Tomb of Hetepheres I.

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Reconstruction of the original burial equipment of George Andrew Reisner

The grave of Hetepheres I (also G 7000x ) is an ancient Egyptian shaft grave in Giza . It is part of the east cemetery of the Great Pyramid of Cheops (necropolis G 7000) and is not far from the northeast corner of the northern queen pyramid G Ia . The Egyptian Queen Hetepheres I was the mother of Cheops and probably the wife of Sneferu .

The tomb was discovered in 1925 by employees of the Egyptologist George Andrew Reisner . A shaft leads over 27 m deep to a chamber that still contained large parts of the queen's grave equipment. The organic materials in the finds had already passed and only dust and tiny fragments remained. It was possible to reconstruct many objects with a lot of work . The tomb became famous for the style and richness of the royal burial equipment. It is the best preserved burial equipment of a queen of the Old Kingdom.

The grave was not untouched, however. The Alabaster - sarcophagus was found to be empty, but the sealed was canopic chest with the entrails still intact. To date, no satisfactory explanation has been found for these circumstances. It was certainly not the royal mother's regular grave. Possibly it is a hidden grave (cachette) to protect against grave robbers or an emergency grave.

Discovery and Exploration

Location of the grave G7000x of Hetepheres in the east cemetery of the Great Pyramid of Cheops

Since 1905 George Andrew Reisner led excavations around the pyramids of Giza . When the American team's photographer was looking for a suitable location for good photos on the east side of the Great Pyramid on February 2, 1925 , one leg of the camera tripod slipped into an unusual crevice that turned out to be the concealed opening of a shaft and a staircase. At this time Reisner was in the USA. After the archaeologists had cleaned the shaft and the stairs from rubble in two weeks, they came across the entrance of the burial chamber, which had been closed since ancient times. On March 8, 1925, Alan Rowe, deputy head of the excavations , opened the chamber for the first time. It was full of piles of things. The organic materials were already gone, only dust and tiny fragments were left. The entire floor of the room was filled with sheet gold that came from the gold- studded furniture that was once stored there. When it was discovered, it was already clear that the burial was not going to be undisturbed, as ceramic objects had been smashed and linen was scattered around.

On March 12th, Reisner ordered that the chamber be locked again until his return to Egypt. It was not opened again until January 21, 1926 under his direction. In 321 working days, the then young Dows Dunham in particular made meticulous records of every object. The work turned out to be dangerous: a stone came off the ceiling of the chamber and Dunham only got away unharmed because he was wearing a helmet. In addition to Reisner and Dunham, Noel Wheeler was also involved in emptying the chamber. The result of this work was a total of 1701 manuscript pages with plans and notes and 1057 photographs. This made it possible to determine the original position of the decayed objects and to reconstruct the arrangement of the entire grave equipment. Although reconstructions of fragments are part of the everyday life of archaeologists and some Egyptologists, this reconstruction is a particularly outstanding achievement.

After the entire chamber had been emptied, the eagerly awaited opening of the sarcophagus followed on March 3, 1927 in the presence of a well-known company. But the excavators were disappointed: it was empty. Lindon Smith, who was involved in the opening, reported:

“When [the lid] was lifted high enough that I could peek inside, I was greatly dismayed to see that the queen was not in it - the sarcophagus was empty! I turned to Reisner and said in a louder voice than I intended, 'George, she's a dud!' The Minister for State Construction then asked, 'What is a dud?' Reisner rose from his box and said, 'Gentlemen, I fear Queen Hetepheres will not grant an audience.' Then he added, 'Mrs. Reisner will serve a refreshment in the camp [...] '"

- Lindon Smith

On April 18, 1927, the 2.2-ton sarcophagus was recovered and on May 21, the walled-in niche was opened, in which the still intact canopic box was found. Only after 25 years of careful reconstruction work were the entire grave findings published.

