Gangsa (gong)

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Before the performance begins, several gangsa are laid out on the floor for the musicians and dancers to choose from. Kalinga ethnic group, in Baranggay Upper Uma in the Lubuagan community .

Gangsa , regionally also gangha, hansa , is a flat gong made of bronze or brass , which is played in the ritual music of several groups belonging to the indigenous people of the Igorot on the Philippine island of Luzon . Between two and seven gangsa of different sizes are often used to accompany dances at village community ceremonies (rice harvest, peace alliances) or at transitional celebrations (weddings). Depending on whether the gong is held hanging freely in the left hand (ensemble tadok or pattang ) and struck with a wooden stick in the right hand or lies on the thighs of the player and is struck with both hands (ensemble tupayya ), different sounds result .

In the Filipino Cordilleras , gangsa are considered to be sacred musical instruments, the style of which is used by the entertainment ensembles with bamboo instruments. In addition, the gongs are particularly valued as a dowry and otherwise as an object of exchange.

Origin and Distribution

Flat gong in the Buddhist monastery Erdene Dsuu in Mongolia

Flat gongs are probably older than the humpback gongs that are more common in Southeast Asia, the ones in the ensemble formations pi phat in Thailand, pin peat in Cambodia, gamelan in Java and Bali and kulintang in the south of the Philippines and with similar names on some other islands in the eastern Malay Archipelago occurrence. Flat gongs do not produce such a clearly defined pitch as humpback gongs. Gangsa in the north and the humpback gongs kulintang in the south are the two opposing gong music traditions of the Philippines. Gongs of both basic forms spread from their supposed origin in China. Around 800 AD, gongs are depicted on reliefs at the Buddhist stupa Borobudur in Java, together with various wind instruments, string instruments and a xylophone , the shape of which corresponds to something between the two types of today's metallophone . In Java these are called saron (the sound bars lie flat on a large wooden box) and gendèr (the sound bars hang on strings over individual resonators made of bamboo tubes). Both types are called gangsa in Bali after the material used . The Indonesian word gangsa ("bronze", "brass") was also transferred to the Filipino flat gongs.

Possibly the oldest use of gongs is the magical protection against evil spirits, which is why they were beaten loudly to prevent the dragon from devouring the moon during a lunar eclipse . Certain Dayak peoples on Borneo wanted to keep the coming storm from blowing their houses away by striking the gong. In Buddhist monasteries, gongs signal the beginning of meetings and initiate rituals. In China, flat gongs used in this way are called lo or luo and in Myanmar they correspond to the striking plate kyizi . In addition to lo , tang and cheng are names of Chinese gongs, some of which came to Korea , Japan and Vietnam together with the gongs . Borneo, the Philippines and Java are also part of the range of flat gongs in Southeast Asia.

In Java, the word gangsa occurs in the composition pandai gangsa in a document dated 862. Pandai means blacksmith in the combination pandai besi ("iron smith"). Gangsa goes back to Sanskrit kansá or kansya in the same meaning "bronze" or "brass". In India, one of the earliest relief images of a gong of an unclear shape comes from the Amaravati stupa (from the 2nd century BC). Later Indian representations show that they are flat gongs. Names derived from kansá in other Indian languages ​​for gongs are kamsatalo kamso ( Pali ), kamsara ( Bengali ), kamsala ( Marathi and Kannada ) as well as peddaganta ( Telugu ) and ghana (Kannada). In the Indian classification of musical instruments, Ghana also refers to the group of idiophones (mostly made of metal in India). In the first centuries AD, large parts of Southeast Asia came under the influence of Indian culture. The Philippines were largely excluded from this.

