Kulintang
Kulintang , also kolintang , refers to a series of horizontally positioned hump gongs that are played as the leading melodic instrument on the southern Philippine island of Mindanao . The entire ensemble, supplemented by large suspended gongs and drums, is also called kulintang . It belongs to the gong and carillon culture widespread in Southeast Asia and was also widely used under this name in the courtly music of the Northern Moluccas .
The kulintangan in the Malaysian state of Sabah on Borneo is related in name and form . It is not to be confused with the box xylophone kolintang in the region Minahasa in North Sulawesi . In Tana Toraja in South Sulawesi , kolintang can mean a metallophone .
distribution
This form of music achieved its current form by adding bulky gongs to the sounds, which were taken from the culture of the Sunda Islands , and combining the instruments into a musical group. The relationship that exists between this form of music and the various indigenous cultures is very strong and goes back further than the influence of Islam , Christianity or the western world . You elicit its notes from the instrument by striking the bumps on the head of the gongs with two wooden mallets.
The spread of the Kulintang extends across the most diverse language and ethnic groups. Instead of the term Kulintang, the Maranao and Sulawesi use the term Kolintang , while the peoples of Sabah and the Sulu Archipelago use the term Kulintangan , while the inland Moluccas use the name Totobuang .
In the 20th century, the term kulintang expanded and became a term for a complete Maguindanao ensemble made up of a total of five or six instruments. Usually such a musical group is called Basalen or Palabunibuyan . The latter name denotes "an ensemble of loud instruments" or "making music" or in this case "making music with a kulintang."
.
The Kulintang belongs to a larger family, or rather a collective of a “carillon culture” that has spread mainly in Southeast Asia . In summary, the various traditional groups that make music with gong instruments can be classified geographically in three main groups. In addition to the kulintang, the gamelan of western Indonesia should be mentioned, as well as the pi phat from Thailand , Burma , Cambodia and Laos , all of which do not have their gongs accompanied by wind or string instruments . Like the other two, the kulintang music is mainly played in an orchestra and consists of different rhythmic parts that are performed in a row. The music is based on pentatonic , a scale that does not consist of 7, but only 5 tones. Nevertheless, kulintang music differs from gamelan music in many respects, such as the way in which the melodies are built up. In gamelan, the music moves within a framework of supportive tones and requires prescribed time intervals for each instrument to be used. The musical framework of Kulintang music, on the other hand, is much more flexible, has no beginning intervals and ascribes improvisation a predominant importance.
Since such Kulintang-like ensembles exist in different combinations and in different languages, there is a wide variety of terms for this horizontally structured set of gongs. The original term Kulintang is also used under the names Kolintang , Kolintan , Kulintangan , Kwintangan, K'lintang or Gong Sembilan, Gong Duablas, Momo, Totobuang, Nekara, Engkromong, Kromong / Enkromong and as Kakula / Kakula nuada. to be found.
Kulintang-like instruments from Maguindanao, the Maranao , the iranun people , the Kalagan, the Kalibugan and more recently by the T'boli, the B'Laan and Subanao from Mindanao , played by the Tausug , Samal, the Sama / Badjao , the Yakan and the Sangir / Sangil from Sulu , from the inhabitants of Ambon , the Banda Islands , on Seram , on Ternate , on Tidore and from the Kei from Maluku , from the Bajau , the Suluk , the Murut , the Kadazan Dusan, the Kadayah and the Paitanic peoples of Sabah , as well as the Malays from Brunei , the Bidayuh and the Iban / Sea Dayaks from Sarawak , the Bolaang Mongondow and the Kailinese / Toli-Toli from Sulawesi and from other groups in Banjermasin and Tanjung on Kalimantan and Timor .
Instruments
construction
The instrument, called the Kulintang (or some of its other names), consists of a row / set of 5 to 9 small, raised, staggered, cup-shaped gongs arranged horizontally on a board according to their pitch, the one with the lowest Sound is to the left of the player.
The gongs are lined up upright in the instrument and are framed by two cords / cords that run parallel to the longitudinal frame. Bamboo or wooden sticks or sticks, which are set vertically across the frame, subdivide the gongs and form a kulintang set with the name Pasangan .
