Ludwik Fleck

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Ludwik Fleck , also Ludwig Fleck (born July 11, 1896 in Lemberg , Austria-Hungary , † June 5, 1961 in Nes Ziona , Israel ) was a Polish microbiologist , immunologist and epistemologist . His main philosophical work, The Origin and Development of a Scientific Fact, is a classic of modern science research . The work has exerted a considerable influence in the disciplines of the history of science , philosophy of science , the sociology of science and the history of ideas .

According to Fleck, a successful epistemology must take into account the historical and social factors that shape cognitive criteria. In connection with this thesis he rejects the formulation of universal cognitive criteria and is considered a pioneer of historical epistemology . Fleck's philosophical work was largely ignored during his lifetime: in the first twenty years after the publication of his main work, fewer than 500 copies were probably sold. The more recent reception was initiated by Thomas S. Kuhn , who noted in the foreword to The Structure of Scientific Revolutions that Fleck "anticipates many of my own thoughts."

In the life sciences, Fleck was primarily known as a microbiologist, especially a typhus researcher. In 1930 he described the first reliable skin test for detecting typhus.

Life

Ludwik Fleck's parents, Sabina (née Herschdörfer) and Maurycy Fleck, who ran a medium-sized painting business, shared their Polish mother tongue with around three quarters and their Jewish religion with around a quarter of the population of Lviv. In addition to Polish, the city, which until the First World War was the cultural, commercial and administrative center of the Habsburg crown land of Galicia and Lodomeria , spoke primarily German - which was later to be as fluent as its mother tongue - as well as Yiddish and Ukrainian .

Training and research activities in Lviv (1914–1939)

After attending the Polish humanistic grammar school , Fleck began studying medicine at the University of Lemberg in 1914 , which he had to interrupt during the First World War for military service, during which he worked as a doctor. From 1920, before his doctorate as Dr. med. in 1922, he worked as an assistant to the biologist and typhus specialist Rudolf Weigl, first in a military laboratory in Przemyśl and then at the University of Lemberg ( Lwów in Polish ) in the field of bacteriology .

In 1923 Fleck left the university, founded a private bacteriological laboratory and took over the management of the bacteriological-chemical laboratory of the department of internal medicine and later of the bacteriological laboratory of the department of skin and venereal diseases at the Lemberg General Hospital . In the same year Ludwik Fleck and Ernestyna Waldmann married; their son Ryszard was born in December 1924. After studying at the Serotherapeutic Institute of the University of Vienna with Rudolf Kraus in 1927, Fleck took over the management of the bacteriological laboratory of the local health insurance company, before he worked exclusively in the laboratory he founded himself from 1935 - the year of publication of his main philosophical work, The Origin and Development of a Scientific Fact .

After the invasion of Poland at the beginning of the Second World War, Lviv was annexed by the USSR in 1939 and became part of the Ukrainian Soviet Republic . Fleck returned to his profession and in the following two years became lecturer and head of the department of microbiology at the Ukrainian Medical Institute - which emerged from the medical faculty but now independent - and the director of the Municipal Hygiene Institute, he also took on the function of the expert in the field of serology at the Mother and Child Institute (headed by Franciszek Groër ).

Deportation to the Lviv Ghetto and the Auschwitz and Buchenwald concentration camps (1941–1945)

With the German occupation of Lviv in 1941 (in the course of the German Reich's attack on the Soviet Union ), Fleck - as a member of the imagined Jewish race - lost all positions and was forced to move with his family to the Lviv ghetto , where he was from now on as head of the chemical-bacteriological laboratory in the Jewish hospital, which was provisionally set up in the building of a former grammar school. Within a very short time and under the most adverse conditions, he and his colleagues developed a process for the production of typhus vaccine (urgently needed in the ghetto) from the urine of infected people.

Since the infrastructure available in the hospital was completely inadequate for the production of the required quantities of the serum , the research group contacted the (now German) owner of the Laocoon pharmaceutical factory located near the ghetto ; Fleck and his colleagues offered to give him the patent for the manufacture of the vaccine if they were given the opportunity to manufacture it in the factory. After the research results were checked by German doctors, Fleck was locked up on the factory premises with his family and a few other specialists in December 1942 and forced to continue work on the typhus vaccine for the Germans.

Just two months later, at the beginning of February 1943, Fleck and his family were deported to the Auschwitz concentration camp , where he and his son were initially assigned heavy physical labor. In March both of them contracted typhus, but had to continue working despite the high fever. As a result of a broken rib inflicted on him by a nationalist-minded prisoner, Fleck was finally hospitalized in a semi-conscious state. After his recovery, he worked as the head of the serological laboratory (to which his wife and later his son were also assigned) at the Institute for Hygiene in Block 10 of the camp - the same premises where medical experiments on prisoners under the direction of SS doctor Carl Clauberg were carried out.

