Red buffalo

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Red buffalo
Red buffalo (Syncerus nanus)

Red buffalo ( Syncerus nanus )

Systematics
without rank: Forehead weapon bearer (Pecora)
Family : Horned Bearers (Bovidae)
Subfamily : Bovinae
Tribe : Cattle (bovini)
Genre : Syncerus
Type : Red buffalo
Scientific name
Syncerus nanus
( Boddaert , 1785)

The Rotbüffel ( Syncerus nanus ), and forest buffalo called, is a kind from the family of Bovidae . It represents the smallest representative of the African buffalo ( Syncerus ), which is only about half the size of the well-known Cape buffalo . Its distribution area is in central and western Africa , where it inhabits the tropical rainforests of the lowlands. The way of life of the red buffalo is generally little studied. In general, the animals are to be regarded as forest dwellers who, with a smaller body size and more delicate horn formations, have adaptations to this habitat, but at the same time they show a certain dependence on open landscapes in direct proximity to the forests. This is expressed, among other things, in the special diet, which, like the African buffalo that live in open landscapes, is largely based on grass. The red buffalo lives in mixed herds with a comparatively small number of individuals. The individual herds each maintain activity areas that include not only forests but also a certain proportion of open areas and wetlands. Each of these different habitats are used by the herds in different ways depending on the season or need. There is hardly any information about reproduction. The species was scientifically introduced in 1785. The type material used for this served in the following almost 80 years for the establishment of two further scientific species names of the red buffalo. In the course of the 20th century in particular, it was considered a subspecies of the Cape buffalo; due to greatly differing morphological characteristics, it has been listed as an independent species since the beginning of the 21st century. The total red buffalo population has declined sharply since the late 1990s.

features

Habitus

Close up of the head of the red buffalo

The red buffalo is the smallest representative of the African buffalo ( Syncerus ). It reaches a head-trunk length of 180 to 220 cm, plus a 60 to 90 cm long tail, and a shoulder height of 100 to 130 cm. The body weight of the animals is 265 to 320 kg. This makes the red buffalo appear less massive than its relative, the Cape buffalo ( Syncerus caffer ). Individuals from West Africa are on average slightly larger than those from Central Africa. The sexual dimorphism appears less pronounced than in the other, more open landscapes inhabiting representatives of Syncerus . The fur has a variety of shades, ranging from reddish to brownish, with black markings on the legs and shoulders in some cases. Occasionally there are also completely black-colored individuals. The head is robust, the mouth wide and the nose naked and wet. The horns are shorter than those of the other African buffalo, and they do not show the typical downward curve to the side. Rather, the horns of the red buffalo protrude diagonally backwards, roughly in continuation of the forehead line. They are slightly curved outwards so that they form a kind of crescent moon. The length of the horns measured across the curvature is greater than their span. In Central African animals they reach a length of 41 to 69.0 cm with a wingspan of 34.1 to 65.5 cm. In West African animals the discrepancy is less clearly developed. Here the horn length varies from 34.5 to 72 cm, the wingspan is between 35.0 and 63.5 cm. Unlike the other African buffalo, there are no special thickenings at the base of the horn. The long and very prominent ears are also noticeable through strong fringes on the inner long side. The auricle is also densely covered with hair, two strips of long, whitish hair run over the auricle to the root of the ear. The tail ends in a showy tassel. As in the Cape buffalo, there are no glands for secreting secretions .

Skull and dentition features

The skull reaches a total length of 39.4 to 49.2 cm and a width at the mastoid process of the temporal bone of 13.7 to 27.6 cm. As with the other African buffalo, the pre-eye pit (Fossa praeorbitalis) and the sieve pit (Fossa ethmoidalis) are missing. The bit has the typical number of teeth of the Bovidae and thus has the following dental formula of: . The molars have a high crown ( hypsodontic ) and have sharp enamel ridges.

distribution and habitat

Distribution area (dark green) of the red buffalo compared to other species of the genus Syncerus