The gongs can weigh two, three, or just 1/8 pounds (747 g, 1120 g, and 46.1 g, respectively) and are 7-10 inches (17.8 cm-25.4 cm) in diameter and at a height of 4 - 5 inches (10.2 cm - 12.7 cm). Traditionally they are made of bronze, but due to the lack of bronze, brass gongs with only slightly worse sounds are also common.
The board of the kulintang instrument is referred to by the Maguindanaos as the antagan , which means something like "grouped", whereby it is known by the Marano as the Langkonga . It can be designed in a rather grandiose manner, so that it is only made of simple bamboo or wooden slats or it is richly decorated with artistic design and provided with traditional Okir motifs or arabesques .
technology
To play the kulintang, you hit the head of the gongs with two wooden mallets. During the kulintang game, the Maguindanao and the Maranon always sit on a chair, while the Tausug / Suluk, but also other groups who use the Kulintangan, sit together on the floor. In more modern formats, the artists whirl the bats around during the performance, juggle them in the air, vary the arrangement of the gongs either before or during the game, cross their hands while playing or add rapid bursts of fire to the performance in order to do this to highlight the grace and skill of the game.
Casting process
The gongs for the kulintang are made using the lost wax technique, a process that uses a lost mold to cast individual gongs that must be destroyed to reveal the cast. In the first phase, replicas of the gong are made from either beeswax (Talo) or candle wax (Kandila) . The wax mold is treated with a special mixture of finely powdered charcoal and clay, with which the wax surface is covered with a brush. The layers are then placed in the sun to dry. Then the entire form is heated in an oven until the wax has melted away and the coal-clay mixture has hardened, so that ultimately a hollow shell remains. The molten bronze is then poured into the cavity of this hardened form via a mouth and then allowed to cool to a certain degree, the coal-clay layer breaking and releasing the new gong. The gong is then refined, cleaned and, under certain circumstances, marked by the Panday (the gong manufacturer). Finally, the finished product is further refined using the so-called Tongkol process. Here, the hump of the gong is either worked on from the inside with a hammer to slightly raise the pitch, or it is fogged from the outside to make it sound deeper.
The correct sound can be found solely through the ear of the processor, whereby the player strikes a series of gongs in order to find the melodic contour that is specific to the respective gong.
Methods of tuning
In contrast to Western instruments, nowhere in the Philippines is there a voice set for kulintang phrases. So there are clear variations between each sentence. These differences are due to the design, size and shape. In addition, the constant strain when using each Kulintang attachment gives a specific pitch, a unique echo and a unique timbre.
Despite the noticeable differences in tuning, there are certainly similarities within the contour when the same melody is heard on different kulintang movements. These similarities result from the similar interval relationship of more or less equally spaced sound ranges between the tones of each gong.
The methods of tuning instruments therefore differ significantly from the known methods for tuning an instrument, since one neither tries to match the tones, nor does one refer to a system of standard tones. Instead, certain similar patterns of long and short intervals are used for tuning. A method that can also be found in gamelan orchestras in western Indonesia. Although the artists of the Maguindanao, the Maranao and the Tausūg do not have a principle of a scale, as their weighting is based on the concept of a rhythmic variety, the Pélog and Slendro scales of western Indonesia can be found with them . Nevertheless, their own deviating pentatonic or heptatonic scales are usually sufficient for them.
Notation system
Since this music has developed within simple social communities, the kulintang has remained free of a notation system for a long time . Compositions were passed on from generation to generation through oral tradition without the need for a notation of the pieces. Recently, however, attempts have been made to translate the pieces of music into numerical notation . The gongs are assigned a number system from 1 to 8. For example, the gong with the lowest key is assigned the number 1 and the neighboring gong the number 2, until finally the number 8 refers to the gong with the highest tone.
The feminine instrument
The Kulintang was traditionally seen as an instrument of women by many ethnic groups: For example, the Maguindanao, the Maranao, the Tausūg / Sukul, the Samal, the Badjao / Sama, the Illanum, the Kadazan, the Murut, the Bidayuh and the Iban. In the traditional sense, the game of kulintang is associated with graceful, delicate, deliberate and relaxed movements, which on the one hand embodies elegance and on the other hand the propriety that connects women with one another.