In January 1944 stain was on the orders of the SS Economic and Administrative Main Office in the Buchenwald concentration camp deported and there in a laboratory under the direction of forced until the liberation in April 1945, Erwin Ding-Schuler in Block 50 research on a typhus vaccine for carry out the hygiene institute of the Waffen SS . Here he took part in an act of sabotage: the group deliberately delivered ineffective vaccine to the SS and produced samples of effective vaccine only for the controls carried out on fellow inmates. Like Fleck himself, his wife and son survived the war, all other family members perished.

The years in Lublin and Warsaw, emigration to Israel (1945–1961)

After several months in hospital, Fleck and his wife went to Lublin , where he worked as the head of the department for medical microbiology of the Faculty of Medicine at the Maria Curie Skłodowska University , after his habilitation with Ludwik Hirszfeld he became an extraordinary in 1947 and in 1950 appointed full professor at the now independent Medical University of Lublin . In 1952 they moved to Warsaw , where Fleck became director of the Department of Microbiology and Immunology of the Mother and Child Institute (Polish Instytut Matki i Dziecka ). In 1954 he was elected a member of the Polish Academy of Sciences .

The post-war years represented a phase of intense medical research for Fleck: in the years after 1945 he supervised more than 50 doctoral theses and published more than 80 studies in Polish, French, English and Swiss scientific journals. Fleck attended lectures and congresses in Denmark , France , the USSR , the USA and Brazil . His research focused on a defense mechanism (the phenomenon of leukocyte agglomeration under stress and infection conditions) which he called leuk energy .

After a heart attack in 1956 and a cancer diagnosis ( lymphosarcoma ) in 1957, Fleck and his wife emigrated to live with their son Ryszard, who had emigrated to Israel after the war . Here Fleck worked at the Israeli Institute for Biological Research in Nes Ziona as head of the department for experimental pathology, in 1959 he was appointed visiting professor for microbiology at the medical faculty of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem .

Ludwik Fleck died on June 5, 1961 at the age of 64 after a second heart attack in Nes Ziona.

Early epistemological writings

Fleck's first epistemological work on some specific characteristics of medical thought was published in Polish in 1927 and was based on a lecture he had given in 1926 to the Society of Friends of the History of Medicine in Lviv . The lecture illustrates the way in which Fleck's understanding of science was shaped by his medical point of view. According to Fleck, medicine is characterized by a number of features that are neglected by theorists and historians of science, since they usually start from the paradigm of physics or chemistry. “The subject of medical knowledge itself differs in principle from the subject of scientific knowledge. While the scientists examined typical, normal phenomena, the doctor studied the very atypical, abnormal, pathological phenomena. "This has the effect that the aim of the medical thinking not to the formulation of general laws of nature should be aligned and that the disease types of medical taxonomy necessarily idealized fictions. The medical description can therefore not formulate a generally valid theory, but is always bound to practically dominated viewpoints .

Fleck's theory of medical thought already anticipates some of his later formulated ideas on the context-boundness of knowledge , but remains limited to medicine, while the classical natural sciences are assigned a description of the world by general natural laws. However, this already changes with Fleck's second epistemological essay On the Crisis of “Reality” , which appeared in 1929 in the journal Die Naturwissenschaften . This essay contains some of von Fleck's most relativistic descriptions that relate to every form of thought and science: “Every thinking individual, as a member of any society, has his own reality in which and according to which he lives. Every human being has even many, contradictory in some realities. The reality of everyday life, a career, a religious, a political and a small scientific reality "spot essay was a response to Kurt Riezler Article The crisis of the 'reality' which is a Had appeared in the same magazine year earlier. According to Riezler, the idea of ​​an absolute reality is in crisis, since within the framework of the theory of relativity and quantum physics the apparently safest knowledge is being shaken and the strict laws of nature are being replaced by "statistical laws". Fleck reacts to this diagnosis by calling for the idea of ​​an absolute reality to be abandoned and the entanglement of observer and observed from quantum theory to be extended to the sciences in general.

The science historian Christian Bonah has pointed out that the scientific crisis debates in the interwar period were not limited to physics, but also gained outstanding importance in Fleck's own research area, medicine. In 1929, for example, Julius Moses published a text entitled The Crisis of Medicine , in which he accused the medical disciplines of having removed themselves from patients and their problems with an increasingly mechanized approach. The criticism of modern medicine reached its peak in 1930 in the course of the Lübeck vaccination accident , in which 77 children died as a result of a contaminated tuberculosis vaccine. Bonah argues that Fleck's work is also to be understood as a reaction to crisis thinking in contemporary medicine.

Origin and Development of a Scientific Fact

Fleck combined scientific and philosophical thinking, individual scientific analysis and general philosophy of science. In his main work, The Origin and Development of a Scientific Fact, he developed the terms thinking style and thinking collective. The concept of the thinking style was taken up again in the philosophy of science, according to Keil, usurping Fleck's model of a “paradigm shift”, by Thomas Kuhn in the form of the paradigm . The idea that Fleck associated with the concept of the thinking collective can be found in Kuhn's conception of normal science .