The red buffalo is found in central and west Africa , its range is more or less divided into two parts. The main part extends from southern Nigeria , southern and central Cameroon and the south of the Central African Republic over large parts of the Congo Basin , individual stocks in western and central Angola are isolated from the main distribution area. In addition, individual populations live on the islands of São Tomé and Príncipe , but the red buffalo is now extinct on the island of Bioko . Separated from the main part of the distribution area, the second occurrence extends along the coast of further western Africa from Guinea-Bissau to southwestern Ghana , but the animals there may also have become extinct. In principle, the red buffalo inhabits the tropical rainforests of the lowlands. The areas are characterized by an annual rainfall of at least 1500 mm. There the animals prefer open, grass-rich areas such as clearings, watercourses or anthropogenic forest openings such as connecting roads. They can be found both in the rainforest- savannah transition zones and in primary and secondary forests. Forests with a closed canopy are often avoided. According to studies in the coastal areas of western Gabon , bush landscapes also belong to the habitat used , whereas red buffaloes are not found in primary forests there. In the Dzanga Ndoki National Park in the Central African Republic, the herds often stay in clearings or in forest areas with tall trees but not closed canopies. The population density is difficult to determine due to the way of life in forests, but is assumed to be rather low. In the coastal areas of Gabon, in secondary forests with transition to more open areas, it is 0.43 to 0.9 individuals per square kilometer, but as in the Réserve de Faune du Petit Loango it can increase to up to 1.75 animals per square kilometer. In the Campo Ma'an National Park in southern Cameroon, it varies between 0.01 individuals in a comparably large area in dense forests and 0.4 in the transition to more open areas such as on connecting roads. With up to 7.4 animals per square kilometer, the density of individuals in the mosaic-like rainforest-savannah areas in the Lopé-Okanda protected area in Gabon is comparatively high, but it decreases sharply again in the surrounding forests and is only 0.4 animals here on a square kilometer.

Way of life

Territorial behavior

A red buffalo in the Réserve Africaine de Sigeann, France

In general, the way of life of the red buffalo is more difficult to document than that of its relatives in the open savannahs. Like these, the red buffalo lives in herds that, with 3 to 25 individuals, are significantly smaller than those of the open land species. During a lengthy study from 2002 to 2004 in the Dzanga-Ndoki National Park in the Central African Republic, a single herd was observed that initially consisted of 16 individuals, two years later had increased to 24 through births. In another study in approximately the same period in an area of ​​72 km² in the Lopé-Okanda protected area in Gabon, a total of 342 red buffalo were documented, belonging to 18 different herds with sizes from 3 to 24 individuals. The overall average herd size was 12 animals, whereas earlier analyzes in the same region only found 5.8 animals per herd. As a rule, a herd consists of several cows with their young and one or two bulls. At rest or resting places in clearings, the bull usually takes a central position, while cows and calves are more likely to be found in the central to peripheral area within the herd; the exact location of an individual in a herd usually depends on age and gender . When resting in more wooded areas, the herd spreads further apart, which may be due to the dense tree and bush population, making it more difficult to determine the individual position of an animal. Male animals are rarely found alone, but in contrast to the Cape buffalo, for example, they never form bachelor groups. It is believed that the rather small group size serves as a reproductive advantage in dense forests. The group size is usually stable. However, in the course of the year there was a partial split of mainly larger herds. These resulting subgroups consist of at least one female and several young animals with a minimum of 3 individuals and mostly reunite with the main group after only a few days. Very rarely, herd members leave their ancestral group completely and move on to another. During the two-year study in the Lopé Okanda Conservation Area, only one female joined a new, in this case smaller, herd. The phenomenon occurs much less often than with the Cape buffalo.

The individual herds maintain activity areas that are significantly smaller than those of the buffalo in the savannah and open country. Since the bulls live in the herd differently from the other African cattle, their territory is completely identical to that of the herd. In the Dzanga-Ndoki National Park the action area for a herd of 8 km² was determined, in the Lopé-Okanda Conservation Area the sizes of the 18 herds observed varied from 2.3 to 7.64 km². The action areas of neighboring herds do not overlap. Similar to the herd, the territories remain relatively stable and occupy the same region with the same resting and feeding areas for several years. They include different types of vegetation, which range from forests to open landscapes such as clearings and savannah fragments to wetlands such as swamps or floodplains and are mostly distributed in spots. Forests cover less than 50% of the area, the proportion of open areas increases with the size of the herd. The animals use the different habitats very differently within the action areas. Clearings and savannah areas are used for food intake, while forests are sought for protection and wetlands are used for cooling. The grazing areas are often only a few hundred meters apart, they are sought out by the herd in a rotation system. Due to these short distances, the herd only covers short distances of 500 to 1000 m every day, the longest observed hike within a day bridged around 4000 m. There is a certain seasonal preference for certain areas such as water-rich landscapes in the dry season or forests in the rainy season, otherwise there are only few differences in annual use.

