Copper gold mole

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Copper gold mole
Systematics
Subclass : Higher mammals (Eutheria)
Superordinate : Afrotheria
without rank: Afroinsectiphilia
Order : Tenrecus (Afrosoricida)
Family : Gold mole (Chrysochloridae)
Genre : Copper gold mole
Scientific name
Amblysomus
Pomel , 1848

The copper gold mulle ( Amblysomus ), also called African gold mole or copper mole , are a genus of mammals from the family of the gold mole (Chrysochloridae). The genus currently comprises five species, of which the Hottentot gold mole is the most widespread, best known and best researched; however, genetic studies suggest that this is composed of several cryptic species . All representatives are native to southern Africa and mostly live in moderately humid open to closed landscapes with loose soils. Like the other Goldmulle, they also live underground, to which they are adapted with a spindle-shaped body and powerful grave claws on the front feet. With these, they create extensive tunnel systems that are aggressively defended. Their main diet consists of invertebrates , and reproduction has generally been little studied. The genus was introduced in 1848, but it was not until the end of the 20th century that it became clear about its taxonomic composition. With the exception of the Hottentot gold mole, the species are more or less threatened.

features

Habitus

The copper gold mulle are small to medium-sized representatives of the gold mole (Chrysochloridae). The head-torso length of Marley's golden mole ( Amblysomus marleyi ) as the smallest form is 9 to 12 cm, the robust golden mole ( Amblysomus robustus ) is the largest species with a length of 11.8 to 14.3 cm. The weight varies accordingly between 30 and 98 g. As with all gold molluscs, the body structure of the animals is adapted to a way of life that digs underground; this makes them similar to the moles , but not related to them. The body is designed in a spindle shape, ears and tail are not externally visible. The eyes are also covered with fur, while the snout has a leather-like padding, which is also used for digging. The fur is characterized by dark gray-black to reddish-brown shades, which the copper gold mole owes its name to, but the underside usually appears a little lighter. The limbs are strong and short, the hands have four, the feet have five rays. The front limbs are transformed into digging tools, they each have a particularly massive digging claw on the central ray (finger III), the other claws are correspondingly shorter.

Skull and dentition features

The skull has a length of 22.4 to 32 mm and a width of 13.9 to 20.4 mm. Overall, it has a conical shape and is characterized by an elongated rostrum . The largest skull width is in the area of ​​the brain skull. In comparison with other gold mole, the skull is relatively narrow, the greatest width is less than 70%, the greatest length, the palate width is less than 29% of the skull length. The zygomatic arch is completely closed, it does not end in broad plates at the back, as occurs for example in the giant gold mole ( Chrysospalax ). In the middle ear , the hammer is not enlarged, which makes it appear more original, its weight is usually less than 1 mg. The teeth of the amblysomus comprises 36 teeth, the dental formula is: . The canine is similar to the incisor , the premolars have two pointed cusps ( bicuspid or sectorial ). The molars, on the other hand, have three cusps ( tricuspid ) and a well-developed talonid in the lower row of teeth (a deep protrusion of the chewing surface into which one of the main cusps of the upper molars grips when the bite is closed). The rearmost, third molar is rarely developed. The entire row of teeth from the canine to the last molar is 5.3 to 7.6 mm.

distribution

The copper gold mole is native to southern Africa . They inhabit different habitats in Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany , a biogeographical zone along the southeast coast of Africa, which is considered a biodiversity hotspot . The individual populations are adapted to medium-humid ( Mesian ) landscapes. As a result, they occur in parts of the fynbos , the highveld and the forest zone near the coast, the altitude range extends from sea level to 3,300 m. The animals can mainly be found in grasslands and wooded areas, in mountainous shrub landscapes and in savannas . With the exception of the Hottentot gold mole rat ( Amblysomus hottentotus ), which has a wide distribution area, the other species have a very localized occurrence. Due to their subterranean way of life, the animals are bound to sandy to loamy soils and do not tolerate rocky subsoil. However, they sometimes penetrate into cultivated landscapes such as gardens or plantations.

Way of life

Territorial behavior

The way of life is only better researched in the Hottentot gold mole rat, but is likely to be similar in all species. Like all gold mole, the animals mostly live underground, where they create passages just below the surface of the earth to search for food and deep passages and burrows as resting places. The copper gold mole live solitary and react aggressively to conspecifics, which means that they show pronounced territorial behavior. The activities can take place both during the day and at night, depending on the ambient temperature of the soil. If the soil temperature is too high or very low, the animals fall into a torpor . They are rarely found on the earth's surface. It is assumed that due to the normally built, not inflated hammer in the middle ear, the copper gold mole, unlike some other gold mole, can only perceive low-frequency noises and seismic signals to a limited extent and therefore avoid the earth's surface. As a possible acoustic and / or seismic means of communication with conspecifics, head blows against the walls of the burrows were observed, which again does not occur with gold mole with an enlarged hammer. Various vocalizations are also documented.

nutrition

The food of the copper gold mole consists mainly of invertebrates , earthworms and insects and their larvae make up the largest proportion . The prey is tracked underground, which is mostly done through touch or possibly vibration and less through the sense of smell .

