sweetener

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Tableted sweetener.
Sweeteners approved in the EU and permitted daily intake (ADI)
Surname relative sweetness
( sucrose = 1) 		ADI in mg / kg
body weight
Acesulfame ( E 950 ) 130-200 9
Advantam ( E 969 ) 20,000-37,000 5
Aspartame ( E 951 ) 200 40
Aspartame acesulfame salt ( E 962 ) 350 20th
Cyclamate ( E 952 ) 30-50 7th
Neohesperidin dihydrochalcone ( E 959 ) 400-600 5
Neotame ( E 961 ) 7,000-13,000 2
Saccharin ( E 954 ) 300-500 5
Sucralose ( E 955 ) 600 15th
Stevioside ( E 960 ) 200-300 4th
Thaumatin ( E 957 ) 2,000-3,000 none set

Sweeteners are synthetically produced or natural substitutes e.g. B. from sweetener plants for sugar , which significantly exceed its sweetness . They have little or no physiological calorific value . In addition, they do not provide food for bacteria that cause tooth decay , as they are not metabolized by the oral flora . The sweetness of the sweeteners is always related to sucrose with a sweetness of 1.

General

Sweeteners currently not permitted in the EU
Surname relative sweetness
( sucrose = 1)
Alitame 2,000-3,000
Brazzein 500-2,000
Dulcin 200
Hernandulcin approx. 1,250
Lugdunam 220,000-300,000
Monellin 800-2,000
Pentadin 500
Sucrononic acid 200,000
5-nitro-2-propoxyaniline 3,000-4,000

The prerequisite for the effect of sweeteners is that their chemical structure is capable of docking with the taste receptors . Figures about the relative sweetness are guidelines and are based on a three to four percent sucrose solution. The sweetness 500 means that a 500-fold dilution of the sweetener has the same sweetness as the sucrose solution. The sweetening power is also dependent on the other components of the sweetened food, its temperature and its pH value . It shows z. T. synergisms between different sweeteners, such as. B. between aspartame and acesulfame, which can lead to an even higher sweetening power. To improve taste, sucrose-based sweeteners are often combined with other sweeteners or with sugar substitutes . Sweeteners can be enjoyed in their pure form. T. have liquorice, menthol or sour flavors.

history

In addition to the to the Romans for making defrutum known use of lead vessels , with which the so toxic " sugar of lead " was, is that of the German sugar chemist Constantin Fahlberg found " saccharin " the oldest artificial sweetener. It was first launched in 1885. When it began to compete with sugar around 1900, pressure from the sugar industry in various countries made it compulsory for pharmacies, so that it was only available against a doctor's certificate (e.g. for diabetics ). In the German Empire and Austria-Hungary existed before the First World War, a sweetener and saccharin trading ban. The substances were smuggled in from Switzerland in large quantities .

Like saccharin, cyclamate was discovered by accident in 1937 while looking for an antipyretic drug when a chemist noticed that a cigarette left on the laboratory table tasted sweet. In the two world wars, sweeteners partly replaced the then scarce sugar.

Health assessment

So far, there are few reliable findings about the long-term effects of the use of sweeteners, especially their combinations. Studies on possible harmful effects came to different results. According to the German Nutrition Society, there is no evidence of an increased risk of cancer through the use of sweeteners. Only one study showed an increased risk of bladder cancer in rats with high sweetener consumption. In the study, the urine of rats, which is significantly more acidic than human, was stimulated to form crystals by ingesting acidic sweeteners. These crystals damage the inner wall of the bladder and the constant healing process caused genetic damage. This assessment was confirmed in work at the NIH in 2018 . The increased risk of cancer in rats, which was found in over 50 studies in the 1970s, cannot therefore be transferred to humans.

The Federal Institute for Risk Assessment considers the use of the sweeteners approved within the EU to be harmless to health, provided the respective maximum quantities are not exceeded. The evaluation from 2003 states: “Consumers repeatedly asked questions about potential undesirable effects or side effects, for example when using the sweetener aspartame . The substances aspartic acid , phenylalanine and methanol , which are produced in the metabolism of aspartame, were put into a presumed connection with undesirable effects such as headaches, allergies , neuroendocrine changes, epilepsy or brain tumors. After a detailed examination [...] the suspected connections could not be confirmed ”.