Nowadays both women and men play all five instruments as the kulintang is no longer seen as an instrument reserved for women only. In fact, the most renowned Kulintang players are now males.
Performances
The main role of kulintang music within a society is to function as social entertainment that takes place on a non-professional folklore level. The unique thing about this music is that it can be seen as a public music and gives the feeling that everyone is allowed to participate. The players do not make music alone, one or the other listener is also expected to contribute. These performances have an important function as they introduce people to a community, bring adjacent areas together, and help unite communities that otherwise would never have influenced one another. Traditionally, participation in the performance of a Kulintang piece is purely voluntary. The musicians see their performance merely as an opportunity to gain recognition, prestige and respect from the community, with no further expectation.
Typically, performances can be classified as either formal or informal. A formal talk adheres to an ancestral set of rules that regulate the game. In addition, this generally includes people from outside the group and not from the local community.
Informal performances, on the other hand, are just the opposite. The strict rules that normally govern the game are often ignored and the musicians are usually people who are familiar with one another and are usually close family members.
It is precisely these performances that offer amateurs an opportunity to expand their skills on this instrument. Boys and girls can gain practical experience with the instrument here by swapping the smaller versions of the kulintang, the saronay and the inubab , with a full kulintang. However, ensembles do not necessarily have to consist of five instruments, as is customary in formal performance; they can also consist of only four different instruments (three Gandingan gongs, one kulintang, one agung and one dabakan ), three instruments (one kulintang, one Dabakan and either an agung or three Gandingan gongs) or just a kulintang that is played solo.
Social function
As mentioned earlier, the kulintang music can generally be viewed as a social entertainment offered on various occasions. For example, it serves as an entertaining element during large festivals , celebrations or harvest gatherings. It is also performed to amuse visitors, friends and relatives, but it can also be seen at parades . The kulintang music also accompanies important social ceremonies, such as weddings or the departure or return from the Hajj , the Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca. In addition, it plays a significant role at state receptions, where it serves to entertain foreign dignitaries and important visitors from distant lands on official occasions, as well as at court ceremonies of either the sultan or the local chief, the enthronement of a new leader, as well as during the transfer of one Sultanate from one family to another.
On the other hand, it is not permitted to play the kulintang inside a mosque or in connection with Islamic rites, customs or holidays, such as the fasting month of Ramadan , where playing and eating is only permitted after nightfall. Kulintang music is also forbidden during the period of mourning after the death of an important person, during funeral ceremonies and during the main times of the sowing and harvesting seasons.
Other forms of application
There are also opportunities to perform kulintang music outside of public performances. It is performed in connection with healing ceremonies and rituals (pagipat) as well as in ethnic-religious ceremonies. While this practice died out among the Maranos due to its non-Islamic nature, it is still used in other areas of Mindanao, in Sabah and in Maluku .
The original form of application of the Kulintang is its use as a means of communication to convey messages over a long distance from one place or longhouse to the next.
The name Apad denotes a type of use in which the speech sounds of the Maguindanao are imitated. This creates an opportunity for a comment or communication within a society that can only be understood by those who are able to interpret the music, which is particularly true of many older speakers of the Maguindanao language.
In the meantime, the form of expression known as Apad is hardly used anymore, as times have changed and it has no relevance in an enlarged and intermingling society. Anun, on the other hand, is music that does not convey a message, but is instead used to express sensations and feelings. It is used more and more because it can be easily combined with the musical styles and the peculiar creations of today's times.
Kulintang music is of major importance in advertising, as strict Islamic custom does not allow unmarried men and women to come together. Traditionally, the unmarried daughters stay in a special chamber on the top floor of the house called Lamin, which separates the girls from visitors and suitors. Only if the young women are allowed to play the kulintang are the suitors allowed to court them during the performance. This is possible because the kulintang music is seen as one of the few socially approved means of expression where interaction between the sexes is permitted.