  • Shaft and stairs after removing the first stone backfill, 1925

  • The burial chamber of Hetepheres after its opening in 1926

  • Removal of a box with finds, 1926

architecture

Section through the shaft grave of the Hetepheres

The grave has no superstructure. A twelve-step staircase with a width of 55 cm leads to the shaft as access, first open at a length of 3.4 m, then another 95 cm in the rock. It meets the shaft at a depth of 3 m. The mouth of the shaft measures 1.75 m (north-south) × 2.37 m (east-west). The width soon narrows to 1.35 m to 1.55 m. At the top of the shaft, incisions for beams were found, which were probably used to lower the sarcophagus. Indentations have been worked out on the shaft walls, which allowed workers to climb up and down.

At a depth of 7.47 m in the west wall, a 2.10 m high and 1.67 m deep niche was reached. This closed a 92 cm × 67 cm area that contained a horned skull and three leg bones of a bull , which were wrapped in a dilapidated reed mat. There were also two wine jugs and a piece of limestone that Rowe assumed was used for the ritual smashing of the bull's skull, a silver and a few fragments of basalt and charcoal. These form a sacrifice related to the bringing in of the gifts.

At a depth of 27.42 the shaft opens into the 1.92 m high entrance to the burial chamber. This leads 5.22 m southwards, with a different width from 2.67 to 2.77 m. Immediately behind the entrance there is a 1.21 m deep and 1.40 m × 1.60 m large depression in the ground in the northwest corner, which was filled with rubble and dust. Thus, an original height of 3.16 m was probably planned for the room, which would have provided enough space for the canopy to be set up. A 40 cm deep incision in the rock runs above the sarcophagus from the ceiling 95 cm deep down over a length of 2.60 m. This was partially filled with rubble when the chamber was used in its current state. Another incision, 75 cm deep and 2.76 m long, contained the canopic box and was carefully sealed with masonry and plaster.

The grave equipment

Most of the items found are now on display in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo . The objects bear the inventory numbers JE ( Journal d'Entrée du Musée ) and RT ( Registre Temporaire ). Smaller pieces and true-to-original copies of larger items can be found in the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston (MFA). Roman Gundacker divides the grave goods into two groups based on the inscriptions: On the one hand, those items that originally only belonged to the court or King Snofru and only came into their possession after his reign and, on the other hand, more recent objects whose date of manufacture was in the reign of Cheops falls and therefore presumably belonged to the household of the Hetepheres as king mother. It remains unclear to what extent furniture and other accessories were made specifically for the grave equipment.

The opened alabaster sarcophagus (JE 51899) in the burial chamber

The unlabeled Alabaster - sarcophagus (JE 51899) stood at the east wall of the grave chamber, a meter behind the entrance. It measures 2 m × 85 cm with a height of 80 cm. The lid is 5 cm thick on the outside, but this is due to a 5 cm wide and 4 cm deep protrusion that fixed it. The ends of the lid each had two protruding handles. The excavators found that a metal tool was used along the top of the box to pry open the lid, and splinters from the top were found along the wall side, in a linen-filled box in the south corner of the tomb, and along the south wall of the tomb. These were the first indications that the contents of the coffin had been disrupted and in fact it was found empty.

Canopic chest (JE 52452) with liquid after removing the lid

The alabaster canopic box (JE 52452) stood in a recess in the west wall . It was set far into the recess and sealed off by the plastering of the wall. It rested on a small, wooden sledge from which the runners could be identified, but which was too poorly preserved for reconstruction. The square chest is 48.2 cm wide and 35 cm high. The lid has two small, protruding handle strips and rested flat on the box without a protrusion. The interior is divided into four 26.2 cm deep compartments by narrow walls. One contained decomposed organic matter, three about 5 cm deep a yellowish liquid, which consisted of a 3 percent sodium hydroxide solution . In this was the canopic container that contained the entrails of the Hetepheres. In the center of the lid was a clay seal that tied a string that ran around the chest. The seal was protected by a small, perforated ceramic lid. The clay surface was badly damaged. The “mortuary of Cheops” was certainly mentioned on it, as on the other seals that were found in the grave.

Faithful copy of the bed in the Museum of Fine Arts Boston after the original in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo (JE 53261).