Thinking collective

According to Flecks, knowledge is a social phenomenon and should therefore not be understood as a two-way relationship between subject and object . Rather, as a third factor in the cognitive process, the thinking collective must be introduced, which is defined “as a community of people who exchange ideas or interact”. In this sense, the thought collective is the "carrier of the historical development of a field of thought, a certain body of knowledge and culture, that is, a special style of thinking."

The concept of the thinking collective is generalized in Flecks work, so that it can be applied to various social contexts. For example, Fleck treats groups of scientists as think tanks when they deal with a problem on a shared experimental and theoretical basis. At the same time, however, he also discusses broader non-scientific contexts with reference to the concept of thinking style. In this sense, the fashion world or a religious community could form a collective of thought. Fleck developed the concept of the thinking collective using the example of the groups of scientists who worked on the diagnosis of syphilis and ultimately came up with the ( Bordet ) Wassermann reaction .

In its simplest form, a thinking collective arises when “two or more people exchange thoughts”. Such a coincidental constellation should, however, be distinguished from stable thought collectives, which are characterized by an established style of thinking with a tendency to persist. Persistence means that the essential beliefs and behavioral patterns are perceived as so natural by the members of the thinking collective that a change seems unthinkable. The fact that changes still occur can primarily be explained by the intercollective intercourse of thoughts, which always "results in a shift or change in thinking values."

Finally, Fleck postulates an internal structure of the thinking collective that can be analyzed from a social science perspective. Of particular importance is the distinction between an esoteric group of specialists and an exoteric group of interested laypeople. There are a number of gradations between these two extremes, for example the general biologist can play an intermediate role between the specialized microbiological syphilis researcher and the interested layperson. According to Fleck, various forms of publication correspond to the internal structure of the collective of thought: journal studies, manual studies and popular science . However, it is not only the esoteric circle that affects the periphery, the intra-collective exchange of ideas rather goes in both directions: popular science "forms specific public opinion and worldview and in this form affects the specialist".

Thinking style

The thinking collective is held together by a style of thinking that Fleck defines as “directed perception, with the corresponding intellectual and objective processing of what is perceived”. The style of thinking determines what is considered a scientific problem, an evident judgment or an appropriate method within the collective . Even what counts as truth can only be determined in the proper resolution of problems:

“ Such a stylish resolution, only possible singularly, is called truth. It is not "relative" or even "subjective" in the popular sense of the word. It is always or almost always completely determined within a thinking style. One can never say that the same thought is true for A and false for B. If A and B belong to the same collective of thought, then the thought is either true or false for both. But if they belong to different groups of thought, then it is just not the same thought, as it must be unclear for one of them or is understood differently by him. "

- Ludwik Fleck

The style of thinking is permanently and slightly changed in the intra- and intercollective exchange of ideas, but at the same time creates a compulsion to think that prevents or at least hampers fundamental changes. According to Fleck, this tendency to persist in thinking style is secured by five strategies. Firstly, a contradiction to the opinion system seems unthinkable, so that contrary evidence is not even searched for. Second, if contradicting evidence should emerge, it would remain unseen and ignored. Third, if a researcher encounters a contradiction, it is often kept secret and not discussed. Fourth, if the contradiction should become obvious, it would be integrated into the opinion system by means of great effort. This feature in particular has received a great deal of attention in recent history and theory of science. A classic example is the construction of epicycles to defend the geocentric worldview . Finally, Fleck argues that a style of thinking even creates observations that correspond to the prevailing view. For example, the analogy of masculine and feminine genitals has been drawn in numerous anatomical textbooks, even if to today's observer it appears to be pure fiction.

If, despite such mechanisms, there is a fundamental change in the style of thinking, the old systems of opinion do not disappear completely, according to Fleck. On the one hand, there are minorities who cling to an old style of thinking, such as astrology , alchemy and magic . In addition, every style of thinking is essentially shaped by its predecessors. “Very few completely new terms are likely to emerge without any relation to previous styles of thinking. Only their coloring usually changes, as the scientific concept of force comes from the everyday concept of force or the new concept of syphilis comes from the mystical. "

Although every style of thinking stands on the shoulders of past opinion systems, the changes can be so fundamental that styles of thinking constitute a completely alien world of thought. As an illustration, Fleck refers to a text from the 18th century that claims that one is lighter after eating than before, just as the living are lighter than the dead and happy people are lighter than sad people. From the perspective of the modern concept of gravity, these claims seem absurd, but they were based on a coherent combination of gravity , clumsiness and melancholy : “These people observed, thought, found similarities and connected, established general principles - and yet one whole different knowledge than us. "

reception

Before World War II

Before the Second World War, Fleck's work was only sparingly received. On the one hand, the intellectual climate of the late 1920s and early 1930s was favorable to Fleck's theses, such as Karl Mannheim's developing sociology of knowledge and the crisis debates in the German-speaking sciences. On the other hand, as an immunologist in Lviv, Poland, Fleck occupied an outsider position in the epistemological debate both professionally and geographically. In addition, there was increasing anti-Semitism , which severely restricted the reception of Fleck's main work, which was published in German in 1935.

