written sources are two Roman vessels, the Rudge Cup and the Amiens Skillet , on which it is referred to as "corn". Richmond / Crawford suggested a derivation from the (hypothetical) Celtic Maios . The name probably means "bigger" or "the big one". Rivet / Smith believed that the ancient place name could refer to the height of the coastal cliff. In this context it would be remarkable that Maia is also the name of a Greek deity. She was the daughter of Atlas and Pleione and, in the belief of the ancient Greeks, formed the star circle of the Pleiades together with her six sisters . The units that were stationed in Maia are not yet known. It is possible that the first occupying force came from the east of the empire and named the fortress after this deity.

The name Solway comes from the Nordic sul (column) and vath (ford). The place name in use today also comes from the Nordic language ( bogi-nes , the rounded or arched headland).

location

Maia was the sixteenth link in the fortress chain of Hadrian's Wall (vallum aelium) . It stood on the crest of an approximately 12-meter-high, mainly clay, east-west facing coastal cliff on the north side of the Solway Firth , near the confluence with its southern fjord (Sandpath Fjord). There the coast of Cumbria cuts furthest to the northwest ("Neck of Britain"). From this point one had an excellent view of the Irish Sea , the Solway Firth, the opposite Scottish coast and the coastal plain surrounding the fort (Solway Plains). Only to the south is the view somewhat restricted by a hill south of the rectory. Unlike the mouth of the Tyne in the east, the Solway funnel extends far into the coast there, but is not very deep and can easily be passed on foot at low tide. Road connections existed to the forts of Congavata (Drumburgh) in the east and Kirkbride ( Portus Trucculensis ?) On Stanegate in the southwest. The latter was a little to the west of the route of today's motor road. In the late 2nd century the region belonged to the province of Britannia inferior , from the 4th century to the province of Britannia secunda .

Research history and range of finds

In 1539 John Leland reported the remains of a tower-like building in Bowness. In 1539 the same building was mentioned by an auditor named King, who reported that it stood by the gate of the old rectory. At the end of the 16th century, the antiquarian William Camden reported on remains of Roman walls in the south and west of the fort. Henry McLauchlan carried out surveys among the residents of Bowness on behalf of the Duke of Newcastle in 1858 and estimated the size of the fort to be 2.23 hectares. The first archaeological excavations were carried out on the fort area in 1930 by Eric Birley . In doing so, its southern fence near the parish garden and the west gate were localized and measurements were made on the north-south fence. At the same time it was found that the north wall had been completely destroyed by erosion. In 1955 Charles Daniels carried out some exploratory excavations in the western sector, and 12 years later J. D. Mohamad in Mill Field. The fence was examined there as part of a rescue excavation. In 1973, Timothy Potter (University of Lancaster) carried out another rescue excavation there on behalf of the Ministry of the Environment. The traces of the original wood-earth store were also found. Its southern and western fencing could be observed and the position of the western gate confirmed. In addition, the length of the barriers running from north to south was recorded. The remains of the wall were then filled in again. The excavation by Paul Austen in 1988 determined the line of the east wall of the fort between the post office and the High Bank. As a result, the length of the east-west fence could also be determined.

Ceramics

The ceramic spectrum found in Bowness as a whole was characteristic of the Hadrian-Antonine period. There was mainly pottery from Lezoux (potters: Arkanus approx. 125–150, Quintilianus 125–150, Austus 125–150 and pieces from the Medetus-Ranto group, 100–125). Two fragments from Rheinzabern, from the Antonine era, could also be recovered.

Coins

According to Eric Birley, a total of sixteen coins could be recovered in Bowness-on-Solway. A hoard consisting of "fifteen or more specimens" was discovered in the late 16th or early 17th centuries. It lay under a reused inscription plate. These included a silver coinage (denarius) of Hadrian and Crispina (wife of Commodus ) of 141, two bronze pieces ( sestertius and dupondius ) of the emperors Domitian and Trajan , a sestertius of Antoninus Pius and two from the time of Postumus and Gratian .