Another form of application are music competitions, which, especially among the Maguindanao themselves, have become a unique feature of these kulintang performances. They take place at almost all of the above events, but primarily at weddings. What sets the Maguindanaos apart from the other groups, however, is the holding of solo competitions for the gong game, in which individual players can show their skills on various instruments of the ensemble - the agung , the gandingan and the kulintang - in contrast to group competitions where the players from one location must compete against the musicians from another location.
Compositions
Rhythmic guidelines
Kulintang music has no fixed compositions due to its conception, which is based on an emphasis on playing. The rhythmic mode or expression or scheme is defined as a musical unit that connects all five instruments in the group. By bringing together the different rhythms of the individual instruments, one instrument determines the music, whereby when the rhythm changes, another instrument comes to the fore and the music changes as a result. This is a fundamental concept for such a rhythmic style of playing.
improvisation
As a kulintang player, the ability to improvise is vital. However, this must be done within the specifications of a certain rhythmic key. As with the Gamelan orchestras, every kulintang game has something like a theme that is covered by the kulintang player through variable decoration, influencing certain elements and through the use of repetitions, stretching elements, insertions, pauses, and variations. The specific tact of the player is of great importance. The kulintang player does not act alone as the carrier of the melody, rather he forms the lead for the entire musical group. The players determine the length of each interpretation, can decide at any time about a change of rhythm, increase or slow down the game speed and this according to their own taste or the composition they play.
The emphasis on improvisation can be seen as essential because of the traditional role that music has as well as the entertaining role it plays for the entire community. The listeners expect to be surprised and astonished by the players, who present their performance in their own distinctive style and they create a new, independent version of the piece through the inclusion of improvised elements. If the player were merely to imitate a previous actor and implement the score without any improvising parts, the audience would perceive the performance as imitated and banal. This also explains why pieces for musical productions differ in some ways; Since the young men and women practice and rehearse the pieces, there is hardly any room for improvisation.
Compositions of the Maguindanao and Maranao
Since allowing such a large variation in rhythms would almost inevitably lead to an innumerable number of classification options, it is still possible to carry out basic categorizations on the basis of various criteria. Here, for example, the number of beats in a recurring musical phrase can be used as a basis for distinction, or differences in the melodic and rhythmic groups within the musical phrases can be distinguished. The paragraphs can also be distinguished in the rhythmic emphasis and deviations in the opening form and the cadence patterns. Three to five typical genres are defined for the Maguindanaos: Duyug , Sinulog , Tidtu , Binalig and Tagonggo . On the other hand, the Marano have only three typical genera: Kapromayas / Romayasv , Kapagonor / Onor and Katitik Pandai / Kapaginandang .
These genres, which can be generally categorized, can be further subdivided into styles, subcategories and style changes, which in turn are differentiated from one another by the instrumentation, playing technique, the event and the average age and gender of the musicians. Basically, one differentiates these styles into what is commonly viewed as traditional or old and what is more contemporary or newer in nature.
Old styles can be described slowly, emphatically and dignified by the attributes, as is the case with styles such as the Kamamatuan of the Maguindanao and the Andung of the Maranao. The styles falling under this genre are characterized by a moderate tempo, are rhythmically oriented, balanced and mostly lack elements of improvisation. In addition, they are usually played by older people, and these pieces are always performed at the beginning, as this way the older generations are owed respect.
The new styles, like the Kagungudan of the Maguindanao and the Bago of the Maranao, on the other hand, are faster, more rhythmic and more unusual. Basically it can be said that pieces that can be assigned to this genre have a faster tempo and place emphasis on powerful and high-speed elements. They are determined by a higher and more pulsating rhythm, they are characterized by a strong improvisation in which the musicians incorporate various rhythmic and melodic expressions and in which no older patterns are used. “Young” musicians, especially young men, are more inclined to this style because of its emphasis on virtuosity and its own individuality. Kamamatuan pieces are usually played to allow younger musicians to participate in the event.
Tagunggo , on the other hand, is a variety that cannot be assigned to either of these two styles, as it is more ritual than entertaining. Tagunggo is preferably used to accompany trance states and ritual dances, such as the sagayan . During the game a rite master dances to the rhythm of this music and asks for the help of an ancestral spirit (tunong) .