Nevertheless, Fleck's work was not completely ignored. From 1937, Fleck led a debate with the Polish scientific theorist Izydora Dąmbska , who, as a representative of the Lemberg-Warsaw School, was strongly influenced by contemporary neopositivism . Dąmbska accused Fleck of propagating an unacceptable relativism, since “denying the possibility of intersubjective knowledge leads to the rejection of the possibility of science”. Fleck responded to the criticism with a defense of the thinking style theory that would rid of outdated prejudices and reveal new areas worth researching. "In this sense, that is, because of its liberating and heuristic role, I think it is true."

Thomas Schnelle and Lothar Schäfer refer to a total of 20 reviews of Fleck's monograph, most of which, however, appeared in medical journals and did not trigger a broad epistemological debate. Among them is a review in the Klinische Wochenschrift , which Fleck's work for National Socialism sought to capture: “In a peculiar and, from this point of view, a little unexpected way, Fleck joins our new German way of thinking, which denies absolute science without any preconditions . ”At the same time, however, it became clear in the review that Fleck's pluralistic ideal of thought collectives in the democratic exchange of ideas could not be reconciled with the National Socialist ideology.

Hesitant rediscovery

After the Second World War, Fleck's writings were largely forgotten. Although Fleck tried to get a new edition of his work, the publisher had concerns as there were still 258 copies of the first edition in 1959. It was only slowly rediscovered one year after Fleck's death in 1961 when Thomas Kuhn's The Structure of Scientific Revolutions was mentioned in the foreword . Kuhn came across Fleck's work by chance and noted in the foreword that it anticipated many of his thoughts.

Beyond this brief remark, Kuhn did not go into any further detail. It was not until the 1970s that works appeared that deal with his work in greater detail. However, these works remained isolated and often viewed Fleck from the perspective of a historical predecessor of Kuhn. But there was also a hidden (clandestine) reception Flecks, e.g. B. with Karl Eduard Rothschuh and Hans Blumenberg . A broad and independent reception came after 1980 through the new edition of the origin and development of a scientific fact , edited by Lothar Schäfer and Thomas Schnelle, with an introduction. An English language edition was published by Thaddeus J. Trenn and Robert K. Merton in 1979 at Chicago University Press .

Newer reception

Fleck's work has become a classic in the history, sociology and theory of science. In 2000, for example, Erich Otto Graf and Karl Mutter declared that Fleck had "largely become mainstream" of the relevant research. Such assessments relate in particular to Fleck's thesis that the development of science cannot be reconstructed with reference to general cognitive criteria and methods . In the sense of Fleck's thinking style theory, various methodological, social and research-practical factors must be taken into account, which are also themselves subject to historical change. Fleck receives special attention in the context of so-called historical epistemology , which examines the historical development of key concepts of knowledge such as observation , experiment , objectivity or argument .

Fleck's work remains controversial in the relationship between epistemology and relativism : If scientific facts can only claim validity in the context of a certain style of thinking, the question arises of the existence of facts that are independent of thinking style and thus of a reality that is independent of thinking style . One of the sharpest critics heard Eva Hedfors that spot as a " Sokal before Sokal designated" and this itself was exposed to massive criticism. Claus Zittel argues that in Fleck's work there is a tension between relativistic assumptions and theses on the function of the style of thinking that claim to be universally valid.

Awards

Fonts

  • Origin and Development of a Scientific Fact. Introduction to the teaching of thinking style and thinking collective . With an introduction edited by Lothar Schäfer and Thomas Schnelle (=  Suhrkamp Taschenbuchwissenschaft . No. 312 ). Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 1980, ISBN 3-518-07912-3 (text identical to the first edition published by Benno Schwabe & Co. in Basel in 1935 ).
  • Experience and fact. Collected essays . With an introduction edited by Lothar Schäfer and Thomas Schnelle (=  Suhrkamp Taschenbuchwissenschaft . No. 404 ). Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 1983, ISBN 3-518-28004-X .
  • Thought styles and facts. Collected writings and certificates . Edited and commented by Sylwia Werner and Claus Zittel, with the assistance of Frank Stahnisch (=  suhrkamp pocket book science . No. 1953 ). Suhrkamp, ​​Berlin 2011, ISBN 978-3-518-29553-3 (with complete bibliography, pp. 656-672).