Regardless of the Indian origin of the word gangsa , the flat gongs, so called on Luzon, are related to the gongs on the Asian mainland beyond the South China Sea , the area of ​​Vietnam and South China, in an old relationship, perhaps dating back to prehistoric times. This is indicated by the similarities in the shape, playing style of the gongs and cultural peculiarities between the indigenous peoples of the Filipino Cordillera and the Montagnards in the central mountainous region of Vietnam. The minority peoples living in stilt houses in the Vietnamese mountains use ensembles with between two and 22 humpback or flat gongs, depending on the occasion. The entirety of their ritual music and dances has been declared an intangible UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Style of play

The gangsa are made of bronze or brass and usually have a diameter of about 30 centimeters and a vertically bent, five centimeter high edge. They produce a diffuse metallic sound with a more or less definable pitch. Each gong is struck individually by a player. The kneeling player hits, knocks or slides his palms over the gong. The standing musician strikes with a wooden mallet on the surface or against the edge, allowing the strike to fade away freely or dampening it with his forearm.

The six main ethnic groups belonging to the Igorot in the Cordilleras of Luzon are the Bontok (Bontoc), Ibaloi, Ifugao , Isneg (also Apayao), Kalinga and Kankanai. Others are called Gaddang, Ilongot and Tinguian. Musical similarities between the various ethnic groups are primarily the ceremonial use of flat gongs, the use of numerous bamboo instruments, including the tubular zither , which the Kalinga and Bontok call kolitong , and an epic singing tradition known as gasumbi and ullalim among the Kalinga . The subjects of gasumbi presented during the harvest season are courtship and headhunting ; the ullalim is about the battles, achievements and magical abilities of a legendary hero. The flat gongs are the most sacred musical instruments of the indigenous peoples in the Filipino Cordilleras. If in the past gongs played exclusively by adult men, it was a peace ceremony between neighboring ethnic groups, a transition ceremony (wedding), a sacrificial ceremony or another important ritual of the community. Usually today gangsa can also be played for exercise purposes and for entertainment, regionally also by women.

Kalinga

Set of six gangsa of the Kalinga. Ethnological Museum in Osaka

Gangsa are still inherited in the family among the Kalinga in Kalinga Province and are an essential part of the national musical culture. The gongs are the only Kalinga musical instruments that they have not made themselves and must be obtained from abroad. The playing style of the ceremonial gangsa ensemble provides the binding musical structures and playing techniques that are adopted by the purely entertainment ensembles with bamboo instruments. Because a gangsa ensemble consists of six gongs of different sizes, the tubular bamboo zither kolitong , for example, has six strings tuned to the pitch of the gongs. The gangsa tones are named from low to high: (1) balbal , (2) kadwa , (3) katlo (“third”), (4) kapat (“fourth”), (5) opop or kalima , (6 ) lalat, kanom or anungos . The two-string bamboo tube zither tambi (corresponding to the type of the Javanese gumbeng ) is played in the ensemble of the same name, which consists of six instruments of different sizes, which have the names for the pitches adopted from the gangsa ensemble. There are also ensembles with six bamboo beaters balingbing and groups of six seated musicians, each of whom strikes a bamboo tube ( patatag ) over their knees like a single xylophone sound plate instead of a flat gong . Similar to the gangsa , six pipes of the panpipe saggeypo are blown. How a gangsa rhythm is adopted by bamboo instruments is shown by musicians with the bamboo rattle pattanggok ( patangguk ), whose tongue protruding on one side they hit against a bamboo pole lying on the ground. The adoption of ceremonial gong playing styles in the private music of the bamboo tube zithers is reminiscent of the music of the humpback gongs ogung among the Batak in northern Sumatra, which can be imitated by the same bamboo tube zithers gondang buluh .

Traditionally, at ceremonies, men dance while they play gangsa or male players accompany the women's dances. Outside of the ceremonial context, all members of the community are allowed to play gangsa . Entertaining events are offered in churches, schools and at festivals with competitions.