Inscriptions

A total of five Roman inscriptions from Bowness are known: two altars, a dedicatory inscription, an inscription of unknown content and an inscription of the Legio VI Victrix .

development

The discovery of older cultural layers and some fireplaces suggests that the fort area was either inhabited since the Neolithic or at the latest from the Bronze Age . The topography and its natural resources made Bowness an attractive place to settle. It was high enough to be safe from storm surges. Because of its proximity to the coast, it was ideally suited to use the salt marshes for cattle breeding and the sea for fishing. To a limited extent, arable farming was also possible there.

In 122, Emperor Hadrian ordered a barrier wall to be built in northern Britain, reinforced by watchtowers and forts, from the Tyne to the Solway Firth, to protect the British provinces from the constant incursions of the Picts from the north. Most of the wall was built by soldiers from the three legions and men of the Classis Britannica stationed in Britain . Maia was probably built at the same time (between 125 and 129) as the Arbeia fort at the eastern end of the ramparts. The antiquarian William Camden observed in 1599 traces of Roman roads and wall coatings. He summed up the need to build a fort and a rampart at this location in the following words:

“At first I was amazed why they built such large fortifications here when you can see that the bay and the inlets stretch for eight miles. But now I understand, because at every low tide the water is so low that border crossers and cattle thieves can easily pass it. "

Camden also came across the remains of a silted-up harbor on his forays into the Bowness area. Due to its exposed location, it probably served the same purpose as its eastern counterpart, namely as a logistics and supply center for the crews in the western sector of the wall and the northwest coast. Later, however, the Kirkbride camp located at the end of the Stanegate could have taken over this function, as it had a well-protected harbor near the mouth of the Wampool into the Irish Sea. Despite the construction of the so-called military road, the most important supply route for the wall remained immediately south of the wall of the Stanegate. The main task of the crew was then the monitoring of shipping traffic on the Solway Firth, the signal or message transmission and the protection of its coast, including the mouths of the two fjords from intruders from the sea or from the north of Britain.

Ceramic finds suggest that the crew was relocated to Antonine Wall for some time in the middle of the second century . The fort may have served as a transshipment port for supplies to the north during this time. His strategically important position, however, speaks in favor of a continuous occupation. In the early 3rd century, Maia was apparently once again extensively renovated, probably in preparation for the campaigns of Septimius Severus and his two sons Caracalla and Geta in the barbarian areas north of the wall. Since the fort no longer appears in the Notitia Dignitatum , it is likely to have been abandoned by the army in the 4th century, probably during the usurpation of Magnus Maximus (383) or shortly afterwards. The military importance of the fort had become obsolete with the departure of the Romans. No related finds have been made from this period. Wooden structures next to the east wall of a barracks at the west gate are likely to have been built by the civilian population of the vicus or the surrounding area, who apparently had taken over the fort from the soldiers. The convenient location at the ford over the Solway was perhaps u. a. an incentive to stay there even without protection from the Roman army. The new residents probably kept the defenses in poor condition or adapted them to their needs. The Roman stone buildings within the camp were used until they became unusable (see also Birdoswald Castle ). The camp was probably abandoned for good during the 5th century. The Solway was now controlled by the minor kingdoms of Rheged and Northumbria . The fort site was probably fallow for several centuries. There are only a few Anglo-Saxon place names in this area. The Anglo-Saxons were particularly interested in the fertile river valleys of the Eden and Irthing and the coastal plain.

The route of the main street of Bowness suggests that the fort walls, especially the east and west gates, stood upright for a long time and thus determined their course. A repopulation of the fort area took place at the earliest from the 12th century. The first written mention of the medieval settlement is known from Holm Cultram Abbey Cartulary from 1225. The fort was almost completely destroyed by stone robbery during this time, as Bowness had to be re-fortified in the Anglo-Scottish conflict during the late 13th century. During a visit to Bowness (around 1780), the antiquarian John Horsley noticed that stones from the fort and the ramparts were to be found everywhere in the structure of the buildings, including that of the Church of St. Michael, which was built in the Norman era.