The red buffalo follows the same general patterns of activity that can be seen in other horned bearers. So phases of food intake are replaced by those of rest and ruminating. Both take place during the day as well as at night, during the day the red buffalo spends around 38% resting and more than 30% eating. In the Lopé Okanda sanctuary, the animals eat mostly in the mornings between 09:30 and 12:00. It is noticeable that cows graze longer than bulls on average. The animals spend the greatest heat of the day in peace. Among other things, mud baths are part of the comfort behavior . Interactions within the herd are often limited between the adult animals and their offspring. Submissive behavior has rarely been observed. It consists in the submissive animal tucking its head between the rear legs of the dominant one, similar to what is evidenced in the Cape buffalo.

nutrition

There is little specific information about the diet of the red buffalo; its predominant occurrence in the tropical rainforests suggests that grasses as food plants are not quite as dominant as those of their relatives in the open savannahs. In the Campo Ma'an National Park in southern Cameroon, the main diet of the red buffalo consists of 43% sweet grasses , 15.1% of the amount of grasses ingested is covered by representatives of Leptochloa , less often by those of Chrysochloa , Otochloa or Setaria . In addition to sweet grasses, commelina plants such as Palisota play an important role with around 21% . The rest, just under 33%, mainly comprises cruciferous vegetables , legumes , hemp plants , grapevines and other dicotyledonous plants as well as mosses . Studies in the Lopé Okanda Conservation Area in Gabon show a similar composition of food. Here the red buffalo feed mainly on sweet grass and sedge , while arrowroots and dicotyledons make up the rest. Seasonal differences can be identified, as the percentage of grasses varies significantly with around 87% in the dry season and around 97% in the rainy season. Among the sweet grasses, Leersia and Schizachyrium could be identified. The studies show that the red buffalo predominantly grazes in open places such as clearings and largely prefers grass forage. An animal has to eat around 6.5 kg of food per day. Like its open land relatives, the red buffalo is a very efficient grazer that can eat large quantities at once with a wide mouth and mobile tongue.

Reproduction

The reproduction of the red buffalo has hardly been investigated, but it should largely correspond to the characteristics of the buffalo in open landscapes. During the two-year study in the Lopé Okanda Sanctuary, only one act of mating was observed, which occurred in August. The birth of the individual young occurred in the following July, which suggests a gestation period of about 11 months. The mother animal moves away from the herd for birth and returns a few days later when the calf can walk. Newborn calves in the same area were recorded from August to December and from March to April, which means that reproduction is most likely little or no seasonal. Of six calves during the two-year study in the Lopé Okanda Conservation Area, a total of four died before the fourth month, which corresponds to a mortality rate of around 67%. During the other long-term study in Dzanga-Ndoki National Park, a herd grew from 16 to 24 individuals within two years with eight births. Young animals generally have a thicker and more reddish coat than older animals. The calf usually stays with the mother for two years, the period between two births can be assumed to be at least 16 months. Life expectancy in the wild is around 18 to 20 years, and the maximum age for a red buffalo in human care was around 28 years.

Predators and enemy behavior

The red buffalo has only a few predators , occasionally leopards kill individual animals. In the Lopé Okanda Conservation Area, of the 196 predatory piles of excrement examined, only 14 found remains of the red buffalo, which corresponds to a share of 7.1%. The biomass consumed reaches a share of 13%. Most of them were the remains of young animals. In other regions of the distribution area of ​​the red buffalo it was only very rarely found as a victim of the big cat. The increased hunting may also be related to the higher population density of the hornbill species in the mosaic landscapes of the protected area. Enemy behavior includes larger group formations while grazing or in open areas at a greater distance from the edges of the forest and moving closer together when hiking. When escaping, the group usually leads a cow, followed by the bull.

Parasites

Parasites and pathogens in the red buffalo have so far only been found sporadically, but in general a susceptibility similar to that of the Cape buffalo and other cattle can be assumed. Among other things, this concerns foot-and-mouth disease and tuberculosis , which, however, have not yet been detected in red buffalo due to the fact that domestic cattle are not very common in the rainforest areas . Ticks of the genera Rhipicephalus and Amblyomma have been documented on external parasites . Among the internal parasites include roundworms as Carmyerius and oocysts as Eimeria . Moreover, it was with Paramphistomum also a representative of the flukes based manure remains identified.