The 177.8 cm long and 97 cm wide bed (JE 53261) is clearly inclined downwards from the head to the foot end, from 35.5 cm in height to 21.5 cm at the foot end. Apart from the feet and the bed surface, the wooden bed is covered with gold leaf. As is customary in ancient Egypt, it does not contain a headboard, but a wooden panel on the foot, which was attached to the bed frame by two copper- coated wooden pegs in recesses that were also coated with copper. The only part is the inside of the footboard decorated: alternating with inlaid feathers and rosettes, which are kept in the typical blue-green and black colors. The feet in the form of lion legs point towards the head end and are attached to the side panels with thin leather cords. The headrest, clad in gold and silver, was stored in a gold box.

Armchair (JE 53263) of Hetepheres in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo

The furniture included two armchairs, the wood of which had fallen apart. One armchair (JE 53263) originally stood with its back to the alabaster sarcophagus. With the exception of the seat and backrest, it was completely covered with gold. The natural wood panels could be reconstructed from the gold cladding. The front supports of the armrests show a simple mat pattern. The armrests each consist of three papyrus stems tied together. The feet are made in the shape of lion paws. Since the front legs are 28 cm higher than the 26 cm high rear legs, the seat slopes slightly backwards. In addition, the legs are quite deep and the seat is very wide and deep. Overall, the frame is 79.5 cm high, 71 cm wide and 66 cm deep.

Reconstruction drawings of the second armchair (Temp. Reg. 22.2.60) after Reisner

The more valuable of the two armchairs (Temp. Reg. 22.2.60) was irretrievably destroyed and could only be partially reconstructed. The location of the lion's feet, which are only very fragmentary, indicates that he originally stood at right angles to the former, facing the entrance, with his back to the bed and litter. This was not only decorated with a simple gold coating, but also with inlays of different colors. The armrests were each decorated with a Horus falcon standing on a palm tree with outstretched wings. Standards of the goddess Neith decorated the backrest.

Faithful copy of the sedan chair of the Hetepheres in the Museum of Fine Arts Boston after the original in the Egyptian Museum Cairo (JE 52372)

The wood of the litter (JE 52372) was even better preserved than that of the bed, although it had shrunk to about a sixth of its original volume. It is 99 cm long, 53.5 cm wide and 52 cm high. The wooden structure was edged with gold at all corners and decorated with geometric reliefs. The seat could be pulled out so that the queen could stretch her legs. On both sides of the backrest, at the level of the armrests, in golden hieroglyphics on black ebony, was written: “Mother of the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, daughter of Horus, entrusted with the affairs of Imat, the one for whom the word was created became, daughter of God, Hetepheres. ”The wooden structure was held together with leather straps and tenons covered with copper. Palm-shaped ends were attached to the ends of the support bars.

Reconstructed canopy in the Egyptian Museum Cairo (JE 57711)

The dismantled parts of a gold-coated wooden frame of a canopy (JE 57711) lay partly on the sarcophagus and partly between the coffin and the east wall. With the decay of the wood, the gold case fell on the potters in this area. On the western edge of the coffin lid stood the box for the canopy (JE 72030), which disintegrated on the spot. However, the inlay decoration was found intact and in the original arrangement, which enabled the facade to be reconstructed. The long sides each bear an inscription, which is separated into two mirror-image parts by two depictions of the vulture goddess Nechbet . The canopy could be dismantled relatively quickly and reassembled in another location by inserting the rods into the copper recesses through the copper-coated pegs. Hangers were attached to the top of the frame at regular intervals on all four sides, apparently to attach curtains to the inside of the canopy and a cloth as a canopy. No remains of the curtains were found. It is possible that these were originally kept in the box. The canopy must have formed a space in which the bed and perhaps other furniture were placed, perhaps for the sake of privacy or as protection from insects. The gold sheathing was decorated mainly with matting patterns, with the exception of the smooth surface on the rods and the inside of the door frames, which were inscribed with inscriptions with the title and name of Sneferu.