When playing tadok or pattang (also patong, pattung, palook ) a moving dancer strikes the gong with a wooden stick, while when playing tuppaya (also toppaya, tuppayya ) the musician kneeling on the floor strikes the gong with his hands. With tadok (named after the verb that means “ gangsa - to play and dance at the same time”), every musician plays a constant, even-numbered rhythm, which Aaron Prior (2011) notes with four beats. The main beat ( bvungog ) is followed by a short beat ( okak ) to dampen the first, and two more beats. The largest gong balbal sets the volume and speed. The second largest gong kadwa sets its main strike on the dampening strike of the balbal . Accordingly, the other gongs follow in decreasing size with their main beat on the second beat of the next larger gong. The harmony of the individual tones ( interlocking ) results in a cyclically ascending tone sequence. The mallet is often cut out of a fresh branch with a knife shortly before use.

The rhythmic structure of the tuppaya playing style is similar, which, like tadok ( pattang ), is uniform in the area of ​​the southern Kalinga. In the tuppaya dance, which is performed alongside ceremonial occasions as a courtship dance, six musicians kneel in a row on the floor. The gong rests with the open side down on the thighs of the players and is tied to the belt so as not to slip off. Each player generates the main beat with the right palm in the middle of the gong, while immediately emitting a light blow with the left hand for dampening and sliding down the left edge of the gong with his hand, which makes the tone quiet and increases it. The next two strikes with the right and left hands are less powerful. This is how the four lowest gongs are played. The second highest gong opop plays muted beats throughout and the highest gong lalat has the freedom to a certain rhythmic improvisation. Six different striking techniques can be distinguished: undamped strike with a clear pitch - undamped strike - muted strike with indefinite pitch - sliding movement - strong strike - diffuse strike. Glenn Ress Stallsmith (2007) gives the order of the gongs for the tuppaya ensemble: (1) taggatag , (2) kaguwa , (3) katlu, (4) kapat, (5) upup and (6) bengbeng . The taggatag player is the most accomplished member of the group. He starts the game, sets the pace and can vary the rhythm during the game. From the different attack techniques, beat sequences and inserts, melody courses resulting from overlaying arise.

Tuppaya generally accompanies the courtship dance salidsid (also salip, seledsed, with the Bago manmanok ), in which a man and a woman dance around each other in a circle. Both have a (red) cloth around their neck or are waving it in their hands. The man embodies a proud rooster who woos the attention of a hen and the woman shows herself with outstretched arms as a hen reacting to it. Following the formal opening of the dance festival, two of the most respected members of the community will perform. After a few minutes, the dancers pass the shawl on to someone of their gender, until gradually the dancers or spectators who are ready are asked to dance.

In the Mangali, a subgroup of the Kalinga in the Tanudan community estimated at 7000 people , three rhythm patterns of the tadok are distinguished among the gangsa- playing dancers , whereby the pitch of the gongs is irrelevant. Each dancer / musician plays either the tokkotok, tabbeleng or sapul rhythm . Of these rhythms, tokkotok is the easiest to play and sapul is the most difficult, which is why most musicians choose the former and only one or two the sapul rhythm. Glenn Ress Stallsmith (2007) notes the tokkotok rhythm with eight beats , of which the first and fourth beat are emphasized. The echo is muted on the remaining six beats. This technique is called upup . In tabbeleng , the first, third, sixth and seventh beat of the eight beats are emphasized, the rest are muted ( up-up ) beats. The specialty of the sapul rhythm is the accentuated fourth beat, which fades out over two beats . The first beat is also emphasized by default, and the sapul player can add rhythmic variations.

Gongs must not be sounded near someone mourning a dead person. In the event of a death, a ceremonial gangsa dance performance planned in the same village has to move to a neighboring village or the mourners will follow the request and move away from the village for some time until they are out of earshot. The gangsa, which is always played on pleasant and happy occasions, does not go together with death ceremonies . In ceremonial dances, the men and women of the Kalinga are traditionally dressed, the men with a red, skimpy hip apron and the women with a red-patterned wrap skirt and a white blouse. In the tadok dance, the men move in a line in a circle or in a serpentine line behind the most experienced musician, who usually plays the sapul rhythm. From time to time the men stop and only move their legs to the rhythm of the music or, bent over, beat their gangsa close to the floor, and then reverse the dance direction. Meanwhile, the women dance their own style ( sagni ) separately, in which they move back and forth or in a circle in straight lines while imitating a bird in flight with outstretched hands rotating around their own axis. They take turns putting their hands on their hips. Occasionally the group of "fluttering" women and gangsa-playing men unite to form a dance formation.