Sulu-specific Kulintangan compositions
Sulu-typical compositions for the kulintang can be found among the Tausūg, the Samal, the Yakan, the Sama / Badjao and the Kadazan-Dusan. Although there are no assignable rhythmic or melodic differences between the patterns, or differences with independent names as with the Maguindanao, each group has its own musical compositions. For example, the Tausug have three assignable compositions - Kuriri , Sinug and Lubak-lubak - the Yakan have two - Tini-id and Kuriri - and the Dusan also have three - Ayas , Kudidi and Tleid . Although these melodies vary within the groups as with the Maguindanao and the Maranao, they are determined by a central theme that characterizes the Sulu type through the exchange of short melodic sentences between the Kulintang and the Agung . Both instruments imitate and duplicate the rhythm of the other very quickly. This can be clearly seen in the Tausug in their Sinug and in the Yakan in their Tini-id and Kuriri compositions, where this type of duel grows into a game of skill and virtuosity.
Compositions
The Kulintang repertoire has no fixed compositions, as the music itself cannot be viewed as a fixed unit. So it is passed on by oral tradition , whereby the repertoire itself is always in a state of flux, for two decisive reasons. First of all, no priority is given to standardizing a composition. Although the musicians themselves manage to make the melodies sound similar, fixed compositions belonging to a certain rhythmic style can vary from family to family within the same place. For a musician, the focus is on the enthusiasm and pleasure of playing the music without having to pay attention to the composition of a piece. Since the actors usually improvise their pieces, certain styles are constantly subject to revisions and changes that are passed on to a new generation of musicians. As a result, fixed compositions would only be tied to a short time frame.
However, these conditions make the attempt to classify the compositions in a uniform genre practically impossible. An example of this can be found under the Maguindanao, where the word Binalig is used by contemporary musicians as a name for a rhythmic variety that belongs to the Kangungudan , but is also a term that is used for a completely new style.
Another example concerns the discrepancy between “old” and “new” genres. While new pieces continue to spread to this day, pieces that were just created a few decades ago are already considered old, although that term actually refers to traditional pieces that have been around for many centuries. These differences make this repertoire worth discussing and the varieties and styles to which they belong are easy to confuse.
history
Kulintang music can be seen as an ancient cultural asset that has the influence of Islam , Christianity and the western world . It is said that it has existed in the northern Moluccas for centuries. In the Philippines it represents the highest form of gong music that can be achieved by Filipinos.
Although this music is so old, there are hardly any reliable dates that provide information about the origin of the kulintang. The earliest historical reports about instruments that are similar to today's date from the 16th century and were documented by various European explorers who saw such instruments while passing through.
Due to the little information that comes from before the arrival of the Europeans, there are only theories about when the first models of Kulingtang-like instruments were built. Today two theories prevail. One theory suggests that the bronze gong already has a very ancient history in Southeast Asia, reaching the Malay Archipelago two or three thousand years ago and finding its way to the Philippines in the 3rd century AD from China. Another theory doubts these temporal assessments and assumes that the kulintang could not have existed before the 15th century, since it assumes a Javanese origin and the gong tradition there only developed during this period.
Despite the different theories about the century in which the kulintang finally developed, both assume that the kulintang was taken up by a foreign musical culture and incorporated into the local tradition that is still prevalent in this area today. It is likely that the earliest gongs were not used by indigenous peoples for entertainment, but rather as a simple way of sending out signals and conveying messages.
Kulintang music thus developed from a simple form of signaling, changed into a period of a one-gong ensemble with a single player (like those that were to be found in the Ifugao of Luzon or the Tiruray in Mindanao ) and ultimately developed into one Multi-gong instrument with several musicians. Musical concepts were included that originally came from the Sunda , before it finally developed into today's Kulingtang ensemble, to which other instruments such as the dabakan and the babendil / babndir (Filipino gong) were added. Finally, musical concepts from Islam that had once been brought to Southeast Asia by Islamic dealers also flowed into this form of music.
Origin of the gong
It is believed that the kulintang gong itself was once a foreign musical element that was eventually incorporated into existing folklore music. It is assumed that the name Kulintang from the from the Sundanese language derived Kolenang derived, since both have striking similarities. Together with the fact that both play important roles in their respective ensembles, both the Kulintang and the Kolenang show a striking commonality. For example in the tapering edges, which contrasts with the extremely narrow Javanese bonang and the wide-rimmed Laotian Laotian Khong-Vong-Gongs .