Systematics

Internal classification of cattle (Bovini) according to Bibi 2013
 Bovini  
  Pseudoryina  

 Pseudoryx nghetinhensis (Vietnamese forest cattle)


   
  Bubalina  

 Syncerus (African Buffalo)


   

 Bubalus (Asian Buffalo)



 Bovina  

 Bos (actual cattle)




Template: Klade / Maintenance / Style

The Rotbüffel is a kind of the genus syncerus and the family of the Bovidae (Bovidae). The genus Syncerus includes the African buffalo, its closest relatives are the Asian buffalo ( Bubalus ). Both genera together form the sub- tribus of the Bubalina within the tribe of the Bovini and the sub-family of the Bovinae . According to molecular genetic studies, the African and Asian buffalos separated in the Upper Miocene around 7.3 to 5.1 million years ago.

For a long period up to the beginning of the 21st century, the genus Syncerus was considered monotypical . It contained the Cape Buffalo ( Syncerus caffer ) as the only species , which was distributed over large parts of Africa. Within the species a distinction was made between several subspecies, the exact number of which was disputed, however, in numerous more modern systematics, mostly fluctuated between two and five. The red buffalo was a clearly recognized subspecies of the Cape buffalo by most researchers. A revision of the horned buffalo from 2011, carried out by Colin Peter Groves and Peter Grubb , raised a total of three further subspecies at species level. In addition to the Cape buffalo, the red buffalo, the Sudan buffalo ( Syncerus brachyceros ) and the Virunga buffalo ( Syncerus matthewsi ) are separate species. A fifth, commonly adopted subspecies, S. c. aequinoctialis , is morphometrically and historically identical to the Sudan buffalo. The division of the genus Syncerus into four species is not fully recognized. The Cape buffalo and the red buffalo can be easily separated from each other on the basis of morphometric and external characteristics.They represent two different eco-morphotypes: the Cape buffalo as a large, powerful species with massive horns, a savannah type, the red buffalo, a more delicate representative with smaller horns, a forest type. The other two species, which inhabit the open landscapes of the Sahel and the mountainous regions of East Africa, are more intermediate between these two in terms of their appearance.

Pieter Boddaert

The high morphological range of variation of Syncerus is not reflected in a genetic diversity, as molecular genetic studies show. However, two clearly separated clades can be recognized, which on the one hand affect the populations of West and Central Africa (red and Sudan buffalo) and on the other hand those of East and South Africa (Cape buffalo). They differ by about 6.6% of their genetic material, the separation of the two lines took place in the Middle Pleistocene about 450,000 to 145,000 years ago. What is remarkable is the isolated occurrence of genetic features of one line in the other, which indicates a certain gene flow in the past. The magnitude of the gene flow is likely to be the mixing of an average of five individuals per generation. Possibly there was an expansion of both lines in the geological past, which favored hybridization , in the case of the red buffalo this could have been accompanied by an expansion of the rainforests under more humid climatic conditions during individual sections of the Pleistocene. The result of genetic studies suggests that the red buffalo originated in the West African savannah forms of Syncerus , which may also be reflected in the species' special diet.

The first scientific name of the red buffalo was in 1785 by Pieter Boddaert , he used the name Bos nanus . Boddaert indicated Morocco as the region of origin . The type material includes a pair of horns that had already been presented by Nehemiah Grew in 1686 as part of the collection of Gresham College in London; in 1771, Thomas Pennant depicted the horns in his work Synopsis of Quadrupeds and referred to the animal as the Dwarf Ox (“dwarf ox "). In 1792, Robert Kerr assigned the same pair of horns to the species Bos pumilus and gave Azafie in Morocco as its origin. Edward Blyth in turn set up the species Bos reclinis in 1863 with the help of the type horn pair . Both names are now considered synonymous with Syncerus nanus . Richard Lydekker later said that the origin of the type material was unknown, but referred to the Congo Basin as the actual distribution area of ​​the red buffalo. He first saw the red buffalo as a subspecies of the Cape buffalo in 1914.

Hazards and protective measures

The red buffalo is listed as a subspecies ( Syncerus caffer nanus ) by the IUCN , the endangerment status is therefore only given for all representatives of the genus Syncerus as "not endangered " ( least concern ). In the 1990s, the total red buffalo population was estimated to be around 60,000 animals, 75% of which were in protected areas. Since then, the total population has presumably declined sharply, and the species has probably already disappeared from some countries such as Liberia , the Ivory Coast , Ghana or Togo . The main reasons for the decline in the total population are the extensive hunting for the bushmeat market. In the town of Gamba in southwestern Gabon alone, 54 red buffalos were offered on the local market at the end of the 1990s, which corresponds to an amount of 22.7 kg per square kilometer per year from the surrounding protected areas. Of the 30 species offered in the Gamba market, the red buffalo was the fourth most common, which experts consider unsustainable. Other negative influences arise from overexploitation of tropical forests, but also from prolonged periods of drought. The size of the current population of the red buffalo is unknown, but it is represented in numerous nature reserves. The survival of the species depends above all on well-managed protected areas in which attention is paid to clearings or mosaic-like savannah-forest areas that meet the animals' special food and living needs.