The large wooden chest (Temp. Reg. 22.2.60)

The objects lying around south of the first armchair all rested on a layer of rotten wood. Pieces of beadwork and inlays and gold leaves lay over these objects. It was possible to reconstruct this as a lid and a large wooden chest (Temp. Reg. 22.2.60) which originally contained all the objects lying around.

Bangles (JE 53265-81; MFA 47.1699) on reconstructed holder ...
... and in situ

The contents of the large chest included a box with bracelets (JE 53265-81; MFA 47.1699). This is 33.7 cm wide, 41.9 cm long and 21.8 cm high including the lid. The wood is clad inside and outside with ribbed gold leaves and mat patterns on the edges. The silver bracelets are inlaid with carnelian , lapis lazuli and turquoise . Stylized butterflies with spread wings form the decor. Originally 20 bracelets were divided into groups of ten and lined up on the two cylinders of the box. The lid has a small ivory knob in the middle to open the box. There is an inscription in hieroglyphics on both sides of it. On the left it says: "Mother of the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Hetepheres." And on the right: "Box with bangles". Below the right inscription a scribe has written the word “armbands” in black ink, perhaps during an inspection of the burial equipment.

The large chest also contained a copper wash jug and basin, two stone vessels, two clay vessels, the wooden headrest with gold and silver plating (JE 53262), a wooden box with a calcite ointment jar (JE 52373), gold and silver plates, and razor and other gold and copper cosmetics and ivory bracelets.

To the west of the chest was another group of fragments that could be put together to form a tubular leather cover (JE 89619) with metal-studded panes at the top and bottom. It contained two long sticks with a ribbed gold case and a third wooden stick inlaid with a pattern of Min emblems. The gold case of one of the walking sticks could be reconstructed to a length of 102 cm.

The grave equipment included about eight other wooden boxes with linen, pottery, stone vessels, clay seals and flints . There were also two sets of tools that were probably left behind by the workers, including chisels, tooled bones, copper implements, and a knife with a wooden handle. Numerous fragments of seals bearing the name of Cheops indicate that he was the commissioner of the grave equipment.

The tomb of Hetepheres provides a large body of ceramic vessels in a well-dated context, which makes it particularly valuable for archaeological analysis. It complements the corpus from the mastaba graves, based on which Reisner made a ceramic classification for the Old Kingdom. In the grave of Hetepheres he identified a total of 281 ceramic vessels, which he assigned to 17 types.

Furthermore, a total of 39 stone vessels were found, all of which are made of alabaster . Only one of the 26 larger vessels was polished, the others were merely smoothed. The 13 small cosmetic jars were better processed, but the surface of several was damaged by moisture.

  • Big wine jugs

  • Bowls with spouts

  • Alabaster vessels

  • Alabaster vessels in situ

Interpretations of the diagnostic situation

King Cheops , whose mother was Hetepheres.
King Sneferu , whose wife Hetepheres is generally believed to be.

The burial equipment of Hetepheres I shows some special features:

  • There are no traces of a superstructure: Usually such a substructure has a superstructure that characterizes the facility and where the sacrifices for the dead could be made. A superstructure would be expected in this grave in particular, as it contained the grave equipment and Hetepheres was a person of great importance, perhaps the most important woman at the royal court. A superstructure could never have been built because of the proximity to the queen pyramids.
  • The sarcophagus was found completely empty, but still showed yellowish spots, which can be traced back to a soda solution and thus a burial. In contrast, the grave still contained the mummified entrails. Thus the body was removed from the grave, but the internal organs were not.
  • The sarcophagus and the canopic box were placed incorrectly: the sarcophagus had been placed on the east side instead of the usual west side and the canopic box should have been placed south of the sarcophagus.
  • The queens were usually buried near their husband's pyramid. A tomb in Dahshur near a pyramid of Sneferu would have been to be expected for Queen Hetepheres .
  • In terms of architecture, the grave shows similarities with the elite graves of the 3rd dynasty in Meidum and Dahschur, especially the staircase at the foot of the shaft.
  • Contrary to the custom in Cheops times, the walls were not clad with stone slabs.