From the evaluation of the ten studies on the relationship between sweeteners and cancer risk in humans, a research group at Cologne University Hospital drew four conclusions in 2001:

  • In extremely high doses, saccharin can cause bladder cancer in rats, but this is due to the special reaction of rodents to sodium salts.
  • Up until 2001, only one study was able to prove a slightly increased risk of bladder cancer ( RR 1.3; CI 0.9–2.1) in humans due to heavy consumption of sweeteners over 1.68 g (1,680 mg) per day, although this was also due to heavy coffee consumption or can be achieved through urinary tract infections. An identification of the effect of individual sweeteners is not possible because of the usual mixing.
  • "Despite some sensational and unscientific articles in the lay and specialist press, there is so far no well-founded evidence that the sugar substitute aspartame is carcinogenic ."
  • No statements can be made about second-generation sweeteners such as acesulfame-K, sucralose, alitame or neotame because they have only been in use for too short a time.

A review article from 2013 came to the conclusion that no evidence-based recommendation for or against sweeteners could yet be made and that sweeteners may be helpful as a dietary aid for diabetes patients or in a diet aimed at weight loss, but that it is recommended for optimal health, Consume minimal amounts of sugar and sweeteners.

People suffering from phenylketonuria should not consume the sweetener aspartame. Therefore, products that contain aspartame must be labeled in the EU with the words “contains a source of phenylalanine” or “with phenylalanine”. Newborns today are routinely tested for phenylketonuria. Any diet high in protein (especially milk, including breast milk) can harm people with phenylketonuria.

As of 2018, it is still unclear how the consumption of sweeteners will affect pharmacokinetics . It is possible that the absorption of drugs can be prevented or their breakdown accelerated by sweeteners. In animal experiments it had been shown that sucralose increased the expression of P-glycoprotein and cytochrome P-450 . It is also uncertain whether sweeteners get into the amniotic fluid and the liquor . Effects on the microbiome identified in animal experiments will be further explored; it is uncertain whether they are transferable to humans. Pregnant women are advised not to consume excessive amounts of sweeteners. Sweeteners are not suitable for losing weight; here a general avoidance of sugary foods is more effective than switching from sugar to sweeteners.

Blundell-Hill Hypothesis

In 1986, the British research team J. E. Blundell and A. J. Hill reported in The Lancet magazine about an experiment in which test subjects reported feeling more hungry after drinking sweetened water than after drinking the same amount of pure water. Since then, numerous studies have examined the possible effects of artificial sweeteners on appetite and hunger. Apart from Blundell / Hill, only one study found evidence of an appetite-increasing effect, namely in a test with chewing gum . With reference to Blundell / Hill, the hypothesis was put forward that sweeteners, like sugar, lead to an increased release of insulin shortly after their ingestion ( cephalic insulin reaction ), although, in contrast to sugar and carbohydrates, they do not supply the body with glucose . A short time later, the blood sugar level drops sharply, which explains the feelings of hunger. However, this effect was not confirmed in several tests.

A study from 1998 showed that various sweeteners with a bitter flavor component (sodium saccharin , sodium cyclamate , stevioside and Acesulfame-K ), but not aspartame , on isolated rat pancreatic - islet cell insulin secretion statistically significantly increased. In a 1993 study by Härtel and Graubaum with 14 people, however, no increase in plasma insulin could be ascertained after ingesting aspartame, acesulfame, cyclamate and saccharine.

Also based on Blundell / Hill which has been theorized that the use of sweetener lead to increased energy intake and thus obesity promotes. This was justified on the one hand with the hypothesis of increased appetite, on the other hand with the theory of compensatory eating behavior, according to which the body compensates or overcompensates for energy saved during a meal by increasing energy intake during later meals. Most studies, however, found only a small amount of energy compensation related to sweeteners, averaging just 32 percent. In a long-term study by the Danish University of Frederiksberg, 41 overweight people (with an average of around 28 BMI ) consumed almost a liter of lemonade or juice drinks a day that were made with sugar ( sucrose ) or with sweeteners (a mixture of aspartame, acesulfame-K, cyclamate and saccharin). were sweetened. After 10 weeks the weight of the first group increased by an average of 1.3 kg, whereas the weight of the sweetener group had decreased by 0.3 kg. A meta-analysis from 2007, however, lists 19 studies, three of which indicated an appetite-increasing effect and three indicated an appetite-reducing effect;