literature

  • Daniel Cornélis, Mario Melletti, Lisa Korte, Sadie J. Ryan, Marzia Mirabile, Thomas Prin and Herbert HT Prins: African buffalo Syncerus caffer (Sparrman, 1779). In: M. Melletti and J. Burton (Eds.): Ecology, Evolution and Behavior of Wild Cattle: Implications for Conservation. Cambridge University, 2014, pp. 326-372
  • Colin P. Groves and David M. Leslie Jr .: Family Bovidae (Hollow-horned Ruminants). In: Don E. Wilson and Russell A. Mittermeier (eds.): Handbook of the Mammals of the World. Volume 2: Hooved Mammals. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona 2011, ISBN 978-84-96553-77-4 , pp. 587-588
  • Herbert HT Prins and Anthony RE Sinclair: Syncerus caffer African Buffalo. In: Jonathan Kingdon, David Happold, Michael Hoffmann, Thomas Butynski, Meredith Happold and Jan Kalina (eds.): Mammals of Africa Volume VI. Pigs, Hippopotamuses, Chevrotain, Giraffes, Deer and Bovids. Bloomsbury, London, 2013, pp. 125-136

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l Colin P. Groves and David M. Leslie Jr .: Family Bovidae (Hollow-horned Ruminants). In: Don E. Wilson and Russell A. Mittermeier (eds.): Handbook of the Mammals of the World. Volume 2: Hooved Mammals. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona 2011, ISBN 978-84-96553-77-4 , pp. 585-586
  2. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j Herbert HT Prins and Anthony RE Sinclair: Syncerus caffer African Buffalo. In: Jonathan Kingdon, David Happold, Michael Hoffmann, Thomas Butynski, Meredith Happold and Jan Kalina (eds.): Mammals of Africa Volume VI. Pigs, Hippopotamuses, Chevrotain, Giraffes, Deer and Bovids. Bloomsbury, London, 2013, pp. 125-136
  3. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k Daniel Cornélis, Mario Melletti, Lisa Korte, Sadie J. Ryan, Marzia Mirabile, Thomas Prin and Herbert HT Prins: African buffalo Syncerus caffer (Sparrman, 1779). In: M. Melletti and J. Burton (Eds.): Ecology, Evolution and Behavior of Wild Cattle: Implications for Conservation. Cambridge University, 2014, pp. 326-372
  4. ↑ a b H. HT Prins and JM Reitsma: Mammalian Biomass in an African Equatorial Rain Forest. Journal of Animal Ecology 58 (3), 1989, pp. 851-861
  5. ^ A b Bethan J. Morgan: Group size, density and biomass of large mammals in the Réserve de Faune du Petit Loango, Gabon. African Journal of Ecology 45, 2007, pp. 508-518
  6. ↑ a b c d M. Melletti, V. Penteriani and L. Boitani: Habitat preferences of the secretive forest buffalo (Syncerus caffer nanus) in Central Africa. Journal of Zoology 271, 2007, pp. 178-186
  7. ↑ a b c Patricia DBM Bekhuis, Christine B. De Jong and Herbert HT Prins: Diet selection and density estimates of forest buffalo in Campo-Ma'an National Park, Cameroon. African Journal of Ecology 46 (4), 2008, pp. 668-675
  8. ^ A b C. EG Tutin, LJT White and A. Mackanga Missandzou: The Use by Rain Forest Mammals of Natural Forest Fragments in an Equatorial African Savanna. Conservation Biology 11 (5), 1997, pp. 1190-1203
  9. ↑ a b c d Lisa M. Korte: Variation of group size among African buffalo herds in a forest-savanna mosaic landscape. Journal of Zoology 275, 2008, pp. 229-236
  10. ↑ a b c d e f g M. Melletti, V. Penteriani and L. Boitani: Some behavioral aspects of forest buffalo (Syncerus caffer nanus): from herd to individual. Journal of Mammalogy 88, 2007, pp. 1312-1323
  11. ↑ M. Melletti, V. Penteriani, M. Mirabile and L. Boitani: Notes and records Effects of habitat and season on the grouping of forest buffalo resting places. African Journal of Ecology 47, 2008, pp. 121-124