Fort

Remains of the Roman fortress can no longer be seen today. The defenses, ramparts, gates and the intermediate tower are known from the excavations in 1973 and 1988. Maia went through at least four construction phases during its useful life. Like the early Hadrian's Wall, the original camp was built between the mid and late 120s using the wood and earth technique. Traces of this were found on the northeastern intermediate tower and the west gate (soil deposits and post holes). When the wall was later replaced by a stone wall (around 160), the stone fort was also rebuilt. Like most of the mid-imperial forts, it had a rectangular floor plan with rounded corners (playing card shape). Its longitudinal axis was exactly aligned with the coastline and the wall from west to east (see forts of Housesteads and Great Chesters ). The dimensions of the system were 128 meters from north to south and 186 meters from east to west. With an area of ​​about 2.38 hectares, Maia was the second largest fortress on the Hadrian's Wall after Uxelodunum (Stanwix).

Enclosure

The stone wall was erected directly in front of the 3 meter wide wood and earth wall, the latter could thus be used as a support and battlement. The double-shell wall was between 1.45 and 1.60 meters wide (measurement of the east wall) and stood on a foundation made of several layers of rubble and clay. The wall core also consisted of rubble stones. On the front and back it was faced with roughly cut, red and yellow sandstone blocks. Red clay was used as a binding agent, as there were no large deposits of limestone in this sector of the wall. The north wall has been washed away by the surf over the centuries and plunged into the sea. The southeast corner of the fort can still be recognized today by a slight elevation in the ground, which is delimited by a shallow hollow (the former fort moat). A hill known as "Rampire" or "Rampart Head" marks the position of the eastern fence.

The fort was surrounded by two V-shaped ditches ( pointed ditches ) as an approach obstacle (fossa) . Individual sections of the western and eastern defenses could be examined.

  • Western wall: The berm was 3 meters wide there. The inner trench was 6 meters wide and 2 meters deep. The outer trench in front of the west gate was later filled in and covered with a layer of stones. It was dug again in the 13th century and widened to 15.2 meters.
  • East wall: The berm, 3.5 meters wide, was paved with cobblestones. The inner trench was 2 meters wide and 0.6 meters deep, the outer trench about 4.2–4.6 meters wide and 1.5 meters deep.
  • South wall: A section of the trench at the south-east corner of the fort could be observed when a new house was being built in Church Lane, dimensions: depth 2 meters, width 3 meters.

Gates

The fort could be entered through three gates, one each in the east, west and south. It is not known whether these gates had two passages, as is the case with most of the other examples on Hadrian's Wall. There was probably no north gate as the camp was too close to the edge of the cliff. The south gate seems to have stood on the south access road to the town center, near the south-east corner of the fort. The main street of Bowness follows the course of the former Roman camp road and marks the location of the east and west gates at both ends. The exact position of the west gate of the stone fort is proven by the exposure of part of the guard room of its northern flank tower, immediately north of the main road. The guard room had 80 cm wide walls and was equipped with a stove. The soil was made of clay and gravel. In addition to the flank tower, the excavators also found remains from the wood-earth period of the fort, a 1.90 × 2 meter wooden tower (four post holes, 20 × 20 cm wide, 60 cm deep), the northern flank tower of the west gate. The presumed location of the east gate is known from the excavations in 1988. It must have been east of the former post office, by Severus House.

Towers

The walls of the fort were probably reinforced at each of its corners with a rectangular tower attached to the inside. Of the intermediate towers that are certainly also present several times - placed inside - one was archaeologically proven in the northeast part of the east wall, approx. 30 meters from the assumed position of the east gate. The tower was about five meters square and warped slightly to the northwest. Its side walls could be traced west of the fort wall up to a length of 1.3 meters. Its foundation, made up of rubble and clay, was 1.5 meters thick. The floor consisted of rammed sandstone chippings and cobblestones. The evidence of post holes proved that the stone tower replaced a previous wooden tower. To the south of the tower was a 8.5 cm wide and 2.7 cm deep culvert that drained the seepage water under the wall into the moat. This probably caused the collapse of the south wall of the stone tower, which was then rebuilt. A forge furnace was also found near the tower.

Interior development

Only a few details of the interior are known. The fort probably had the standard buildings for mid-imperial camps: in the center the command building ( principia ) and the house of the camp commandant (praetorium) , one or two granaries ( horrea ) , in the edge areas the horse stables (stabula) , functional building (fabricia) , Crew barracks (centuria) , the camp bath (therme) and possibly latrines (latravina) . After the demolition of the wood-earth wall and the mile fort 80, a layer of white clay was apparently poured into the ground.