literature

  • Thomas Schnelle: Ludwik Fleck - living and thinking. On the origin and development of the sociological style of thinking in the philosophy of science (=  Philosophy University Collection: Philosophy . Volume 3 ). Hochschulverlag, Freiburg im Breisgau 1982, ISBN 3-8107-2165-4 (Diss. Phil. Hamburg).
  • Robert S. Cohen, Thomas Schnelle (Eds.): Cognition and Fact. Materials on Ludwik Fleck (=  Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science . Volume 87 ). R. Reidel Publishing Company, Dordrecht 1986, ISBN 90-277-1902-0 (English, ethz.ch [PDF; 110.2 MB ]).
  • Rainer Egloff (ed.): Fact - thinking style - controversy: disputes with Ludwik Fleck (=  Collegium Helveticum . No. 1 ). Collegium Helveticum, Zurich 2005, ISBN 3-9522441-2-0 ( ethz.ch [PDF; 8.3 MB ]).
  • Silvia Berger: Rethinking, fading out, insisting. On the persistence of scientific thinking styles using the example of German bacteriology, 1890–1918. In: Rainer Egloff (ed.): Fact - thinking style - controversy: arguments with Ludwik Fleck. Zurich 2005, pp. 71–77.
  • Birgit Griesecke, Erich Otto Graf (ed.): Ludwik Flecks comparative epistemology. The debate in Przegląd Filozoficzny 1936–1937 (=  Fleck studies . Volume 1 ). Parerga, Berlin 2008, ISBN 978-3-937262-44-4 .
  • Johannes Fehr, Nathalie Jas, Ilana Löwy (Eds.): Penser avec Fleck - Investigating a Life Science Studying Life Sciences (=  Collegium Helveticum . No. 7 ). Collegium Helveticum, Zurich 2009, ISBN 978-3-9523497-0-0 (English, French).
  • Rainer Egloff, Johannes Fehr (eds.): Vérité, Resistance, Development: At Work with / Working with / Travailler avec Ludwik Fleck (=  Collegium Helveticum . No. 12 ). Collegium Helveticum, Zurich 2011, ISBN 978-3-9523497-5-5 (German, English).
  • Claus Zittel: Ludwik Fleck and the concept of style in the natural sciences. Style as a science-historical, epistemological and aesthetic category . In: Horst Bredekamp, ​​John Michael Krois (Ed.): Seeing and acting . Akademie Verlag, Berlin 2011, ISBN 978-3-05-005090-4 , pp. 171-206 .
  • Birgit Griesecke: Foreign research . The ethnographic impulse in the sciences. Stain and the consequences . In: Birgit Griesecke with the collaboration of Werner Kogge (Ed.): Foreign science? Three studies on the use of conceptual research in the relationship between science and culture . Kulturverlag Kadmos, Berlin 2014, ISBN 978-3-86599-229-1 , p. 15–90 ( table of contents ).
  • Gestalt-rite collective. Ludwik Fleck in the context of contemporary gestalt psychology, ethnology and sociology , edited by Sylwia Werner and Bernhard Kleeberg, special issue of the journal for the history of science, technology and medicine, NTM , vol. 22, no. 1–2 (2014).
  • Claus Zittel: Fleck fever . In: Journal for the History of Ideas , Vol. 11, No. 2 (2017), pp. 15–28.
  • Andreas Pospischil: Ludwik Fleck and typhus, which is not named after him. Chronos, Zurich, ISBN 978-3-0340-1600-1 .

