Sarcophagus of Laris Pulenas
The sarcophagus of Laris Pulenas or Laris Pulena is an Etruscan artifact from the late 3rd century BC. And is now in the National Archaeological Museum of Tarquinia . The sarcophagus comes from the Hellenistic period of Etruscan art and is known for a longer inscription with Etruscan characters on a scroll (so-called Pulenas scroll or Pulena scroll ) that the deceased is holding. Therefore, the sarcophagus is one of the most important finds from the late Etruscan period.
Description of the sarcophagus
The 1.98 m long, 62 cm wide and 63 cm high sarcophagus is made of Nenfro, a soft but compact tuff stone that was often used in southern Etruria . An elderly man is depicted lying halfway on the sarcophagus, resting his left arm on two pillows. He wears the headgear typical of a fortune telling priest ( haruspex ), a cap with a broad bulge. His upper body is bare, he wears a scarf over his chest and shoulders. He has wrapped a cloak around his hips and legs that is thrown over his left shoulder and arm. His bare right foot sticks out from under the cloak. The other foot is covered because Pulenas has bent the left leg, while the right one is almost straight.
Laris Pulenas has before her a partially unrolled text that is possibly supposed to represent one of the linen book scrolls for which Etruria was known. With his left hand he holds the beginning of the scroll, in his right hand is the part that has not yet been rolled out. Pulenas wears a ring on the ring finger of his right hand.
A half-relief with figures is carved on the front of the sarcophagus . In the middle, with the head missing, the deceased himself appears to be depicted. Left and right of him are winged beings and figures with hammers ( charune ) who accompany the deceased into the underworld. This journey into the underworld is a regularly recurring theme on sarcophagus reliefs and tomb paintings.
In recent research, the sarcophagus is dated to the third quarter of the 3rd century BC. Dated between 250 and 225 BC. According to another opinion, the sarcophagus dates from around 200 BC. The sarcophagus was originally painted, as evident from the remains of paint, especially on the front.
Inscription of the Pulenas scroll
A text is carved into the scroll that the deceased is holding in his hands, the letters of which were originally painted in red, as can be seen from the remains of paint. The text comprises 9 lines with around 60 words, most of which are easy to read. The deciphering of individual letters is controversial. In lines 7 and 8 a small part of the inscription is missing because the leading edge of the scroll has broken off at this point. The inscription is written in mirror-inverted letters from right to left according to Etruscan writing habits :
The now recognized transcription of the text reads:
- LRIS PULENAS LARCES CLAN LARTHAL PAPACS
- VELTHURUS NEFTS PRUMTS PULES LARISAL CREICES
- TO CN · ZICH · NETHŚRAC · ACASCE · CREALS · TARCHNALTH · SPU
- RENI · LUCAIRCE · IPA RUTHCVA · CATHAS · HERMERI · SLICACHEŚ
- APRINTHVALE LUTHCVA CATHAS PACHANAC ALUMNATHE HERMU
- MELECRATICCES PUTS CHIM CULSL LEPRNAL PŚL VARCHTI CERINE PUL
- ALUMNATH PUL HERMU HUZRNATRE PŚL TEN… X XX… CI METHLUMT PUL
- HERMU · THUTUITHI · MLUSNA · RANVIS · MLAMNA… MNATHURAS · PAR
- NOT AMCE LEŚE HRMRIER
Most words are separated from each other by a period. Exceptions are the word sequences IPA RUTHCVA in line 4 and APRINTHVALE LUTHCVA in line 5. AN CN is not sure whether it is one word or two words. After a word at the end of the line, there is no point except for HERMU in line 5 and PUL in line 7. The words SPU-RENI in line 3/4 and PAR-NICH in line 8/9 span a line break. At the beginning, the letter A is definitely missing in LRIS. Other letters could be missing or mixed up, e.g. B. in the last word HRMRIER, which is sometimes read as HERMERI.
It is noticeable that Pulenas holds the scroll so that it is not he who can read the text, but the viewer of the sarcophagus lingering in front of him. The text should probably be legible for those present during ceremonies that may have taken place regularly or at least when other family members were buried in the tomb.
Interpretation of the text
The first two lines of the inscription list the ancestors of the deceased: Laris Pulenas, son (CLAN) of Larce ( genitive LARCES). The gentile name PULENAS could also refer to the father, as is the case with numerous inscriptions. Then PULENAS would be genitive and the deceased's name would be Laris Pulena. The introductory line would then read: Laris, son of Larce Pulena.