Robbed grave in Dahshur was moved to Giza

In Egyptological circles, George Andrew Reisner was also known as a reader of detective novels. The findings of the tomb of Hetepheres gave him the opportunity to solve a "case" himself. He suspected that Hetepheres survived her husband Sneferu. After her death, she had her son Cheops buried near Sneferu in Dahshur. Shortly after her burial, grave robbers broke into the grave and stole the mummy because of its rich furnishings. Cheops was informed of the situation, but a clever minister did not tell him that the mummy had been stolen. The minister had the sarcophagus closed again to hide the fact that the body was missing. To give his mother a safer resting place, Cheops ordered a secret tomb to be built for her in Giza near his pyramid. All of her grave equipment was moved from her old grave to her new one, where it remained until it was discovered. This interpretation goes far beyond the archaeological facts, but it was already considered a historical fact.

Mark Lehner objects to Reisner's theory that it is implausible that the tomb of Hetepheres I was relocated to Giza instead of precautionary measures being taken against further looting of the original tomb in Dahshur. In addition, a burial could hardly be kept secret during the construction of the Cheops pyramid. In addition, a grave without a superstructure contradicts the ideas of the afterlife of this time. It can also be assumed that the opening of the sarcophagus was carried out by specialist personnel, as grave robbers would have simply smashed it. The circumstances suggest a hasty burial, for example after the unexpected death of the queen, and not an orderly reburial.

Emergency grave

Mark Lehner thought it possible that the queen mother died at a time when the three queen pyramids were not yet completed. The circumstances of death made it necessary that the burial equipment had to be hastily prepared. Lehner considers a pit carved into the rock south of G Ia and east of G 7000x, which he called G Ix, for the unfinished entrance to a pyramid that was never built. According to this, G 7000x and G Ix formed part of the same unfinished tomb complex of Queen Hetepheres I. At a later date, the mummy was transferred to a new tomb with renewed grave equipment. Their original grave goods remained in the rock chamber of G 7000x.

On the other hand, it can be argued that moving to a new grave would hardly leave behind such an important utensil as the canopic box. It is possible that the grave was reused under Cheops as an old grave from the 3rd dynasty with an existing alabaster sarcophagus and canopic box to store the mummy of Hetepheres. The canopic box contained the entrails of an original burial, Hetepheres canopic box, however, was transported together with the mummy to her new grave. This grave complex could have been the northern secondary pyramid G Ia. The assignment of the two wells to the same grave monument remains very speculative. The plan of the substructure of the alleged pyramid complex G Ix and G 7000x would differ fundamentally from those of other queen pyramids of this time. In addition, there is no evidence for the existence of a pyramid over G Ix.

Tangled Thrones

Representation of Hetepheres I.

Added to the discussion is that for Hetepheres the generally accepted marital connection to Sneferu cannot be clearly proven, even if a close relationship to the kings Sneferu and Cheops is proven by unrolling the seal in the tomb of Hetepheres I. The important title of a king's wife ( Ḥmt-nswt - Hemet-nisut) is not documented for her. Instead, she has other significant titles, including the title of a " daughter of God " ( S3t-nṯr - Sat-netjer) with the addition of nt-ẖt.f (net-chet.ef) , which was used for the first time . Peter Jánosi therefore suspects that Cheops' accession to the throne might not have been lawful: “This strange title as well as the lack of the Ḥmt-nswt title suggest that Cheops was not a direct descendant of Snefru and that his descent with the help of a“ pseudo-genealogical ”title his mother ( S3t-nṯr-nt-ẖt.f ) traced back to a divine family tree (son of a " daughter of God ") in order to underpin his ancestry and thus also his claim to power or a relative of Sneferu. In this context, it should also be understood that Cheops had to "have his mother's grave laid out at his predecessor's own pyramid complex in Giza, with the concealment of his actual physical origin and in the absence of a corresponding burial place".