Yang hypothesized in 2010 that the sensory component (sweet taste) without the corresponding caloric component (high-energy molecules in the blood) only partially activates the brain's reward system (the sensory component influences the mesolimbic dopamine system, for example , the caloric the hypothalamus). According to Yang, this could result in the foraging behavior being shown more intensely, regardless of the actual physical energy requirement, in order to supplement the missing component. Furthermore, habituation effects lead to the fact that the mesolimbic system reacts less and less to sweetness, which could lead to a further increase in the consumption of sweet foods. In addition, according to Yang, the amount of average consumption of a flavor correlates with the preference for the intensity of that flavor. Thus, frequent consumption of sweet foods and drinks would lead to a preference for an ever greater degree of sweetness. As a possible indication of these relationships, it is stated that both the percentage of Americans who consume sweeteners and the proportion of the population with a BMI> 30 have risen sharply since 1960.

Effect on the intestinal flora

In a study published in Israel in 2014, disorders of the intestinal flora and glucose metabolism in mice after the intake of sweeteners (saccharin, sucralose or aspartame) were found (Jotham Suez and others, Weizmann Institute in Rehovot ). The subsequent analysis of data from 381 non-diabetic participants in another ongoing nutritional study showed that participants who used sweeteners weighed more, had higher values ​​for fasting blood sugar and HbA1c, and impaired oral glucose tolerance; the examination of the faeces revealed a change in the intestinal flora. Since this is an observational study, no assessment of causality can be made.

Reviews from 2019 summarize the previous studies on the question of the microbiome disruption caused by sweeteners. Despite numerous in-vitro and in-vivo studies (almost exclusively on rats and mice) and many significant effects on different bacterial strains, no uniform finding can be obtained. The tested sweeteners, the observed bacterial strains and the underlying test models are too different to allow an assessment. In animal studies, the dose is often unrealistically high. With normal doses it has not been possible to record measurable health disorders in either animals or humans.

Impact on the environment

Sweeteners are excreted by the human body after consumption and get into the environment via sewage treatment plants , where they are usually only incompletely broken down. Its effects there cannot yet be foreseen. In the Rhine, Neckar, Danube and Main regions, sweetener concentrations in the two to three-digit nanogram per liter range (saccharine, cyclamate, sucralose) and three to four-digit nanogram per liter range (acesulfame) were detected. With more than 2 micrograms per liter in German surface water, the sweetener acesulfame is the artificial sweetener with the highest concentration. The foundation goods test uses the detection of sweeteners in the mineral water as an indicator for surface impurities "are detected sweeteners in the mineral water, indicated that out that mineral water sources are not protected sufficiently and entering of water from upper layers."

Other sweeteners

literature

Web links

Wiktionary: Sweetener  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations
Wikisource: Law, regarding the traffic with artificial sweeteners (Germany, 1898)  - sources and full texts