Reproduction

The reproduction of the copper gold mulle has been little researched. The subterranean way of life and the poorly developed eyes do not allow a partner to be selected through optical stimuli, which means that vocalizations and scent marks may have a greater significance. Research suggests that the length of the penis plays a certain role, as the results show that there is a positive correlation with body size, but not with the weight of the testicles and the dimensions of other parts of the body. According to this, males with longer penis could have an advantage as they deposit their sperm closer to the point of fertilization during sexual intercourse. The advertising behavior consists of different vocalizations of both sexes as well as of foot trampling and up and down head movements in the male. The females give birth to between one and three young which grow up in a grass-padded burrow. The young are nestled and therefore have no fur. They remain in the Hottentot Goldmull up to a weight of 35 to 45 grams and are then driven away by the mother.

Systematics

Internal systematics of the gold mole according to Asher et al. 2010
 Chrysochloridae  




 Eremitalpa


   

 Huetia


   

 Cryptochloris


   

 Chrysochloris





   

 Chrysospalax



   

 Calcochloris



   

 Chlorotalpa


   


 Carpitalpa


   

 Neamblysomus 



  Amblysomus  

 Amblysomus corriae


   

 Amblysomus hottentotus


   

 Amblysomus marleyi


   

 Amblysomus robustus


   

 Amblysomus septentrionalis


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Auguste Pomel

The copper gold mulle form a genus within the family of the gold mole (Chrysochloridae) and the superordinate order of the Afrotheria . The family includes smaller, soil-digging mammals that are endemic to Africa , with a focus, with few exceptions, in southern Africa. The closest relatives of the golden mole are the tenreks (Tenrecidae), which are also common in Africa ; both together form the order of the Afrosoricida . According to molecular genetic studies, the golden mole and tenreks separated in the transition from the Upper Cretaceous to the Paleocene around 65 million years ago, and during the Oligocene around 28.5 million years ago the golden mole began to diversify more strongly.

Due to the underground way of life, the golden mole are habitat specialists, the occurrence of numerous species is therefore clearly limited locally. However, two ecological groups can be differentiated within the family. A includes forms with adaptation to dry to some semi-desert regions, such as the Grant's golden mole ( Eremitalpa ) or chrysochloris ( Chrysochloris ). The other consists of inhabitants of open grass and savannah landscapes as well as forests, such as the copper gold mulle, the giant gold mulle ( Chrysospalax ) or Arends' gold mulle ( Carpitalpa ). The internal structure of the family has not yet been fully clarified. A distinction is often made between two or three subfamilies, which are defined by the structure of the hammer in the middle ear : the Amblysominae with a normally built malleus, the Chrysochlorinae with a greatly elongated head of the malleus and the Eremitalpinae with a spherically inflated head of the malleus. The latter two are, however, also grouped by some scientists into a subfamily, the Chrysochlorinae. Molecular genetic analyzes have so far not been able to fully confirm this subdivision based on differences in skeletal anatomy. According to these, Neamblysomus and Carpitalpa are the closest relatives of the copper gold mole.

In the past, the representatives of the genera Neamblysomus , Chlorotalpa and Calcochloris were also incorporated into the copper gold mulle. The genera differ in some anatomical features, for example in the general shape of the skull and in special dentition features. For example, the copper gold mole, but also the members of Calcochloris largely lack the rearmost (third) molars, which are developed in the representatives of Neamblysomus and Chlorotalpa . In contrast, the copper gold mulle in turn have a pronounced talonid on the lower molars, which also occurs in Chlorotalpa , but not in Neamblysomus and Calcochloris . Further deviations can be found in the expression of the hyoid bone . In addition, differences in the karyotype can also be determined, so that a division into several genera appears justified.

Five recent species are currently distinguished within the genus:

An extinct species is also recognized:

The first scientific description of Amblysomus was made by Auguste Pomel in 1848. At that time he classified the genus in the moles and saw them as a subgenus of Chrysochloris , which, unlike the latter, lacks the rear molar tooth and the enlarged hammer in the middle ear . The Hottentot gold mole is considered a type.