Furthermore, the title of "Head of the Butchers of the Acacia House" attests to Hetepheres I a function in the death cult of a king. It is obvious that this is Snefru, which also shows that she survived it. Roman Gundacker concludes from this that she “could therefore never have been buried in a place other than Giza.” Nevertheless, a grave in Dahshur or Meidum that corresponded to her position before Cheops accession to the throne may have belonged to her. At the moment when Cheops became king, this no longer lived up to the rank of royal mother.

literature

  • Vivienne G. Callender: Queen Hetepheres I. In: Bulletin of the Australian Center for Egyptology. No. 1, 1990, pp. 25-29 ( online ; PDF; 258 kB).
  • Maria Sole Croce: The burial equipment of Queen Hetepheres. In: Alessandro Bongioanni, Maria Sole Croce (Ed.): Egyptian Museum Cairo. (National Geographic Art Guide), Hamburg 2002, pp. 88–91.
  • IES Edwards : Review of Mark Lehner's “The Pyramid Tomb of Hetep-heres and the Satellite Pyramid of Khufu.” In: Journal of Egyptian Archeology. (JEA) No. 75, 1989, pp. 261-265, ( online ; PDF; 546 kB).
  • Roman Gundacker : Hetepheres I. and the riddle of her burial. In: Sokar. No. 12, 2006, pp. 30-39.
  • Roman Gundacker: Investigations into the chronology of the rule of Snofru (= contributions to Egyptology. Vol. 22). Vienna 2006, especially pp. 253–264.
  • Peter Jánosi : Comments on the origin, location and dating of the necropolis of Giza under Cheops. In: Sokar. No. 4, 1st half of 2002, pp. 4–9, ( online ; PDF; 1.0 MB).
  • Peter Jánosi: Giza in the 4th dynasty. The building history and occupancy of a necropolis in the Old Kingdom. Volume I: The mastabas of the core cemeteries and the rock graves. Publishing house of the Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna 2005, ( online ; PDF; 9.3 MB).
  • Peter Jánosi: The pyramids of the queens (= investigations of the Cairo branch of the Austrian Archaeological Institute. Vol. 13; Memoranda of the entire academy. Vol. 13). Publishing house of the Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna 1996, ISBN 3-7001-2207-1 , pp. 13-19.
  • Mark Lehner : The Pyramid Tomb of Hetep-heres and the Satellite Pyramid of Khufu . German Archaeological Institute Cairo Department, Special Edition 19, von Zabern, Mainz 1985, ISBN 3-8053-0814-0 , ( PDF; 55 MB ).
  • Peter the Manuelian : Giza, Hetepheres tomb. In: Kathryn A. Bard (Ed.): Encyclopedia of the Archeology of Ancient Egypt. Routledge, London 1999, ISBN 0-415-18589-0 , pp. 340-42.
  • Hans-Hubertus Münch: Categorizing Archaeological Finds: the Funerary Material of Queen Hetepheres I at Giza. In: Antiquity. No. 74, 2000, pp. 898-908. ( online ; PDF; 17.0 MB)
  • Bertha Porter, Rosalind LB Moss: Topographical Bibliography of Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphic Texts, Reliefs, and Paintings. III. Memphis. Part I. Abu Rawash to Abusir. Oxford 1974, pp. 179-182, ( online ; PDF; 31.0 MB).
  • George Andrew Reisner : A history of the Giza necropolis. Vol. 2: The tomb of Hetep-Heres, the mother of Cheops: a study of Egyptian civilization in the Old Kingdom. completed and revised by William Stevenson Smith, Oxford University Press 1955 ( PDF; 76.9 MB ).
  • George Andrew Reisner: Hetep-Heres, Mother of Cheops. In: Bulletin of the Museum of Fine Arts. No. 25, Boston 1927, pp. 1–36, ( online ; PDF; 10.9 MB).
  • George Andrew Reisner: The Household Furniture of Queen Hetep-heres I. In: Bulletin of the Museum of Fine Arts. No. 27, Boston 1927, pp. 83-90, ( online ; PDF; 2.1 MB).
  • George Andrew Reisner: The Empty Sarcophagus of the Mother of Cheops. In: Bulletin of the Museum of Fine Arts. No. 26. Boston 1928, pp. 76-88.
  • George Andrew Reisner: The Development of the Egyptian Tomb down to the Accession of Cheops. London 1936.
  • William Stevenson Smith: The Tomb of Hetep-heres I. In: Bulletin of the Museum of Fine Arts. No. 51, Boston 1953, pp. 23–30, ( PDF; 2.3 MB ).