The curve of the modern main street west of the T-junction in the center of Bowness probably marks the location of the command building, which was probably also rebuilt in stone. The remains of the building found during the excavations between 1973 and 1976 west of the post office building at Mill Field and east of the Kings Arms Hotel are likely to have been barracks or horse stables - almost entirely made of wood. Their floors were partly made of stone slabs. They were eliminated during the construction of apartment buildings in the 1960s. A 3.45 meter wide building east of the via sagularis could have been a storage facility. Although the buildings have apparently been rebuilt or repaired several times, most recently in the 3rd century, the timber construction was retained in the up and coming. Only the foundations were made of stone. This was probably a consequence of the lack of stone in this region. The storage facility was replaced by a 6.9 meter wide barracks no later than the year 250. The living rooms (contubernium) for the soldiers were separated by wooden walls. The floor was made of tamped clay.

The main street of the camp (via principalis) connected the west and east gates. Along the walls was a paved road 4.74 meters wide that ran around the entire camp (via sagularis) . It was about 4 meters from the fort wall. Remains of her (8 meters wide) could be seen on the western wall. It was narrowed to 4 meters in the early 3rd century to make room for the expansion of the interior or new buildings, as civilians were now living in the camp.

Marching camp

There are also three small temporary marching camps known in the Bowness area. One was in Knockcross, about 2 km east of the Wallkastell. Two more (today overbuilt) were in the southeast, in Brackenrigg, 0.8 km south of Meilenkastell 79 .

Hadrian's Wall

Originally, it was only planned to expand as far as the Uxelodunum (Stanwix) warehouse . A little later, however, the Roman military decided to extend it - as in the case of Segedunum in the east - to the coast near Bowness. After Drumburgh, the wall ran along the ridge of a coastal cliff to Port Carlisle, always heading west. Then he turned northwest and reached Bowness-on-Solway. A section of the wall south of Kirkland House, east of Bowness, is only visible from the slightest surface marks. Hadrian's Wall ended at or shortly after Maia .

During the construction of the auxiliary fort, the mile fort 80 was demolished. Coming from the east of Linden House, the wall reached the fort at the northeast corner. From the northwest corner it probably ran a short distance along the coast towards the west, how far is not exactly known. Much of the wall west of Bowness is believed to have plunged into the sea in earlier centuries as a result of erosion or undercutting of its foundations. The antiquarian Reginald Bainbrigg reported in 1601 that the remains of a wall about a mile west of the Roman fortress were still visible in the water. In 1707, Bishop William Nicolson claimed that the wall continued west for about a quarter of a mile. According to information from some villagers, according to Henry McLauchlin, a large number of stones were dug out of the sand on the beach in the early 19th century, about 230 meters west of the fort. This could be an indication that the wall, as at its eastern end, was built up to the high water mark of the coast. The west coast had been secured with a less elaborately constructed barrier made of palisades and small wooden and earth forts.

Military road

The route of the military road could not be archaeologically confirmed in and around Bowness. Presumably she reached the fort at the east gate. The excavation results suggest that at least in today's center (as via Prinicipalis ) it roughly coincides with the course of the main road extending from east to west.

North ditch

It has not yet been clarified whether the wall was also accompanied by an upstream ditch in this section - probably not, because the proximity to the coast would have made it very susceptible to silting up from tidal and storm surges.

Südgraben

The south ditch (vallum) also ended at Bowness. A section of its south dam is still visible as a 0.5 high bump southwest of Mile Fort 79 . The further course of the Vallum to the west is still known up to a point 150 m west of tower 79A . He then apparently made a sharp turn to the south. Even a geophysical survey in 1991, east of the Roman fortress, could not clarify the course of the Vallum near Bowness. During exploratory excavations in the courtyard of the rectory in 1988, deposits of a greenish, organic substance were found at a depth of 2 meters. Something like this had already been discovered in other parts of the Vallum . But whether this section was actually part of the bottom of the trench remained unclear.