It is precisely these similarities that feed the main theories that the Kulintang was originally imported to the Philippines when the Kolenang found its way across the Malay Archipelago. Based on this etymology , two routes are proposed that could be considered as routes from the Kulintang to Mindanao: One leads from Sunda via Banjarmasin , Brunei and the Sulu Archipelago . This route is characterized by the fact that the word “Kulintangan” is used here collectively for a horizontally arranged row of gongs. The other also has its starting point on Sunda, but runs via Timor , Sulawesi or the Moluccas to Mindanao, where the words Kolintang and Kulintang are equally common.
Future development
The traditional role of kulintang music has now declined in the east Malay archipelago and has disappeared from many areas where it was previously of great importance. The Kulintang culture has never been particularly well known in the Philippines, especially on the northern and central islands of Luzon and the Visayas , due to the three hundred years of Spanish colonization in these areas.
In the same way, sets of five bronze carillons and a gong, which were typical for the Totobuang music group of the Buru Islands in the central Moluccas , have become largely uncommon. Kolintang sets of humped kettle gongs were once used a long time ago in Gorontalo , in the northern part of the island of Sulawesi , but have now also disappeared here and have been replaced by locally more familiar instruments - a board instrument known as a Kolintang. The fact that there are still areas today in which the kulintang tradition has been preserved despite European colonization gave music the name “the music of resistance”.
Nevertheless, the influence of globalization and the introduction of western and foreign values threatens the existence of kulintang music now more than ever. Younger generations prefer to turn to western pop music or play on the streets with other children than spend their time learning and practicing their parents' traditional instruments.
However, through the work of some music masters such as Master Danongan Kalanduyan and Usopay Cadar, kulintang music has experienced a rebirth. It was thanks to them that kulintang music hit the shores of the United States in the late 20th century . Because these masters send their own students from universities like the University of Washington or San Francisco State University to Mindanao to play the kulintang in front of their own people, a resurrection of this musical culture is taking place. In this way, many of the younger generations of the Maguindanao or Maranao are encouraged to play their own traditional music when they see that foreign players, too, and above all, are making music with the kulintang. This appreciation, which is shown by Filipino Americans for music, is now the impetus for a revival of this dying tradition and at the same time has become a symbol of the unity of the overseas Filipinos.
Composition of various ensembles
The composition of the Kulintang ensembles can differ significantly from group to group across regions. Such an ensemble generally consists of five to six instruments and has a central instrument, such as a row of gong, which sets the melody for the entire music group.
| Group and its name | Horizontal gongs | Hanging gongs | drums | Accompanying gongs or drums | More gongs or drums | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
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| Maguindanao | Kulintang Ensemble | Kulintang | Agung | Dabakan | Babendil (gong) | Gandingdan (gong) |
| Maranao | Kolintang Ensemble | Kolintang | Agong | Dbakan / Dadabuan | Babndir (gong) | |
| Tausūg / Suluk | Kulintangan Ensemble | Kulintangan | Tunggalan | Gandang | Pulakan (Duahan) (Gong) | Buahan (Duahan) (Gong) |
| Samal | Kulintangan Ensemble | Kulintangan | Tamuk | Tambul | Pulakan (Duahan) (Gong) | Bua (Duahan) (Gong) |
| Sama / Badjao | Batitik ensemble | Kulintangan | Gong Besar | Gandang | Bandil (gong) | |
| Yakan | Kwintangan Ensemble | Kwintangan | Agung | |||
| Bolaang Mongondow | Kolintang Ensemble | Kolintang | Banding | Double membrane drums | ||
| Malays | Kulintangan Ensemble | Kulintangan | Agong | Gendang | Tawak-Tawak (Gong) | |
| Lotud | Mojumbak Ensemble | Kulintangan | Tawag-Tawag | Gendang | ||
| Iban / Sea Dayaks | Engkromong Ensemble | Engkromong | Tetawak | Dumbak | Bandai (gong) | |
| Ternate | Kulintang / Remoi Sahi-Sahi Ensemble | Momo | Saragi | Baka-Baka | Podo (drum) | Dabi-Dabi / Cik (cymbals) |
| Tidors | Jalanpong Ensemble | Momo | Saragi | Baka-Baka | Podo (drum) | Dabi-Dabi / Cik (cymbals) |
| Ambon | Totobuang Ensemble | Totobuang | Tifus | drums | ||
Related musical instruments are bonang, kenong, canang, keromong, kromong, kethuk, trompong / terompong, rejong, talempong, chalempung, caklempong / caklempung, khong vong, khong wong yai / khong wong lek, khong toch / khong thom, krewa.