On the biodiversity of the copper gold mole

Internal system of the copper gold mulle according to Mynhardt et al. 2015
 Amblysomus  


 Amblysomus marleyi


   

 Amblysomus ( h. ) Meesteri



   

 Amblysomus corriae


   


 Amblysomus ( h. ) Iris


   

 Amblysomus ( h. ) Natalensis



   

 Amblysomus ( h. ) Pondoliae


   

 Amblysomus hottentotus


   

 Mthatha population


   


 Amblysomus septentrionalis


   

 Amblysomus robustus



   

 Amblysomus ( h. ) Longiceps









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The copper gold mole represent the most diverse group of gold mole. Their species composition has changed over time and is still the subject of discussion today, which results from their underground and thus hidden way of life and their narrowly defined distribution areas. The species Amblysomus iris existed until the 1990s , some of which were called "Zulu Goldmull". Here, morphometric studies showed that the population on which it was based was composed of several species. Due to the features of the skull, the type shape turned out to be more closely related to the Hottentot gold mole , another showed closer ties to a group that is now known as the fynbos gold mole . In the same period of time, genetic analyzes again showed that a third group within Amblysomus iris has a different set of chromosomes . Most copper mole rats have 30 pairs of chromosomes, the Highveld gold mole , which originally represented the third group of Amblysomus iris , has 34, while the robust gold mole , a previously unknown population within the Hottentot gold mole, even has 36. These results prompted Gary N. Bronner to dissolve the species Amblysomus iris in the mid-1990s and to rearrange the copper gold mulle with its current structure into five species. In 2000, Bronner led A. h. meesteri introduced a new subspecies of the Hottentot gold mole, due to deviations in the telomer structure of the chromosomes, this probably represents an independent, sixth type of copper gold mole.

The independence of A. h. meesteri could not only confirm another Genstudie from the year 2015, she was required beyond that of the Hottentot Goldmull in its current definition does not monophyletic and his previous subspecies are likely also to be regarded as independent. In addition, Amblysomus natalensis from the region around Durban as well as a previously unnamed population from Mthatha would have to be raised to the species level. The first form was introduced by Austin Roberts in 1946, but was previously synonymous with A. h. pondoliae . The latter has not yet received a scientific description. A preliminary study sees at least A. h. meesteri and A. h. longiceps in an independent species status.

The formation of the copper gold mole falls in the Pliocene 5 to 3 million years ago and is connected with the rise of the Great Escarpment , in connection with which there was a dramatic change in relief and local climate. In addition, the considerable climatic fluctuations as a result of the alternating warm and cold periods during the Pleistocene probably also had an influence on the further diversification of the copper gold mole. So far, there is still a lack of additional investigations that also include morphometric data to confirm the respective independence of the new species adopted.

Tribal history

Fossil remains of the gold mole are extremely rare. A nearly complete, around 24 mm long and 17 mm wide skull from the important early human cave site of Makapansgat in South Africa is possibly for the copper gold mole . The short and wide shape of the skull is striking - the largest width of the skull is 75% of the length - as well as the formation of only nine teeth per half of the jaw. In addition, the typical bony bulges on the temporal pit are missing , which in some gold moles, such as the Cape gold mole ( Chrysochloris ) and the desert gold mole ( Eremitalpa ), accommodate the enlarged head of the hammer in the middle ear. The skull was not found in the stratified structure, but was encased in a yellowish-gray breccia . No further remains were discovered. The age of the site dates from the Pliocene to the transition to the Pleistocene 3.5 to 2.5 million years ago. Gerrit de Graaff gave the fossil the scientific name Chrysotricha hamiltoni in 1958 . The generic name Chrysotricha was often used in the first half of the 20th century for the yellow gold mole ( Calcochloris obtusirostris ), but is now synonymous with Calcochloris . Austin Roberts used them in the 1920s to separate forms with only 36 teeth and missing talonid on the lower molars, as well as with broad skulls from those with the same number of teeth, but developed talonid and narrow skulls of the genus Amblysomus . In the 1960s to 1980s, however, some researchers saw the representatives of Chrysostricha ( Calcochloris ) as part of the copper gold mole. Percy M. Butler moved the fossil form Chrysostricha hamiltoni in 1978 without giving any further reasons to the copper gold mulls, in which it is still listed today.