Road safety Bowness-Kirkbride

South of the fort one came across two shallow, parallel Roman ditches. Between them an earth dam ( agger ) was piled up. It probably connected a chain of watchtowers and signal towers along the connecting road from Maia to the camp at Kirkbride. It seems that a palisade was added to the top of the dam .

garrison

Maia must have been occupied by regular Roman soldiers from the middle of the 2nd to the 4th century at the earliest. Legionnaires may also have stayed in the camp temporarily. They were usually not assigned to garrison service at the border, but rather sent as special forces for the more demanding construction projects on Hadrian's Wall. It is not known which units were in Maia . The camp is also no longer mentioned in one of the most important epigraphic sources for the late Roman army, the Notitia Dignitatum , list of troops of the Dux Britanniarum .

Time position Troop name description
2nd century AD Legio sextae Victrix (the sixth legion, the victorious) One of their vexillations was probably stationed there until construction work on the fort was completed, as a building inscription found in or near Bowness in 1739 suggests.
2-4 Century AD Cohors millaria equitata (a 1000-man cohort, partly mounted) Between 251 and 253 the garrison cohort there was apparently commanded by an officer with the rank of tribune named Sulpicius Secundianus. Two consecration altars donated by him (one for Iupiter, the other for the welfare of Augustii Trebonianus Gallus and Volusianus ) were found in Bowness in 1739 and 1871. This could be an indication that his unit could have been an infantry cohort of up to a thousand men, possibly with mounted men in their ranks. Among the finds from the 1973 excavation were fragments of harnesses in the garden of Bowder House and on the south gate (bronze rings). According to Eric Birley, it could have been the cohors II Lingonum (the second cohort of the Lingons ), which according to the Notitia stood in the neighboring fortress of Drumburgh ( Congavata ) in the 4th century . But the camp there was too small for a 500-man cohort.
2-4 Century AD Symmachiarii (irregular) Another possibility would be that fighters from an allied barbarian tribe or a militia from Provençals were also in Bowness. The inscription of a consecration altar to the mother goddesses , seen today in Port Carlisle (Hesket House), names milites . The stone could originally have come from Bowness.
2-4 Century AD Classis Britannica (the British fleet) Whether naval units or ships of the canal fleet were stationed in the port of the fort has not yet been proven due to the lack of relevant finds, but it is probable due to the location and function of the fort.

Vicus

Pavilion at the western end of the Hadrian's Wall Path

To the south, west and east of the fort, especially along the road to Kirkbride, a larger civil settlement ( vicus ) spread out. Its actual extent has not yet been determined. It was probably inhabited until the second half of the 4th century (367?). Today it can still be recognized by a series of low, grass-covered hills in the fields on the south and west sides of the village. A bathhouse (ballineum) was located between two streets, directly opposite today's churchyard. The construction of a sewer southwest of the St. Michael Church yielded some Roman finds, including a golden ligula . Additional suspected remains of the vicus were observed during construction to the east of the fort and southeast of Rampart Head in 1984. An altar for a god unknown by name was donated by a local trader, Antonianus. This suggests that Maia was also a trading hub in the western sector of the wall. In his verse vow, he promises to sanctify his poem with letters of pure gold if his investment turns out to be a decent profit. The last passage of the inscription was apparently inspired by a poem by Virgil . This suggests that the dedicant has a certain level of education .

Burial ground

A burial ground must have existed near the fort or the camp village, as the finding of a tombstone proves. The relief of the tombstone made in Carlisle shows a seated woman feeding a small dog crouching at her feet. In the other hand she holds a pigeon. It is now in the collection of the Tullie House Museum, Carlisle.