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ See, for example. Hans-Jörg Rheinberger : Historical Epistemology (=  To introduce . No. 336 ). Junius, Hamburg 2007, ISBN 978-3-88506-636-1 , p. 47-54 .
  2. ↑ Erich Otto Graf, Karl Mutter: To the reception of the work of Ludwik Fleck . In: Journal for Philosophical Research . tape 54 , no. 2 , 2000, ISSN  0044-3301 , p. 283 .
  3. ↑ Thomas S. Kuhn: The structure of scientific revolutions (=  Suhrkamp pocket book science . No. 25 ). 2nd rev. and the postscript from 1969 supplemented edition. Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 1976, ISBN 3-518-27625-5 , pp. 8 .
  4. ↑ Ludwik Fleck: Experiments on a local skin reaction with Proteus X-19 extracts (the exanthine reaction). In: Zschr. Immunit.forsch. exp. Therap. Volume 72, 1931, pp. 282-300.
  5. ^ Andrej Grzybowski: Ludwik Fleck's studies in microbiology. In: Würzburg medical history reports. Volume 26, 2007, pp. 110-119.
  6. ↑ Florian G. Mildenberger : No salvation through arsenic? The salvarsand debate and its consequences. In: Specialized prose research - Crossing borders. Volume 8/9, 2012/2013 (2014), pp. 327–390, here: pp. 369–372.
  7. ↑ Ludwik Fleck, I. Hescheles: About a typhus skin reaction (the exanthine reaction) and its similarity to the thickness test. In: Clinical weekly. Volume 10, 1931, p. 1075 f.
  8. ↑ Ludwik Fleck: Genesis and development of a scientific fact . Edited by Thaddeus J. Trenn and Robert K. Merton. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1979, ISBN 0-226-25324-4 , Editors ' Biographical Summary , pp. 149 (English).
  9. ↑ Ludwik Fleck: Origin and Development of a Scientific Fact. Introduction to the teaching of thinking style and thinking collective . With an introduction edited by Lothar Schäfer and Thomas Schnelle (=  Suhrkamp Taschenbuchwissenschaft . No. 312 ). Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 1980, ISBN 3-518-07912-3 , introduction by the editor, p. X .
  10. ↑ Erich Otto Graf, Karl Mutter: Ludwik Fleck and Europe . In: Rainer Egloff (ed.): Fact - thinking style - controversy: disputes with Ludwik Fleck (=  Collegium Helveticum ). No. 1 . Collegium Helveticum, Zurich 2005, ISBN 3-9522441-2-0 , p. 14 .
  11. ↑ Ludwik Fleck: Origin and Development of a Scientific Fact. Introduction to the teaching of thinking style and thinking collective . With an introduction edited by Lothar Schäfer and Thomas Schnelle (=  Suhrkamp Taschenbuchwissenschaft . No. 312 ). Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 1980, ISBN 3-518-07912-3 , introduction by the editor, p. XI .
  12. ↑ Ludwik Fleck: Origin and Development of a Scientific Fact. Introduction to the teaching of thinking style and thinking collective . With an introduction edited by Lothar Schäfer and Thomas Schnelle (=  Suhrkamp Taschenbuchwissenschaft . No. 312 ). Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 1980, ISBN 3-518-07912-3 , introduction by the editor, p. XII .
  13. ↑ Sylwia Werner, Claus Zittel (ed.): Thinking styles and facts. Collected writings and certificates (=  Suhrkamp pocket book science . No. 1953 ). Suhrkamp, ​​Berlin 2011, ISBN 978-3-518-29553-3 , editor's timetable, p. 651 .
  14. ↑ See also Veronika Lipphardt: Denkstil, Denkkollektiv and scientific facts of German race research before 1933. On the applicability of Ludwik Fleck's approach to the history of science. In: Rainer Egloff (ed.): Fact - thinking style - controversy: arguments with Ludwik Fleck. Zurich 2005, pp. 63–70.
  15. ^ Ludwik Fleck: Investigations into typhus in the Lviv ghetto in the years 1941–1942 . In: Sylwia Werner, Claus Zittel (eds.): Styles of thought and facts. Collected writings and certificates (=  Suhrkamp pocket book science ). No. 1953 . Suhrkamp, ​​Berlin 2011, ISBN 978-3-518-29553-3 , pp. 505 .
  16. ↑ Ludwik Fleck: How we produced the anti-typhus vaccine in the Lviv ghetto . In: Sylwia Werner, Claus Zittel (eds.): Styles of thought and facts. Collected writings and certificates (=  Suhrkamp pocket book science ). No. 1953 . Suhrkamp, ​​Berlin 2011, ISBN 978-3-518-29553-3 , pp. 522 .
  17. ↑ Ludwik Fleck: Report on the stay in Auschwitz . In: Sylwia Werner, Claus Zittel (eds.): Styles of thought and facts. Collected writings and certificates (=  Suhrkamp pocket book science ). No. 1953 . Suhrkamp, ​​Berlin 2011, ISBN 978-3-518-29553-3 , pp. 487-489 .
  18. ^ Ludwik Fleck: In the Buchenwald matter. Commentary on the book by F. Bayles: 'Croix gammée contre caducée' . In: Sylwia Werner, Claus Zittel (eds.): Styles of thought and facts. Collected writings and certificates (=  Suhrkamp pocket book science ). No. 1953 . Suhrkamp, ​​Berlin 2011, ISBN 978-3-518-29553-3 , pp. 549-557 .