In addition, Laris Pulenas was grandson (PAPACS) of Larth (genitive LARTHAL), grandson (NEFTS) of Velthur (genitive VELTHURUS) and great-grandson (PRUMTS) of Laris Pule Creice (genitive PULES LARISAL CREICES). Perhaps the Etruscan grandfathers differentiated maternal and paternal grandfathers by the names PAPCS and NEFTS. In addition to the family name PULE, the great-grandfather also bears the nickname ( cognomen ) CREICE, which indicates a Greek origin or descent. It could be Polles (Etruscan Pule), a Greek seer who lived around 400 BC. Came after Cerveteri (Etruscan Cisra ). The use of Greek personal names as gentile names is documented epigraphically.
Laris Pulenas had apparently alive an important book on the art of prophecy written as this will directly mention: He (AN) made (ACASCE) this book (CN ZICH) via auspices (NETHŚRAC). Perhaps this book is referring to the role that Pulenas holds in her hands and proudly presents to the viewer. The content about the auspices is then in the not yet rolled out part.
The inscription below lists the offices and merits of the deceased, who was apparently an important figure. The exact content can only be reproduced in parts so far. It appears that Pulenas held a high public function (CREALS) in his hometown Tarquinia ( locative TARCHNALTH) (LUCAIRCE). If the verb LUCAIRCE goes back to the same root word as LAUCHUME (lat. Lucumo, dt. King, ruler), Pulenas could also have ruled over Tarquinia. SPURENI is an accusative form of SPUR (city) and is used for emphasis.
Pulenas was, if you read line 4 correctly, responsible for the rites (RUTHCVA?) Of the deity Catha (genitive CATHAS) and maybe also Hermes (HERMERI?). Catha or Cavtha is a solar deity and is likely to be the daughter of the sun god Usil, as she is referred to as the daughter of the sun in Etruscan inscriptions. Slicache (genitive SLICACHEŚ) could be an epithet of this deity, which characterizes it more closely.
Pulenas may also have dedicated himself to the cult of ancestors and held ceremonies for the deceased, as APRINTHVALE in line 5 seems to be a priestly title that could be related to APA (father). Then the deity Catha is named together with Pacha (PACHANAC), the Etruscan god of wine and intoxication, called Bacchus by the Romans . Catha and Pacha are also associated with each other in other inscriptions.
Line 6 apparently describes cult acts for Culsu (genitive CULSL), a female underworld deity who appears in tomb paintings as the guardian of the entrance to the underworld. CUL stands for gate in Etruscan. Leprina (genitive LEPRINAL) could be an epithet of Culsu which Pulenas probably a regular libations was offering (libation) from a sacred vessel (PUTS).
In lines 6 and 7, word combinations with the preposition or postposition PUL follow, including PUL ALUMNATH, PUL HERMU and METHLUMT PUL. The latter seems to have the meaning in this district or for this district. Perhaps places are listed here where Pulenas performed sacred compulsory rituals among students (HUZRNATE?). At least METHMLUMT is almost certainly a locative of METHLUM (district). The CI in front of it is sometimes read as the Etruscan numeral for three , but it could also be the end of a longer word.
The word fragment in line 8 can be added to ALUMNATHURAS. It is a collective name that may refer to a brotherhood. AMCE in line 9 is like LUCAIRCE and ACASCE a verb in the 3rd person past tense or perfect tense and means was / has been. AMCE refers to PARNICH, which corresponds to an office in the magistrate or priesthood. Pulenas apparently held another secular or sacred office that should be mentioned.
Although the general idea can be understood, technical terms for priesthoods, functions, and ceremonies, and their order, meaning, and location are unclear. The names of three deities can be recognized: Catha, Pacha and Culsu. The fourth deity is sometimes thought to be Hermes, but the words HERMU, HERMERI, and HRMRIER need not refer to the god, even if they were originally associated with Hermes. It seems more likely that these words refer to a place, perhaps a sanctuary.
Discovery of the sarcophagus
On November 12, 1878, the multi-chamber grave of the Pulenas family was discovered in the Monterozzi necropolis of Tarquinia. The family grave contained a total of 21 sarcophagi, three of which are now exhibited in the National Archaeological Museum of Tarquinia , including that of Laris Pulenas and his son Velthur. The third sarcophagus on display cannot yet be assigned to any person. The discoverer of the tomb was the then mayor of Cometo, Luigi Dasti, who was also involved in antiquity research. Red stripes with decorations have been preserved from the painting on the ceilings and walls.