Web links

Commons : Tomb of Hetepheres I.  - Collection of images, videos and audio files
  • Museum of Fine Arts, Boston: The Giza Archives Numerous photos, excavation reports and publications. Search for "Hetepheres I."

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Peter Jánosi: The pyramids of the queens. Vienna 1996, p. 13.
  2. ^ Roman Gundacker: Hetepheres I. and the riddle of their burial. In: Sokar. No. 12, 2006, pp. 36-37.
  3. ↑ Nicholas Reeves : Ancient Egypt, The Great Discoveries: A year-by-year Chronicle , London 2000, ISBN 0-5000-5105-4 , p. 170
  4. ↑ George Andrew Reisner: A history of the Giza necropolis, Vol.2: The tomb of Hetep-Heres, the mother of Cheops: a study of Egyptian civilization in the Old Kingdom , completed and revised by William Stevenson Smith, Oxford University Press, 1955, pp. XXV-XXVI .; Miroslav Verner : The pyramids (= rororo non-fiction book. Volume 60890). Rowohlt, Reinbek bei Hamburg 1999, ISBN 3-499-60890-1 , pp. 242-246; Mark Lehner: Secret of the Pyramids. Munich 1997, p. 117.
  5. ↑ a b The mysterious tomb of Queen Hetepheres ( Memento of the original from September 6, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. . quoted by Lindon Smith from Nicholas Reeves : Ancient Egypt: the great discoveries: a year-by-year chronicle. New edition, Thames & Hudson, London 2000, ISBN 9780500051054 ; From: www.meritneith.de , accessed on November 20, 2013.  @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.meritneith.de
  6. ^ Reisner: A history of the Giza necropolis. Vol. 2, pp. XXV-XXVI.
  7. ↑ George Andrew Reisner: A history of the Giza necropolis, Vol.2: The tomb of Hetep-Heres, the mother of Cheops: a study of Egyptian civilization in the Old Kingdom , completed and revised by William Stevenson Smith, Oxford University Press, 1955.
  8. ↑ a b Reisner: A history of the Giza necropolis. Vol. 2, pp. 13-22.
  9. ^ Roman Gundacker: Hetepheres I. and the riddle of their burial. In: Sokar. No. 12, 2006, p. 32.
  10. ^ Roman Gundacker: Hetepheres I. and the riddle of their burial. In: Sokar. No. 12, 2006, pp. 30-39.
  11. ^ Reisner: A history of the Giza necropolis. Vol. 2, pp. 15-16.
  12. ^ Reisner: A history of the Giza necropolis. Vol. 2, p. 15, pp. 21-22.
  13. ↑ Maria Sole Croce: The grave equipment of Queen Hetepheres. In: Alessandro Bongioanni, Maria Sole Croce (ed.): Ägyptisches Museum Kairo (National Geographic Art Guide), Hamburg, 2002, pp. 88–89 .; Reisner: A history of the Giza necropolis. Vol. 2, pp. 32-33.
  14. ↑ Croce: The burial equipment of Queen Hetepheres. P. 90 .; Reisner: A history of the Giza necropolis. Vol. 2, pp. 28-29.
  15. ↑ Croce: The burial equipment of Queen Hetepheres. P. 90 .; Reisner: A history of the Giza necropolis. Vol. 2, pp. 29-32.
  16. ↑ Croce: The burial equipment of Queen Hetepheres. P. 91.
  17. ↑ Croce: The burial equipment of Queen Hetepheres. P. 91 .; Reisner: A history of the Giza necropolis. Vol. 2, pp. 33-34.