Threat and protection

With the exception of the Hottentot gold mole, which is relatively widespread, all other types of copper gold mole are considered by the IUCN to be more or less threatened. Their living space is very limited and affected by changes caused by agriculture, forestry or the extraction of raw materials. However, most species also tolerate certain human influences, as the animals occur in cultivated landscapes, among other things. With the exception of the Highveld gold mole, the copper gold mole are present in local nature reserves.

literature

  • Gary N. Bronner: Genus Amblysomus Golden-mole. In: Jonathan Kingdon, David Happold, Michael Hoffmann, Thomas Butynski, Meredith Happold and Jan Kalina (eds.): Mammals of Africa Volume I. Introductory Chapters and Afrotheria. Bloomsbury, London, 2013, pp. 226-233
  • Gary N. Bronner and Nigel C. Bennett: Genus Amblysomus Pomel, 1848. In: John D. Skinner and Christian T. Chimimba (Eds.): The Mammals of the Southern African Subregion. Cambridge University Press, 2005, pp. 16-21
  • Ronald M. Nowak: Walker's Mammals of the World . The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 1999, ISBN 0-8018-5789-9
  • William A. Taylor, Samantha Mynhardt and Sarita Maree: Chrysochloridae (Golden moles). In: Don E. Wilson and Russell A. Mittermeier (eds.): Handbook of the Mammals of the World. Volume 8: Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona 2018, pp. 180–203 ISBN 978-84-16728-08-4
  • Don E. Wilson and DeeAnn M. Reeder (Eds.): Mammal Species of the World . 3rd edition. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 2005, ISBN 0-8018-8221-4