  19. ↑ Ludwik Fleck: Origin and Development of a Scientific Fact. Introduction to the teaching of thinking style and thinking collective . With an introduction edited by Lothar Schäfer and Thomas Schnelle (=  Suhrkamp Taschenbuchwissenschaft . No. 312 ). Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 1980, ISBN 3-518-07912-3 , introduction by the editor, p. XIII .
  20. ↑ Ludwik Fleck: Origin and Development of a Scientific Fact. Introduction to the teaching of thinking style and thinking collective . With an introduction edited by Lothar Schäfer and Thomas Schnelle (=  Suhrkamp Taschenbuchwissenschaft . No. 312 ). Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 1980, ISBN 3-518-07912-3 , introduction by the editor, p. XIII-XVII .
  21. ↑ Ludwik Fleck: About some specific characteristics of medical thinking [1927] . In: Sylwia Werner, Claus Zittel (eds.): Styles of thought and facts. Collected writings and certificates (=  Suhrkamp pocket book science ). No. 1953 . Suhrkamp, ​​Berlin 2011, ISBN 978-3-518-29553-3 , pp. 41 .
  22. ↑ See also Josef Neumann: The historical-social approach of medical philosophy of science by Ludwig Fleck (1896–1961). In: Sudhoff's archive. Volume 73, 1989, pp. 12-25.
  23. ↑ Ludwik Fleck: On the crisis of "reality". In: Natural Science. Volume 17, 1929, pp. 425-430.
  24. ↑ Ludwik Fleck: On the crisis of reality . In: Lothar Schäfer, Thomas Schnelle (Ed.): Experience and fact. Collected essays (=  Suhrkamp pocket book science ). No. 404 . Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 1983, ISBN 3-518-28004-X , p. 48 .
  25. ↑ Kurt Riezler: The crisis of reality . In: The natural sciences . tape 17 , no. 37-38 , 1928, pp. 705-712 , doi : 10.1007 / BF01505707 .
  26. ↑ Christian Bonah: 'Experimental Rage': The Development of Medical Ethics and the Genesis of Scientific Facts. Ludwik Fleck: An Answer to the Crisis of Modern Medicine in Interwar Germany? In: Social History of Medicine . Volume 15, No. 2 , 2002, p. 187-207 , doi : 10.1093 / shm / 15.2.187 .
  27. ↑ Julius Moses: The Crisis of Medicine . In: Biological healing art . No. 10 , 1929, pp. 804-805, 832-833 .
  28. ^ Gundolf Keil: Review of: Florian Mildenberger: Medical instruction for the bourgeoisie. Medicinal cultures in the magazine "Die Gartenlaube" (1853–1944). Franz Steiner, Stuttgart 2012 (= medicine, society and history. Supplement 45), ISBN 978-3-515-10232-2 . In: Medical historical messages. Journal for the history of science and specialist prose research. Volume 34, 2015 (2016), pp. 306–313, here: p. 307.
  29. ↑ Ludwik Fleck: Origin and Development of a Scientific Fact. Introduction to the teaching of thinking style and thinking collective . With an introduction edited by Lothar Schäfer and Thomas Schnelle (=  Suhrkamp Taschenbuchwissenschaft . No. 312 ). Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 1980, ISBN 3-518-07912-3 , pp. 54 f .
  30. ^ A b Ludwik Fleck: Origin and Development of a Scientific Fact. Introduction to the teaching of thinking style and thinking collective . With an introduction edited by Lothar Schäfer and Thomas Schnelle (=  Suhrkamp Taschenbuchwissenschaft . No. 312 ). Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 1980, ISBN 3-518-07912-3 , pp. 141 .
  31. ↑ Ludwik Fleck: Origin and Development of a Scientific Fact. Introduction to the teaching of thinking style and thinking collective. [Basel 1935] Frankfurt am Main 1980, p. 99.
  32. ↑ Bernard Zalc: Some comments on Fleck's Interpretation of the Bordet-Wassermann Reaction in view of present biochemical knowledge. In: Robert S. Cohen, Thomas Schnelle (Ed.): Cognition and Fact. Materials on Ludwik Fleck. Dordrecht 1986, pp. 399-406.
  33. ↑ Ludwik Fleck: Origin and Development of a Scientific Fact. Introduction to the teaching of thinking style and thinking collective . With an introduction edited by Lothar Schäfer and Thomas Schnelle (=  Suhrkamp Taschenbuchwissenschaft . No. 312 ). Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 1980, ISBN 3-518-07912-3 , pp. 135 .
  34. ↑ Ludwik Fleck: Origin and Development of a Scientific Fact. Introduction to the teaching of thinking style and thinking collective . With an introduction edited by Lothar Schäfer and Thomas Schnelle (=  Suhrkamp Taschenbuchwissenschaft . No. 312 ). Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 1980, ISBN 3-518-07912-3 , pp. 150 .
  35. ↑ Ludwik Fleck: Origin and Development of a Scientific Fact. Introduction to the teaching of thinking style and thinking collective . With an introduction edited by Lothar Schäfer and Thomas Schnelle (=  Suhrkamp Taschenbuchwissenschaft . No. 312 ). Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 1980, ISBN 3-518-07912-3 , pp. 130 .