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ German Sweetener Association e. V .: A lot of sweetness compared to sugar . On: suessstoff-verband.info
  2. ↑ Zusatzstoffe-online.de: Database for food additives .
  3. ↑ Eisenbahndirektion Mainz (ed.): Official Journal of the Royal Prussian and Grand Ducal Hessian Railway Directorate in Mainz of August 17, 1912, No. 40. Announcement No. 519, p. 297.
  4. ^ A b c d German Nutrition Society (DGE): Sweeteners in nutrition ( Memento from April 4, 2013 in the Internet Archive ). On: dge.de, May 2, 2007.
  5. ↑ a b c d e f Martin R. Weihrauch u. a .: Artificial sweeteners - do they have a carcinogenic potential? In: Medical Clinic. 96, No. 11, 2001, pp. 670-675. doi: 10.1007 / PL00002158 .
  6. ↑ a b Tim Hollstein: Sugar substitutes and insulin resistance: sweeteners as a metabolic risk . In: Deutsches Ärzteblatt . tape 115 , no. 49 , 2018, p. A-2294-A-2296 .
  7. ↑ Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR): Evaluation of sweeteners . On: bfr.bund.de, August 21, 2003 ( PDF ; 20 kB).
  8. ↑ P. Shankar, S. Ahuja, K. Sriram: Non-nutritive sweeteners: Review and update. In: Nutrition. Vol. 29, No. 11-12, 2013, pp. 1293-1299. PMID 23845273 , doi: 10.1016 / j.nut.2013.03.024 .
  9. ↑ Ingrid Toews, Szimonetta Lohner, Daniela Küllenberg de Gaudry, Harriet Sommer, Joerg J Meerpohl: Association between intake of non-sugar sweeteners and health outcomes: systematic review and meta-analyzes of randomized and non-randomized controlled trials and observational studies . In: BMJ . 2019, ISSN  0959-8138 , p. K4718. doi : 10.1136 / bmj.k4718 .
  10. ↑ Vasanti S. Malik: Non-sugar sweeteners and health . In: BMJ . 2019, ISSN  0959-8138 , p. K5005. doi : 10.1136 / bmj.k5005 .
  11. ↑ JE Blundell, AJ Hill: Paradoxical effects of an intense sweetener (aspartame) on appetite. In: The Lancet . Volume 327, Issue 8489, May 10, 1986, pp. 1092-1093. doi: 10.1016 / S0140-6736 (86) 91352-8 .
  12. ↑ a b c F. Bellisle, A. Drewnowski: Intense sweeteners, energy intake and the control of body weight. In: European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 61, 2007, pp. 691-700. PMID 17299484 ; doi: 10.1038 / sj.ejcn.1602649 .
  13. ↑ Willy J. Malaisse et al. a .: Effects of Artificial Sweeteners on Insulin Release and Cationic Fluxes in Rat Pancreatic Islets In: Cellular Signaling. Vol. 10, No. 10, 1998, pp. 627-733, ISSN  0898-6568 / 98.
  14. ↑ Denise Jung: On the importance of energy-reduced foods for weight loss. Hamburg 2014, ISBN 978-3-95820-123-1 , p. 20.
  15. ↑ A. Raben, TH Vasilaras, AC Møller, A. Astrup: Sucrose compared with artificial sweeteners: different effects on ad libitum food intake and body weight after 10 wk of supplementation in overweight subjects. In: American Society for Clinical Nutrition. 76, 2002, No. 4, pp. 721-729. PMID 12324283 .
  16. ↑ Q. Yang: Gain weight by “going diet?” Artificial sweeteners and the neurobiology of sugar cravings: Neuroscience 2010. In: The Yale journal of biology and medicine. Volume 83, Number 2, June 2010, pp. 101-108, ISSN  1551-4056 . PMID 20589192 . PMC 2892765 (free full text). (Review).
  17. ↑ a b Sweeteners: Study shows disruption of intestinal flora and glucose metabolism. In: Ärzteblatt. September 18, 2014. (online) .
  18. ↑ a b J. Suez u. a .: Artificial sweeteners induce glucose intolerance by altering the gut microbiota. In: Nature. 2014. doi: 10.1038 / nature13793 .
  19. ^ Francisco Javier Ruiz-Ojeda, Julio Plaza-Díaz, Maria Jose Sáez-Lara, Angel Gil: Effects of Sweeteners on the Gut Microbiota: A Review of Experimental Studies and Clinical Trials . In: Advances in Nutrition (Bethesda, Md.) . tape 10 , suppl_1, January 1, 2019, ISSN  2156-5376 , p. 31-48 , doi : 10.1093 / advances / nmy037 , PMID 30721958 , PMC 6363527 (free full text).
  20. ↑ Alexandra R. Lobach, Ashley Roberts, Ian R. Rowland: Assessing the in vivo data on low / no-calorie sweeteners and the gut microbiota . In: Food and Chemical Toxicology: An International Journal Published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association . tape 124 , February 2019, ISSN  1873-6351 , p. 385-399 , doi : 10.1016 / j.fct.2018.12.005 , PMID 30557670 .
  21. ↑ Marco Scheurer, Heinz-J. Brauch, Frank T. Lange: Analysis and occurrence of seven artificial sweeteners in German waste water and surface water and in soil aquifer treatment (SAT). In: Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry , 2009. doi: 10.1007 / s00216-009-2881-y .
  22. ↑ Light jam products: sweeteners reduce calories . In: Stiftung Warentest. test.de. May 24, 2012. Retrieved June 24, 2013.
  23. ↑ Natural mineral water: 48 mineral waters in the test. This is how the Stiftung Warentest tests . In: Stiftung Warentest. test.de. April 24, 2013. Retrieved June 24, 2013.
  24. ^ A b c Kay O'Donnell, MW Kearsley: Sweeteners and Sugar Alternatives in Food Technology. John Wiley & Sons, 2012, ISBN 978-0-470-65968-7 , online (PDF; 3.5MB), at chemistry-chemists.com, accessed November 30, 2016.