credentials
- ↑ a b c d e f g h Mohammad Amin: A Comparison of Music of the Philippines and Sulawesi. Sulawesi, September 27, 2005, accessed November 10, 2010 .
- ↑ a b c d e f Usopay Hamdag Cadar: The Maranao Kolintang Music: An Analysis of the Instruments, Musical Organization, Ethmologies, and Historical Documents . University of Washington. Seattle WA 1971.
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i j Kristina Benitez: The Maguindanaon Kulintang: Musical Innovation, Transformation and the Concept of Binalig . University of Michigan, Ann Harbor 2005.
- ↑ a b c d e f g h Usopay H. Cadar: The Role of Kolintang Music in Maranao Society. In: Asian Music. Vol. 27, No. 2. (Spring-Summer, 1996), pp. 80-103.
- ↑ a b c Usopay Hamdag Cadar: Maranao Kolintang Music and Its Journey in America . Asian Music 27, 1996, pp. 131-146.
- ↑ a b Aga Mayo-Butocan: Maguindanao Kulintang. (No longer available online.) Tao Music, 1995, archived from the original on July 5, 2007 ; accessed on November 10, 2010 (English). Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k Jose Maceda: Gongs and Bamboo: A Panorama of Philippine Music Instruments . University of the Philippines Press, Quezon City 1998.
- ^ R. Anderson Sutton: Reviewed Work: "Sama de Sitangkai" by Alan Martenot and Jose Maceda. In: Ethnomusicology. 27, 1983.
- ↑ a b c d e f g Margeret J. Kartomi: Is Malaku still musicological "terra incognita." An overview of the music-cultures of the province of Maluku. In: Journal of Southeast Asian Studies. 25: 141-173 (1994).
- ↑ Robert Grafias: Music of Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines Music Examples. (No longer available online.) In: Anthro 1385. University of California, Irvine, archived from the original on February 4, 2007 ; Retrieved February 22, 2007 . Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ^ Hans Brandeis: Gallery of Photographs from Mindanao, Philippines. Filipino Association of Berlin, 2006, archived from the original on May 2, 2008 ; accessed on November 10, 2010 (English).
- ↑ a b Aga M. Butocan: Palabunibunyan. (No longer available online.) In: Kulintang and the Maguindanaos. 2006, archived from the original on January 18, 2008 ; Retrieved November 10, 2010 . Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ^ A b c d e Danongan S. Kalanduyan: Maguindanaon Kulintang Music: Instruments, Repertoire, Performance, Contexts, and Social Functions. In: Asian Music. XXVII.2 (1996), pp. 3-18.
- ↑ a b Danongan Kalanduyan. In: Spark. KQED - Arts and Culture, 2006, accessed November 10, 2010 .
- ↑ An Introduction to the Traditional Musical Instruments of Sabah. Sabah State Muzium, Kota Kinabalu 1992.
- ↑ a b c d Usopay H. Cadar, Robert Garfias: Some Principles of Formal Variation in the Kolintang Music of the Maranao. In: Asian Music. Vol. 27, No. 2. (Spring-Summer, 1996), pp. 105-122.
- ↑ a b c d Ricardo D. Trimillos: Performing Ethnomusicology: Teaching and Representation in World Music Ensembles. (No longer available online.) In: California: The University of California Press. The University of California Press, 2004, archived from the original January 7, 2007 ; Retrieved February 22, 2007 . Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ^ Adelaida Reyes Schramm: Music from the Tausūg of Sulu: Muslims of the Southern Philippines. In: Asian Music. 2, 1971.