All Kalinga groups are linked by bilateral agreements ( bodong ). Tadok dances are an essential part of the ceremony of the peace agreements ( bodong ), which are held between two of the 47 ethnic groups of the Igorot in order to promote mutual understanding between groups at war in earlier times ( kalinga means "enemy" in the regional language, " Fighters "or" Headhunters "). Bodong (also pudon, vochong, pechen or kalon, depending on the region ) is supposed to ensure peace, trade, unhindered travel and joint law enforcement. In a murder case that occurred between two groups, their representatives of the peace pact meet and negotiate compensation to prevent blood revenge. Except when it is established, the bodong ceremony is held when the representative ( mangdon si bodong ) elected by a group of a peace pact hands over the office to his successor. During the three-day ceremony, personal relationships are forged and refreshed with dances and music. Specifically, in the case of a bodong, the territorial boundaries ( bogis ) of the two groups are defined in a written contract ( pagta ti bodong ). The bodong system defines 47 areas and the corresponding subgroups of the Kalinga.

Tingguian

The Tingguian (also Tinggian, own name Itneg) in the province of Abra in the north of Luzon and the northern Kalinga know the inila-ud ensemble, which consists of three gongs and the cylinder drum tambul . The gongs, namely patpat, keb-ang and sapul , lie on the thighs of the player who strikes them with a stick in the left hand and with the right palm and also dampens the strike with the right hand. Each of the three male players produces their own rhythm.

The pinala-iyan ensemble of the same ethnic groups includes four gongs and a drum tambul struck with two sticks . The first gong ( talagutok ) and the third gong ( saliksik ) lie with the edge down on the floor and are each hit with two sticks. The second gong ( pawwok ) is held upright by the player with the left hand with the edge on the floor and struck with a stick in the middle of the inside. The fourth gong ( pattong ) is either placed on the floor with the opening facing up and struck on the inside, or it is held hanging freely with the left hand and struck on the edge.

Another ensemble called pinalandok consists of six gongs lying on the thighs that are struck with both hands. It corresponds to the ensemble tuppaya of the Kalinga.

Kalanguya

A mumbaki (priest of a baki ritual) of the Ifugao blesses a pig before it is slaughtered at a festival that belongs to the cycle of rice-sowing and rice-harvesting rituals. The drummer on the right is sitting on a long tubular drum.

The Kalanguya live widely distributed in the mountainous regions of the provinces of Pangasinan , Nueva Ecija , Cagayan Valley and in the Cordillera Administrative Region . Your flat gong ensemble is also essential to musical culture and consists of four instruments that are struck with wooden sticks. In the past, the gongs were only allowed to be picked up by selected people on ceremonial occasions in order not to upset the spirit world. The strict rules have given way, the use on festive occasions ( canao ) has remained. The traditional ceremonies associated with animal sacrifice (pigs, cows, or water buffalo) to the spirits and with gong ensembles include several styles of music.

When the healer / necromancer ( mabaki ) blesses the host of the festival, he puts his hands on his shoulders, stamps his feet and mumbles good wishes. Often he asks God Kabunyan (literally "heaven", the son of the creator god of the Igorot) for a rich harvest or for a gain in pigs. The gong music played here is called liya . In the hibat music style , the warriors danced around the severed head of a captured enemy. The head trophy was part of a ritual with which the shaman made contact with the spirits. Since headhunting was banned, he has been content with a tree fern for this ritual.

At large festivals, gangha is played while the mabaki proclaims his blessing on the host. The gangha music style is accompanied by dances and is part of several festivals, including padit . During the eight-day festival padit , several pigs are slaughtered to celebrate a victory over the enemy. The head of the enemy is symbolized today by a fern impaled on a post in the middle of the square with a large barrel of rice wine, around which the assembled crowd dance.