Individual evidence

  1. ^ A b c d e f g h i Gary N. Bronner and Nigel C. Bennett: Genus Amblysomus Pomel, 1848. In: John D. Skinner and Christian T. Chimimba (eds.): The Mammals of the Southern African Subregion. Cambridge University Press, 2005, pp. 16-21
  2. ↑ a b c d e f g h i Gary N. Bronner: Genus Amblysomus Golden-mole. In: Jonathan Kingdon, David Happold, Michael Hoffmann, Thomas Butynski, Meredith Happold and Jan Kalina (eds.): Mammals of Africa Volume I. Introductory Chapters and Afrotheria. Bloomsbury, London, 2013, pp. 226-233
  3. ↑ Matthew J. Mason, Sarah J. Lucas, Erica R. Wise, Robin S. Stein and Melinda J. Duer: Ossicular density in golden moles (Chrysochloridae). Journal of Comparative Physiology A 192, 2006, pp. 1349-1357
  4. ↑ a b c d Samantha Mynhardt, Sarita Maree, Illona Pelser, Nigel C. Bennett, Gary N. Bronner, John W. Wilson and Paulette Bloomer: Phylogeography of a Morphologically Cryptic Golden Mole Assemblage from South-Eastern Africa. PlosONE 10 (12), 2015, p. E0144995 doi : 10.1371 / journal.pone.0144995
  5. ↑ a b c M. A. Kuyper: The ecology of the golden mole Amblysomus hottentotus. Mammal Review 15 (1), 1985, pp. 3-11
  6. ^ Matthew J. Mason: Bone conduction and seismic sensitivity in golden moles (Chrysochloridae). Journal of Zoology 260, 2003, pp. 405-413
  7. ^ Matthew J. Mason and Peter M. Narins: Seismic Signal Use by Fossorial Mammals. American Zoologist 41 (5), 2001, pp. 1171-1184
  8. ↑ Tarryn A. Retief, Nigel C. Bennett, Anouska A. Kinahan and Philip W. Bateman: Sexual selection and genital allometry in the Hottentot golden mole (Amblysomus hottentotus). Mammalian Biology 78, 2013, pp. 356-360
  9. ^ A b Robert J. Asher, Sarita Maree, Gary Bronner, Nigel C. Bennett, Paulette Bloomer, Paul Czechowski, Matthias Meyer and Michael Hofreiter: A phylogenetic estimate for golden moles (Mammalia, Afrotheria, Chrysochloridae). MC Evolutionary Biology 10, 2010, p. 69 doi : 10.1186 / 1471-2148-10-69
  10. Jump up ↑ Robert W. Meredith, Jan E. Janečka, John Gatesy, Oliver A. Ryder, Colleen A. Fisher, Emma C. Teeling, Alisha Goodbla, Eduardo Eizirik, Taiz LL Simão, Tanja Stadler, Daniel L. Rabosky, Rodney L. Honeycutt, John J. Flynn, Colleen M. Ingram, Cynthia Steiner, Tiffani L. Williams, Terence J. Robinson, Angela Burk-Herrick, Michael Westerman, Nadia A. Ayoub, Mark S. Springer, and William J. Murphy: Impacts of the Cretaceous Terrestrial Revolution and KPg Extinction on Mammal Diversification. Science 334, 2011, pp. 521-524
  11. ↑ C. Gilbert, PC O'Brien, G. Bronner, F. Yang, A. Hassanin, MA Ferguson-Smith and TJ Robinson: Chromosome painting and molecular dating indicate a low rate of chromosomal evolution in golden moles (Mammalia, Chrysochloridae) . Chromosome Research 14, 2006, pp. 793-803
  12. ^ Gary N. Bronner: Order Afrosoricida Tenrecs, Otter-Shrews, Golden-moles. In: Jonathan Kingdon, David Happold, Michael Hoffmann, Thomas Butynski, Meredith Happold and Jan Kalina (eds.): Mammals of Africa Volume I. Introductory Chapters and Afrotheria. Bloomsbury, London, 2013, pp. 214-215
  13. ^ A b Alberto M. Simonetta: A new golden mole from Somalia with an appendix on the taxonomy of the family Chrysochloridae (Mammalia, Insectivora). Monitore Zoologico Italiano NS Supplement 2, 1968, pp. 27-55
  14. ^ Gary N. Bronner: Family Chrysochloridae Golden-moles. In: Jonathan Kingdon, David Happold, Michael Hoffmann, Thomas Butynski, Meredith Happold and Jan Kalina (eds.): Mammals of Africa Volume I. Introductory Chapters and Afrotheria. Bloomsbury, London, 2013, pp. 223-225
  15. ^ A b F. Petter: Remarques sur la systematique des Chrysochlorides. Mammalia 45 (1), 1981, pp. 49-53
  16. ^ Gary N. Bronner: Comparative hyoid morphology of nine chrysochlorid species (Mammalia: Chrysochloridae). Annals of the Transvaal Museum 35 (21), 1991, pp. 295-311
  17. ^ A b Gary N. Bronner: Cytogenetic Properties of Nine Species of Golden Moles (Insectivora: Chrysochloridae). Journal of Mammalogy 76 (3), 1995, pp. 957-971
  18. ^ William A. Taylor, Samantha Mynhardt and Sarita Maree: Chrysochloridae (Golden moles). In: Don E. Wilson and Russell A. Mittermeier (eds.): Handbook of the Mammals of the World. Volume 8: Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona 2018, pp. 180–203 ISBN 978-84-16728-08-4
  19. ↑ a b Robert J Asher: Tenrecoidea. In: Lars Werdelin and William Joseph Sanders (eds.): Cenozoic Mammals of Africa. University of California Press, Berkeley, London, New York, 2010, pp. 99-106
  20. ↑ Auguste Pomel: Etudes sur les carnassiers insectivores (extrait). Seconde partie, Classification des insectivores. Archives des Sciences Physiques et Naturelles, Geneve 9, 1848, pp. 244-251 ( [1] )
  21. ^ Gary N. Bronner: Geographic patterns of morphometric variation in the Hottentot golden mole, Amblysomus hottentotus (Insectivora: Chrysochloridae). A multivariate analysis. Mammalia 60 (4), 1996, pp. 729-751
  22. ^ Gary N. Bronner: Non-eographic variation in morphological characteristics of the Hottentot golden mole, Amblysomus hottentotus (Insectivora: Chrysochloridae). Mammalia 60 (4), 1996, pp. 707-727
  23. ^ Gary N. Bronner: New species and subspecies of Golden Mole (Chrysochloridae: Amblysomus) from Mpumalanga, South Africa. Mammalia 64 (1), 2000, pp. 41-54
  24. ↑ C. Gilbert, S. Maree and TJ Robinson: Chromosomal evolution and distribution of telomeric repeats in golden moles (Chrysochloridae, Mammalia). Cytogenetic Genome Research 121, 2008, pp. 110-119
  25. ^ Gary Bronner: An imminent updated (2017) taxonomy for golden moles. Afrotherian Conservation 14, 2018, pp. 57–59
  26. ^ G. de Graaff: A new chrysochlorid from Makapansgat. Palaeontologia Africana 5, 1958, pp. 21-27
  27. ^ Robert Broom: A contribution to the knowledge of the cape golden moles. Transactions of the South African Philosophical Society 18, 1907, pp. 283-311 ( [2] )
  28. ^ Austin Roberts: Some additions to the list of South African mammals. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 10 (2), 1924, pp. 59-76
  29. ↑ Percy M. Butler: Insectivora and Chiroptera. In: Vincent J. Maglio and HBS Cooke (Eds.): Evolution of African Mammals. Harvard University Press, 1978, pp. 56-68
  30. ^ IUCN: The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2015-4. ( [3] )

Web links

Commons : Kupfergoldmulle ( Amblysomus )  - Collection of pictures, videos and audio files