  12. ↑ Mario Melletti, MM Delgado, Vincenzo Penteriani, Marzia Mirabile and Luigi Boitani: Spatial properties of a forest buffalo herd and individual positioning as a response to environmental cues and social behavior. Journal of Ethology 28, 2010, pp. 421-428
  13. ↑ Lisa Korte: Herd-switching in adult female African forest buffalo Syncerus caffer nanus. African Journal of Ecology 47, 2009, pp. 125-127
  14. ↑ a b c Lisa Korte: Habitat selection at two spatial scales and diurnal activity patterns of adult female forest buffalo. Journal of Mammalogy 89, 2008, pp. 115-125
  15. ↑ Yntze van der Hoek, Ivo Lustenhouwer, Kathryn J. Jeffery and Pim van Hooft: Potential effects of prescribed savannah burning on the diet selection of forest buffalo (Syncerus caffer nanus) in Lopé National Park, Gabon. African Journal of Ecology 51, 2012, pp. 94-101
  16. ↑ a b Lisa M. Korte: Calving and inter-birth intervals of forest buffalo at Lopé National Park, Gabon. African Journal of Ecology 46, 2007, pp. 676-678
  17. ^ P. Henschel, KA Abernethy and LJT White: Leopard food habits in the Lopé National Park, Gabon, Central Africa. African Journal of Ecology 43, 2005, pp. 21-28
  18. ↑ Sharon L. Deem, Fiona Maisels and Richard G. Robbins: Necropsy and parasitic findings from an adult forest buffalo (Syncerus caffer nanus) found dead in the Republic of Congo. European Journal of Wildlife Research 51, 2005, pp. 60-62
  19. ↑ a b Fayasal Bibi: A multi-calibrated mitochondrial phylogeny of extant Bovidae (Artiodactyla, Ruminantia) and the importance of the fossil record to systematics. BMC Evolutionary Biology 13, 2013, p. 166
  20. ^ A b W. F. van Hooft, AF Groen and HHT Prins: Phylogeography of the African buffalo based on mitochondrial and Y-chromosomal loci: Pleistocene origin and population expansion of the Cape buffalo subspecies. Molecular Ecology 11, 2002, pp. 267-279
  21. ^ A b c Colin Groves and Peter Grubb: Ungulate Taxonomy. Johns Hopkins University Press, 2011, pp. 1–317 (SS 108–144)
  22. ↑ a b Nathalie Smitz, Cécile Berthouly, Daniel Cornélis, Rasmus Heller, Pim Van Hooft, Philippe Chardonnet, Alexandre Caron, Herbert Prins, Bettine Jansen van Vuuren, Hans De Iongh and Johan Michaux: Pan-African Genetic Structure in the African Buffalo ( Syncerus caffer): Investigating Intraspecific Divergence. PLosONE 8 (2), 2013, p. E56235 doi : 10.1371 / journal.pone.0056235
  23. ↑ Pieter Boddaert: Elenchus Animalium, Volume I: sistens quadrupedia huc usque nota, eorumque varietates: ad ductum naturae, quantum fieri potuit disposita. Rotterdam, 1785, pp. 1–174 (p. 152) ( [1] )
  24. ^ Thomas Pennant: Synopsis of Quadrupeds. Chester, 1771, pp. 1–382 (p. 9) ( [2] )
  25. ^ Robert Kerr: The animal kingdom, or zoological system, of the celebrated Sir Charles Linnaeus. Edinburgh, 1792, pp. 1–644 (p. 340) ( [3] )
  26. ^ Edward Blyth: Exhibitions of deer-horns and other specimens, with remarks. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, 1863, pp. 155–159 ( [4] )
  27. ↑ Richard Lydekker: Wild oxen, sheep & goats of all lands, living and extinct. London, 1898, pp. 1–318 (pp. 106–112) ( [5] )
  28. ^ Richard Lydekker: Catalog of the ungulate mammals in the British Museum (Natural History). Volume I: Artiodactyla, Family Bovidae, Subfamilies Bovinae to Ovibovinae. London, 1913, pp. 1–249 (pp. 68–70) ( [6] )
  29. ^ IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group: Syncerus caffer. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2008. e.T21251A9260904. ( [7] ); last accessed on April 8, 2016

Web links

Commons : Red Buffalo ( Syncerus nanus )  - Collection of images, videos and audio files