  18. ^ Reisner: A history of the Giza necropolis. Vol. 2, p. 16.
  19. ↑ Croce: The burial equipment of Queen Hetepheres. P. 89.
  20. ^ Reisner: A history of the Giza necropolis. Vol. 2, pp. 23-27.
  21. ^ Reisner: A history of the Giza necropolis. Vol. 2, pp. 36-40.
  22. ↑ Croce: The burial equipment of Queen Hetepheres. P. 91 .; Reisner: A history of the Giza necropolis. Vol. 2, pp. 43-44.
  23. ↑ Croce: The burial equipment of Queen Hetepheres. P. 91 .; Reisner: A history of the Giza necropolis. Vol. 2, pp. 45-46.
  24. ^ Reisner: A history of the Giza necropolis. Vol. 2, pp. 34-35.
  25. ↑ Michael Haase: A place for eternity. The pyramid complex of Cheops. Mainz am Rhein, 2004, p. 75.
  26. ^ Reisner: A History of the Giza Necropolis. Volume II, pp. 60-89.
  27. ^ Reisner: A History of the Giza Necropolis. Vol. 2, pp. 90-102.
  28. ^ Gundacker: Hetepheres I. In: Sokar 12, p. 33 and also Peter Jánosi: The pyramids of the queens. Vienna 1996, p. 13ff .; Lehner: The Pyramid Tomb of Hetep-heres and the Satellite Pyramid of Khufu. P. 1; Haase: Places for eternity. P. 75.
  29. ↑ a b c d Gundacker: Hetepheres I. In: Sokar 12, p. 33.
  30. ↑ George Andrew Reisner: The Empty Sarcophagus of the Mother of Cheops. In: Bulletin of the Museum of Fine Arts. No. 26. Boston 1928, pp. 76ff.
  31. ^ George Andrew Reisner: The Development of the Egyptian Tomb down to the Accession of Cheops. London 1936.
  32. ^ IES Edwards: Review The Pyramid Tomb of Hetep-heres and the Satellite Pyramid of Khufu. By Mark Lehner. In: JEA 75, 1989 , p. 261.
  33. ^ Reisner, Smith: A History of the Giza Necropolis. Volume II, 1955, pp. 1-12; Lehner: The Pyramid Tomb of Hetep-heres and the Satellite Pyramid of Khufu. Pp. 2-5.
  34. ^ Lehner: The Pyramid Tomb of Hetep-heres and the Satellite Pyramid of Khufu. P. 3 with reference to Smith: The Cambridge Ancient History. 1971, p. 168.
  35. ^ Lehner: The Pyramid Tomb of Hetep-heres and the Satellite Pyramid of Khufu. Pp. 4-5.
  36. ↑ Peter Jánosi: The pyramids of the queens. Vienna, 1996, p. 14.
  37. ↑ Gundacker: Hetepheres I. In: Sokar. No. 12, pp. 35-36.
  38. ^ Lehner: The Pyramid Tomb of Hetep-heres and the Satellite Pyramid of Khufu. Pp. 35-39, pp. 41-44; Haase: A place for eternity. P. 77.
  39. ↑ Haase: A place for eternity. P. 77.
  40. ↑ Verner: The pyramids. P. 245.
  41. ^ Roman Gundacker: Hetepheres I. and the riddle of their burial. In: Sokar. No. 12, 2006, p. 30.
  42. ↑ Peter Jánosi: Giza in the 4th Dynasty. The building history and occupancy of a necropolis in the Old Kingdom. Volume I: The mastabas of the core cemeteries and the rock graves. Vienna, 2005, p. 62.
  43. ^ Jánosi: Giza in the 4th dynasty. P. 63.
  44. ↑ Gundacker: Hetepheres I. In: Sokar. No. 12, p. 32.

Coordinates: 29 ° 58 ′ 44.9 ″  N , 31 ° 8 ′ 11.6 ″  E

This version was added to the list of articles worth reading on November 30, 2013 .