In the past, when a piece of rock slipped off without human intervention, this was taken as an omen and the music played deggendes , with dancers moving backwards.

The Kalanguya no longer perform all of the traditional festivals, but continue to perform the important padit festival. The gong music and dances are mainly performed today at weddings, political gatherings and thanksgiving. If gongs are used outside of traditional ceremonies and with new playing styles, this does not meet with approval from all Kalanguya.

The other musical instruments of the Kalanguya include the flat board zither kuldahing , in which four strings are stretched several centimeters apart over a rectangular wooden board. The strings are plucked with a finger in the style of the gongs. The kuldahing is considered a small version of the gong ensemble. The pakgong is a small bamboo fork, similar to the northeast Indian toka, played by women on their way to work in the fields .

Ifugao

The Ifugao call the gong and an ensemble consisting of three gongs gangha . One of these gongs, called a tobob , is pitched higher than the others and is struck with the left hand while the ball of the right hand glides across the surface. The two larger gongs, hebbiat and qahot , are struck with sticks in the middle of the inside. The diameter of the smaller gongs is between 26 and 39 centimeters, and the larger gongs over 45 centimeters. The approximately right-angled edge is 3.5 to almost 5 centimeters high. Today's bronze gongs weigh 1.5 to 2 kilograms, older specimens weigh around 3 kilograms. In order to match the pitch of the gongs, the Ifugao sometimes glue clay to the inside. Apart from the imported flat gongs, the Ifugao also make all other musical instruments from locally available materials: most of them from bamboo, some drums from wood. Metal is only found in today's jaw harps , which replace the original bamboo frame jaw harps (of the genggong type ).

Old gongs are very rare and newer gongs are often only owned by local councils, from where they are borrowed from families at weddings and other celebrations. Gangha are also played at harvest festivals and for the inauguration of a new house, always to accompany dances. Tayao is a dance performed to mourn a death in the family and to heal the sick. Men and women spread their arms in bird wings and imitate chickens (or eagles), because the chickens have a magical meaning and a mediator role in communicating with the spirits.

Karao

The Karao in Benguet Province have the ensemble itundak or tinebtebak , which consists of seven gongs that are struck with mallets on the center of the inside. The gong is held in the left hand on a V-shaped wooden handle. This is connected to the gong by means of a cord loop that leads through two holes drilled in the edge. The head of the club is padded with fabric. Each player of the differently tuned gongs strikes their own rhythm. The names of the five leading gongs are: (1) salaksak, (2) maleok , (3) maleok, (4) banengbeng, and (5) sitot . As usual, men play the gongs while women move in rows with slow steps and turn in circles. In the tinebtebak dance, the dancers put their left foot forward, put their weight on it and then bend the upper body backwards until they fully strain the right heel.

Isneg

Among the Isneg or Isnag (also Apayaw) in the Apayao province there is an ensemble with two flat gongs hansa and a long, conical tubular drum ludag made from a hollowed-out wooden trunk, which is covered on one side with deer or goat skin and attached to even longer ceremonial drums in Borneo ( Kalimantan Timur ). The drum has to be struck hard with both hands to produce a moderately loud sound and is therefore an instrument used by men, while women hit the gongs with a stick. The ensemble accompanies the dances tabok ( taduk ) and talip , in which unmarried girls, boys and also married men generally dance defined roles. The audience applauds talented dancers. In the turayan ("eagle") dance , two women and a man with outstretched arms imitate an eagle gliding through the air. The bird of prey is considered a tribal bird in the region because of its strength and speed. Gongs are also struck at funeral ceremonies.

Ibaloi

Musical instruments on Filipino postage stamps, next to a long tubular drum sulibao .