See also

literature

  • King: Calendar of State Papers , Domestic, Add. Elizabeth, 1593, p. 349.
  • John Leland: Itenerary , Volume VII, Part I55.
  • William Camden: Britannia, or A Chorographical Description of the Flourishing Kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland, 1586 , translated from the 1607 Latin edition by Richard Gough, London, 1789.
  • John Collingwood Bruce: Roman Wall , Harold Hill & Son, 1863, ISBN 0-900463-32-5
  • J. Collingwood-Bruce: Handbook to the Roman Wall , 1957, pp. 222-225.
  • Eric Birley: Transactions of the Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian and Archaeological Society. Three note on Roman Cumberland : Bewcastle, Bowness on Solway, Vol. 31, 1931.
  • Charles Daniels: Transactions of the Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian and Archaeological Society. Excavations at Bowness on Solway , Vol. 60, 1960.
  • Timothy Potter: Transactions of the Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian and Archaeological Society. Excavations at Bowness on Solway 1973 , Vol. 75, 1975.
  • Robin George Collingwood, RP Wright: The Roman Inscriptions of Britain . Oxford 1965.
  • RG Bruce, I. Richmond: Handbook to Roman Wall , 12th Edition, 1966.
  • Frank Graham: The Roman Wall: comprehensive history and guide , 1979 ISBN 0-85983-140-X .
  • Paul Austen: CEU reports Sites, Site Report, 1988, pp. 68 and 339.
  • David J. Breeze, Brian Dobson: Hadrian's Wall . Penguin, 2000. ISBN 0-14-027182-1 .
  • Philipp Parker: The Empire Stops Here: A Journey Along the Frontiers of the Roman World . Pimlico, 2010. ISBN 1-84595-003-8 .
  • Ian Archibald Richmond , OGS Crawford: The British Section of the Ravenna Cosmography. Archaeologia No. 93 , 2011.
  • Paul Austen et al. a .: Excavations at the Hadrian's Wall fort of Bowness-on-Solway (Maia), Cumbria: 1988. In: Tony Wilmott (Ed.): Hadrian's Wall: archaeological research by English Heritage 1976-2000. English Heritage, Swindon 2009, ISBN 978-1-84802-158-7 , pp. 396-409 ( digitized version of the entire volume ).
  • David Shotter: Roman Coins from North-West England . Lancaster 1990, p. 52.
  • Albert Rivet, Colin Smith: The place-names of Roman Britain . 1979, pp. 408-409.
  • JD Mohamed: Council for British Archeology Group 3: Archaeological newsbulletin for Northumberland, Cumberland and Westmorland . No. 12, 1971, p. 17.
  • Sheppard Frere: Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies Britannia: a journal of Romano-British and kindred studies. No. 20, 1989 , pp. 275-276.
  • Richard Bellhouse: British archeology monthly. No. 6, March / April 1988 , pp. 8-12.
  • Guy de la Bédoyère: Hadrian's Wall: history and guide , Tempus, 1998, ISBN 0-7524-1407-0 .

Individual evidence

  • RIB = Roman inscriptions in Britain
  1. ↑ Potter 1973, p. 54, Graham 1979, p. 183, Parker 2010 p. 34, Richmond / Crawford 2011, p. 93, Rivet / Smith 1979 p. 408-409, Austen 2009, p. 407.
  2. ↑ Guy de la Bedoyere 1998, pp. 116-117.
  3. ↑ Austen 2009, pp. 396–397
  4. ↑ Potter 1973, Shotter 1990, p. 52, Austen 2009, p. 407, RIB 2060 .
  5. ↑ Birley 1931, pp. 140-145, Bruce / Richmond 1966, pp. 209-210, Potter 1973, p. 40, Austen 2009, pp. 407-408, Horsley: “At BOULNESS,… The village now stands, and the fort has stood, upon a rock or promontory, on the edge of Solway frith; and it is not to be doubted but the church, and what other stone buildings are in the village, have been raised out of its ruins. The station must have supplied them sufficiently with what stones they have used in their houses, most of which are made of clay; so that they have not gone to any distance to fetch stones from the wall,…. "
  6. ↑ Austen 2009, p. 401, de la Bedoyere 1998, pp. 116–117.
  7. ↑ Austen 2009, pp. 397-402.
  8. ↑ Potter 1973, Austen 2009, p. 397
  9. ↑ Austen 2009, pp. 402-405.
  10. ↑ Bruce / Richmond 1966, pp. 209-210, Potter 1973, pp. 39-40, Austen 2009, pp. 397, 398 and 404.
  11. ↑ Bruce / Richmond 1966, pp. 209-211
  12. ↑ RIB 2057 , RIB 2058 , RIB 2062 , RIB 2055 , Bruce / Richmond 1966, pp. 209–211, Potter 1973, p. 51, Austen 2009, p. 398.
  13. ↑ Vergil Eclogae VII, 35-36, Bruce / Richmond 1966, pp. 209-211, Potter 1973, p. 52.
  14. ↑ Cat. No. 145

Web links

Commons : Maia Castle  - Collection of pictures, videos and audio files