Genealogy of the Pulenas
The genealogy of the Pulenas family can be partially reconstructed from the engraved inscriptions on the sarcophagi . In addition to his direct ancestors, Laris Pulenas may have had a paternal uncle named Larth. He was married to Thanchvil Acnatrui, with whom he had two sons, Velthur and Vel.
| Laris Pule Creice | |||||||||||||||||||||
| Velthur Pulenas | |||||||||||||||||||||
| Larth (?) | Larce Pulenas | ||||||||||||||||||||
| Laris Pulenas | Thanchvil Acnatrui | ||||||||||||||||||||
| Velthur Pulenas | Vel | ||||||||||||||||||||
Perhaps the aforementioned ancestors of Laris Pulenas were already active as priests and Pulenas inherited their offices. This tradition may have lasted for centuries. Under the Roman Emperor Marc Aurel , Pollenius Auspex, perhaps a descendant of the Pulenas, came to the consulate . His Cognomen Auspex suggests that he was familiar with the interpretation of bird flight ( auspicium ).
Cultural and historical background
Tarquinia (Etruscan Tarchna ), the hometown of the Pulenas family, was from the late 5th century BC. Rose to the most powerful city in Etruria. In the early 4th century there were armed conflicts with Rome and the first territorial cessions. After further fighting and losses for Tarquinia in the middle of the 4th century, a forty-year truce was finally signed, which apparently was strictly observed. Further wars are from 311 BC. Which 30 years later led to a final defeat in Tarquinia and to further losses of territory. Tarquinia was dependent on Rome, but still enjoyed communal and cultural independence. The aristocracy retained their influence and prosperity, as evidenced by the family grave of the Pulenas with their precious sarcophagi.
Is unusual in the sarcophagus of Laris Pulenas that the deceased not common as a patera ( omphalos holding -Schale) in their hands, but are listed on the descent, title and merits a scroll. Here, symbols of religious tradition and priestly power are displayed in a completely new way. The inscription is remarkable in several ways: In addition to the parents, who are traditionally mentioned in inscriptions, the text names other ancestors up to and including the great-grandfather. Subsequently, offices and functions are listed in great detail. Laris Pulenas even served as a priest to several deities in various shrines. In this respect, the sarcophagus is also an outstanding example of the self-image and self-portrayal of an Etruscan priest.
The mixture of political office and religious function, tradition and legacy is also known from Rome, but not in this abundance of offices during lifetime and external representation after death. It is possible that this hierarchical religious system, which established and handed down its elaborate rituals in writing, contributed to maintaining the aristocratic social order in the Etruscan cities. Apparently Rome granted the allied cities of southern Etruria a certain degree of autonomy in the exercise of their administrative and religious traditions. The gradual Romanization , however, meant that 200 years later the Etruscan culture and language had perished.
In the Pulenas role, Pacha, the Etruscan god of wine and intoxication is mentioned. One can assume that Pulenas himself was a priest of the Pacha and carried out corresponding cult acts. The Bacchus cult was in Italy from the third to the first century BC. Widespread. The cult also had numerous followers in Rome. The Bacchanalia exerted a particular attraction, which , according to tradition, led to alcoholic and sexual excesses. The Romans regarded the Bacchus cult as a plague emanating from Etruria and suppressed it in 186 BC. Forcibly ( Bacchanalienskandal ), because they saw in him a danger for the community.
Remarks
- ^ Corpus Inscriptionum Etruscarum CIE 5430; Testimonia Linguae Etruscae TLE 131.
- ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita 39, 8-19.
See also
literature
- Giuliano Bonfante , Larissa Bonfante : The Etruscan Language. An Introduction. 2nd Edition. Manchester University Press, Manchester / New York 2002, ISBN 0719055407 , pp. 149-151, 172, 197.
- Jacques Heurgon : The Etruscans. 4th edition. Reclam, Stuttgart 1993, ISBN 3150104009 , pp. 334-337.
- Jean-René Jannot: Religion in Ancient Etruria . University of Wisconsin Press, Madison 2005, ISBN 9780299208448 , pp. 7, 199.
- Alessandro Naso (Ed.): Etruscology. Walter de Gruyter, Boston 2017, ISBN 9781934078488 , p. 1148.
- Massimo Pallottino : Etruscology: History and Culture of the Etruscans. 7th edition, Springer, Basel 1988, ISBN 303486048X , pp. 325, 416, 452, 479-486.
- Friedhelm Prayon : The Etruscans. History, religion, art. 5th edition. CH Beck, Munich 2010, ISBN 9783406598128 , pp. 61-62, 74.
- Nancy Thomson de Grummond (Ed.): Encyclopedia of the History of Classical Archeology. Routledge, New York 1996, ISBN 188496480X , pp. 14, 34, 46, 57, 59.
- L. Bouke van der Meer : The Bronze Liver of Piacenza. Analysis of a polytheistic structure. Gieben, Amsterdam 1987, ISBN 9070265419 , p. 173.
- Maria Cataldi: Tarquinia: Museo Archeologico Nazionale. Guide to breve. L'Erma di Bretschneider, Rome 2001, ISBN 8882651223 , pp. 30-31.