The drum ludag corresponds to the 75 centimeter long sulibao drum and the 80 centimeter long, deeper sounding kimbal of the Ibaloi (also Nabaloi) in the Benguet province and the Bontok in the Mountain Province . The drum skin diameter is only around 10 centimeters. The sulibao ensemble of the Ibaloi consists of two gongs, the two drums and a pair of iron bars ( palas ). The kimbal begins with a constant rhythm, followed by the sulibao with a different rhythm. The gongs are held with the left hand on a string with a V-shaped handle so that the top of the gong touches the forearm and hit the center of the bottom with a stick in the right hand. One of the two gongs ( pinsak ) plays a constant beat, while the other gong ( kalsa ) and the iron rods complement a more relaxed rhythm.

The Ibaloi kulimbet ensemble consists of a gong and two long, narrow tubular drums, one of which sounds slightly higher than the other. It is part of a healing ceremony in which a woman and a man dance around a pig that is about to be sacrificed. The woman wields a knife in her right hand which, as soon as blood is seen on it, revives the sick person. After this success, the knife is handed over to the house owner for safekeeping.

Bontok

The Bontok, who settled around the town of the same name , use the palook - or pattung - ensemble with seven gongs ( gangsa ), which men hit on the inside with sticks while they dance. The men play a rhythm or two and swing the gongs alternately up to head height and down to the floor. They move in a row in small steps to the side and sometimes in a serpentine line forwards. Only towards the end do a few women join in and circle the men.

In the city of Bontoc, three types of flat gongs are distinguished in gangsa pacing : The largest and deepest sounding gong, mangokngok, produces a continuous beat with alternating loud and muffled beats. The maerwas plays a rhythm with just such alternating beats , which the matayoktok complements with mostly muted beats.

In the initiation ( sa-eb ) for boys, carried out with a certain similarity to Christian baptism , which begins early in the morning and in which only men take part, the men intone the group chant ayyeng intended for this. A pig, a piglet and several chickens are slaughtered while the elder recites prayers ( kapya ). Accompanied by the chimes of the gong, he dips his finger into a basin with pig's blood and then touches the child's forehead. He calls out the name of the child so that the ancestral spirits ( anito ) can hear him. The child should be named after an ancestor, the name of the midwife or his place of birth, at least after a name common to the anito , so that they can take care of the child. Now the mother is allowed to step up to the circle of dancing men with her child in her arms. Later in the morning, the male relatives serve rice and boiled meat for the guests. After more ayyeng chants and another meal an hour later, the men disperse and now the women and children of the family are also allowed to eat.

Further occasions for the appearance of gangsa ensembles are peace alliances and thanksgiving celebrations. In the past, the successful return from a headhunt ( tumo ) was celebrated with the beating of the gong. This is an indication that headhunting was not only used for waging war, but had a religious meaning.