  36. ^ A b Ludwik Fleck: Origin and Development of a Scientific Fact. Introduction to the teaching of thinking style and thinking collective . With an introduction edited by Lothar Schäfer and Thomas Schnelle (=  Suhrkamp Taschenbuchwissenschaft . No. 312 ). Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 1980, ISBN 3-518-07912-3 , pp. 131 .
  37. ↑ Ludwik Fleck: Origin and Development of a Scientific Fact. Introduction to the teaching of thinking style and thinking collective . With an introduction edited by Lothar Schäfer and Thomas Schnelle (=  Suhrkamp Taschenbuchwissenschaft . No. 312 ). Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 1980, ISBN 3-518-07912-3 , pp. 40-53 .
  38. ↑ See for example Alan F. Chalmers: Ways of Science. Introduction to the philosophy of science . Ed .: Niels Bergemann, Jochen Prümper. 4th edition. Springer, Berlin 1999, ISBN 3-540-67477-2 , pp. 78 ff., 108-115 .
  39. ↑ Ludwik Fleck: Origin and Development of a Scientific Fact. Introduction to the teaching of thinking style and thinking collective . With an introduction edited by Lothar Schäfer and Thomas Schnelle (=  Suhrkamp Taschenbuchwissenschaft . No. 312 ). Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 1980, ISBN 3-518-07912-3 , pp. 168 .
  40. ↑ Dąmbska, quoted from Claus Zittel: The origin and development of Ludwik Fleck's 'comparative epistemology' . In: Bożena Chołuj, Jan C. Joerden (Ed.): From the scientific fact to the production of knowledge: Ludwik Fleck and its importance for science and practice (=  studies on ethics in East Central Europe ). tape 11 . Lang, 2007, ISBN 3-631-56508-9 , pp. 448 .
  41. ↑ Fleck, quoted from Birgit Griesecke: What do normal people do when they are not sleeping? Ludwik Fleck, Izydora Dąmbska and the ethnographic challenge of the early sociology of science . In: Rainer Egloff (ed.): Fact - thinking style - controversy: disputes with Ludwik Fleck (=  Collegium Helveticum ). No. 1 . Collegium Helveticum, Zurich 2005, ISBN 3-9522441-2-0 , p. 27 .
  42. ↑ Ludwik Fleck: Origin and Development of a Scientific Fact. Introduction to the teaching of thinking style and thinking collective . With an introduction edited by Lothar Schäfer and Thomas Schnelle (=  Suhrkamp Taschenbuchwissenschaft . No. 312 ). Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 1980, ISBN 3-518-07912-3 , introduction by the editor, p. XLV .
  43. ↑ Hans Petersen: Ludwig Flecks doctrine of the thinking style and the thinking collective . In: Clinical weekly . tape 15 , no. 7 , 1936, pp. 239 , doi : 10.1007 / BF01779410 .
  44. ↑ Erich Otto Graf, Karl Mutter: To the reception of the work of Ludwik Fleck . In: Journal for Philosophical Research . tape 54 , no. 2 , 2000, ISSN  0044-3301 , p. 282 f .
  45. ↑ z. B. Dieter Wittich: An insightful source for understanding the social role of thought by Thomas S. Kuhn . In: German magazine for philosophy . tape 26 , 1978, ISSN  0012-1045 , pp. 105-113 .
  46. ^ Claus Zittel: Fleck fever . In: Philip Ajouri, Marcel Lepper (ed.): Journal for the history of ideas, issue XI / 2 summer 2017 . S. 15-28 .
  47. ↑ Ludwik Fleck: Genesis and development of a scientific fact . Edited by Thaddeus J. Trenn and Robert K. Merton. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1979, ISBN 0-226-25324-4 (English).
  48. ↑ Erich Otto Graf, Karl Mutter: To the reception of the work of Ludwik Fleck . In: Journal for Philosophical Research . tape 54 , no. 2 , 2000, ISSN  0044-3301 , p. 284 .
  49. ↑ In detail in her dissertation: Eva Hedfors: The reading of Ludwik Fleck. Sources and context (=  Theses in philosophy from the Royal Institute of Technology ). KTH, Stockholm 2005, ISBN 91-7178-158-7 (English, diva-portal.org [PDF; 123 kB ]).
  50. ↑ Olga Amsterdamska et al .: Medical Science in the Light of a Flawed Study of the Holocaust: A Comment on Eva Hedfors' Paper on Ludwik Fleck . In: Social Studies of Science . Volume 38, No. 6 , 2008, p. 937-944 , doi : 10.1177 / 0306312708098609 .
  51. ↑ Claus Zittel: The origin and development of Ludwik Fleck's 'comparative epistemology' . In: Bożena Chołuj, Jan C. Joerden (Ed.): From the scientific fact to the production of knowledge: Ludwik Fleck and its importance for science and practice (=  studies on ethics in East Central Europe ). tape 11 . Lang, 2007, ISBN 3-631-56508-9 .
  52. ↑ Ludwik Fleck: Origin and Development of a Scientific Fact. Introduction to the teaching of thinking style and thinking collective . With an introduction edited by Lothar Schäfer and Thomas Schnelle (=  Suhrkamp Taschenbuchwissenschaft . No. 312 ). Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 1980, ISBN 3-518-07912-3 , introduction by the editor, p. XIV, XVI .
personal data
SURNAME Fleck, Ludwik
BRIEF DESCRIPTION Polish microbiologist, physician and epistemologist
DATE OF BIRTH July 11, 1896
PLACE OF BIRTH Lviv
DATE OF DEATH 5th June 1961
Place of death Nes Ziona , Israel