- ^ A b Jose M. Maceda: The Music of Maguindanao in the Philippines. University Microfilms, Ann Arbor 1963.
- ↑ Thomas M. Kiefer: Music from the Tausūg of Sulu: Moslem of the Southern Philippines. Anthology Record and Tape Corporation, New York 1970.
- ^ A b Philip Dominguez Mercurio: Traditional Music of the Southern Philippines. In: PnoyAndTheCity: A center for Kulintang - A home for Pasikings. 2006, accessed February 25, 2006 .
- ^ Ivor H. Evans: Among Primitive Peoples in Borneo. Seeley, Service & Co., London 1922.
- ↑ a b c d e f g h Steven W. Otto: Repertorial Nomenclature in Muranao Kolintang Music. In: Asian Music. Vol. 27, No. 2. (Spring-Summer, 1996), pp. 123-130.
- ↑ a b c d e f Barbera Garelan: Philippine Muslim Kulintang: Music of Modernization. 1991.
- ↑ a b c d Edward M. Frame: The Musical Instruments of Sabah, Malaysia. In: Ethnomusicology. 26, 1982.
- ↑ a b c d Patricia Matusky: An Introduction to the Major Instruments and Forms of Traditional Malay Music. In: Asian Music. Vol 16. No. 2. (Spring-Summer 1985), pp. 121-182.
- ↑ Danongan Sibay Kalanduyan: What is Kulintang? (No longer available online.) In: Palabuniyan Kulintang Ensemble - Traditional Gong Music and Dance from Mindanao Island, Philippines. 2006, archived from the original on August 31, 2006 ; accessed on November 1, 2006 (English). Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ^ Franck Goddio: Lost at Sea: The strange route of the Lena Shoal junk. Periplus, London 2002.
- ↑ a b c d Yoshitaka Terada: Variational and Improvisational Techniques of Gandingan Playing in the Maguindanaon Kulintang Ensemble. In: Asian Music. XXVII.2 (1996), pp. 53-79.
- ^ A b Karen L. Posner: A Preliminary Analysis of Style in Maguindanoan Kulintang Music. In: Asian Music. XXVII.2 (1996), pp. 19-32.
- ^ A b Scott Scholz: The Supportive Instruments of the Maguindanaon Kulintang Music. In: Asian Music. XXVII.2 (1996), pp. 33-52.
- ^ Francisco Combes: Historia de las Isles de Mindanao in the Philippine Islands. Clark, Cleveland 1903.
- ↑ Emma Blair, James Robertson: The Philippine Islands. The Arthur K. Clark Co, Cleveland 1903.
- ↑ Thomas Forrest: A Voyage to New Guinea and the Moluccas: 1774-1776. Oxford University Press, Kuala Lumper 1969.
- ↑ ED Vives: The Rio Grande of Mindanao. 2. Xavier University, Cagayan de Oro 1995.
- ^ Curt Sachs : The History of Musical Instruments. WW Norton & Co., New York 1940.
- ^ Inge Skog: North Borneo Gongs and the Javanese Gamelan. In: Ethnomusicology Research Digest. 4, pp. 55-102 (1993).
- ^ Jaap Art : Music in Java. 2nd Edition. The Hague (Netherlands) 1949.
- ^ A b c d Philip Dominguez Mercurio: Expedition into ETHS 545: Music of the Southern Philippines. In: Manila Bulletin USA. Kababayan Ed. [South San Francisco] Oct. 13 2005, natl.ed .: 8.
- ↑ The Maranao Man. Mindanao Art and Culture. 4. University Research Center, Mindanao State University, Marawi City 1980.
- ↑ Dionisio Orellana, Efren Endriga: Maranao Traditional Brass Casting. 2. MSU - Iligan Institute of Technology, Iligan City 1984.
- ^ Musical Instruments. (No longer available online.) In: SabahTravelGuide.Com. Sabah Tourism Promotion Corporation, 2007, archived from the original on February 16, 2007 ; Retrieved February 22, 2007 . Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ^ Ethnic Music. Embassy of the Republic of Indonesia in Berlin, 2007, accessed on November 10, 2010 (English).