literature

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Charles E. Griffith, Jr .: Folk Music in the Philippines. In: Music Supervisors' Journal, Vol. 10, No. 4, March 1924, pp. 26, 28, 30, 62-64, here pp. 30, 62
  2. ^ Jaap Art : Music in Java. Its History, its Theory and its Technique . 3rd edition edited by Ernst L. Heins. Volume 1. Martinus Nijhoff, Den Haag 1973, p. 107
  3. ^ Sibyl Marcuse : A Survey of Musical Instruments . Harper & Row, New York 1975, p. 47
  4. ^ Heinrich Simbriger : Gongs and gong games. (International Archive for Ethnography, Volume 36) EJ Brill, Leiden 1939, p. 39
  5. ^ Jaap Art: Hindu-Javanese Musical Instruments. Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague 1968, p. 5
  6. ↑ Arsenio Nicolas: Kansá, Kansya (Sanskrit: Bell Metal, Gong, Percussion Plate) . In: Pierre-Yves Manguin, A Mani, Geoff Wade (Ed.): Early Interactions between South and Southeast Asia: Reflections on Cross-Cultural Exchange. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore 2011, p. 354
  7. ↑ Heinrich Simbriger, 1939, p. 13f
  8. ^ Tran Van Khe, Nguyen Thuyet Phong: Vietnam, Socialist Republic of. 3. Instrumental ensembles. In: Stanley Sadie (Ed.): The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Macmillan, London 2001
  9. ^ Robert Lawless: Hunting and Fishing among the Southern Kalinga. In: Asian Studies, 11: 3, December 1973, pp. 83-109, here p. 83
  10. ^ Aaron Prior, 2011, p. 47
  11. ^ Aaron Prior, 2011, p. 75
  12. ^ José Maceda: Music in the Philippines. In: Mantle Hood, José Maceda: Music. (= Handbuch der Orientalistik , edited by Bertold Spuler . 3rd section: Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines. 6th volume) EJ Brill, Leiden 1972, p. 29
  13. ^ Kalinga Culture Group - Bamboo Gangsa. Youtube Video (Five men hit the bamboo rattle pattanggok .)
  14. ↑ Gangsa Beaters. Youtube video (Six Kalinga dancers beat gangsa with wooden mallets.)
  15. ↑ Dangsa Manmanok . Youtube video (Six Bago musicians kneel on the floor to accompany the manmanok, "chicken dance", and beat gangsa with both hands.)
  16. ↑ Glenn Ress Stallsmith, 2007, p. 59
  17. ^ Aaron Prior, 2011, p. 65
  18. ^ Aaron Prior, 2011, pp. 65f
  19. ↑ Glenn Ress Stallsmith, 2007, p. 96
  20. ↑ Glenn Ress Stallsmith, 2007, p. 97
  21. ↑ Salidsid . Youtube video (“Chicken Dance” with tuppaya ensemble); Salip / Salidsid. (Stage version)
  22. ↑ Glenn Ress Stallsmith, 2007, p. 7
  23. ↑ Glenn Ress Stallsmith, 2007, pp. 60-62
  24. ↑ Kalinga Tadchok Dance. Youtube video
  25. ↑ Glenn Ress Stallsmith, 2007, pp. 64f
  26. ↑ Glenn Ress Stallsmith, 2007, pp. 3, 9
  27. ↑ José Maceda, 2001, p. 569
  28. ↑ Corazon Canave Dioquino, Ramon P. Santos, Jose Maceda: The Philippines. In: Terry E. Miller, Sean Williams (Eds.): The Garland handbook of Southeast Asian music. Routledge, New York 2008, p. 439
  29. ↑ The Kalanguya Tribe. Unofficial Website of Lusod
  30. ↑ Bagly Arsenio, Glenn Stallsmith: Preserving Living Traditions in Live Performances: A Traditional Music and Dance Troupe of the Kalanguya of the Northern Philippines. 2008, pp. 1–14, here p. 6
  31. ↑ Kalanguya. In: Artemio R. Guillermo: Historical Dictionary of the Philippines. Scarecrow Press, Lanham 2012, p. 222
  32. ↑ Bagly Arsenio, Glenn Stallsmith, 2008, pp. 7, 12
  33. ↑ José Maceda: Gangsa (i), 2014, p. 391
  34. ↑ Campos Fred Eliza Zamora: A Study of the Musical Instruments of Ifugao in the Cordillera region, northern Philippines. (MA Thesis) University of Hong Kong, 2012, p. 49
  35. ↑ Dancing Tinagtago. Museum of Cordilleran Sculpture
  36. ↑ Tayao Part 2. Benguet, Philippines Cultural Dance. Youtube video
  37. ↑ Virgil Mayor Apostol: Way of the Ancient Healer: Sacred Teachings from the Philippine Ancestral Traditions. North Atlantic Books, Berkeley 2010, p. 208
  38. ↑ José Maceda, 2001, p. 569
  39. ↑ Turayan dance pangsiw family. Youtube video
  40. ↑ Music ni Tayaw 1. Youtube Video (playing position of the gongs with the Ibaloi)
  41. ↑ José Maceda, 2001, p. 569
  42. ^ Bontoc . In: CCP Encyclopedia of Philippine Art. Ethnography. National Library of the Philippines