Nuclear proliferation and Brownsville, Texas: Difference between pages

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Difference between pages)
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
 
 
Line 1: Line 1:
{{Infobox Settlement
{{Cleanup|date=March 2008}}
|official_name = City of Brownsville
|settlement_type = [[City]]
|nickname = The Green City
|motto = On the Border by the Sea
|image_skyline =
|imagesize =
|image_caption =
|image_flag =
|image_seal =
|image_map =
|mapsize = 250px
|map_caption = Location within the state of [[Texas]]
|image_map1 = Cameron_County_Brownsville_Highlighted.svg
|mapsize1 = 250px
|map_caption1 = Location within [[Cameron County, TX|Cameron County]]
|subdivision_type = [[List of countries|Country]]
|subdivision_name = [[United States]]
|subdivision_type1 = [[Political divisions of the United States|State]]
|subdivision_name1 = [[Texas]]
|subdivision_type2 = [[List of counties in Texas|County]]
|subdivision_name2 = [[Cameron County, Texas|Cameron]]
|government_type =
|leader_title = [[Mayor]]
|leader_name = [[Pat Ahumada|Patricio M. Ahumada, Jr.]]
|established_date =
|area_magnitude = 1 E9
|area_total_km2 = 215.0
|area_land_km2 = 208.2
|area_water_km2 = 6.8
|area_total_sq_mi = 83.0
|area_land_sq_mi = 80.4
|area_water_sq_mi = 2.6
|elevation_m = 10
|elevation_ft = 33
|latd = 25 |latm = 55 |lats = 49 |latNS = N
|longd = 97 |longm = 29 |longs = 4 |longEW = W
|population_as_of = 2006
|population_metro = 387,717
|population_total = 172,806 ([[city limits|city proper]])
|population_density_km2 = 671.0
|timezone = [[North American Central Time Zone|CST]]
|utc_offset = -6
|timezone_DST = [[North American Central Time Zone|CDT]]
|utc_offset_DST = -5
|image_map = TXMap-doton-Brownsville.PNG |
latitude = 25°93'03" N |
longitude = 97°48'44" W
|website = http://www.ci.brownsville.tx.us/
|postal_code_type =
|postal_code =
|area_code = [[Area code 956|956]]
|blank_name = [[Federal Information Processing Standard|FIPS code]]
|blank_info = 48-10768{{GR|2}}
|blank1_name = [[Geographic Names Information System|GNIS]] feature ID
|blank1_info = 1372749{{GR|3}}
|footnotes = |
}}
'''Brownsville''' is a city in and the [[county seat]] of [[Cameron County, Texas|Cameron County]], [[Texas]], [[United States]].{{GR|6}} Brownsville is the 15th largest city in the state of Texas and the 130th largest in the United States. The 2000 United States Census population was 139,722, with a July 1, 2007 Census estimate of 172,806; which reflects growth rate of 23.7 percent. Brownsville is also the southernmost city in Texas.


Brownsville is the principal city of the Brownsville–[[Harlingen, Texas|Harlingen]] [[Brownsville-Harlingen metropolitan area|Metropolitan Statistical Area]], which is part of the larger Brownsville–Harlingen–[[Raymondville, Texas|Raymondville]] [[Brownsville-Harlingen-Raymondville combined statistical area|Combined Statistical Area]].
[[Image:Nuclear weapon programs worldwide oct2006.png|thumb|300px|World map with [[List of countries with nuclear weapons|nuclear weapons development status]] represented by color.
{{legend|#E90F0F|Five "nuclear weapons states" from the NPT}}
{{legend|#F08000|Other states known to possess nuclear weapons}}
{{legend|#81147F|States formerly possessing nuclear weapons}}
{{legend|#FFC34D|States suspected of being in the process of developing nuclear weapons and/or nuclear programs}}
{{legend|#003AFF|States which at one point had nuclear weapons and/or nuclear weapons research programs}}
{{legend|#E664AC|States that possess nuclear weapons, but have not widely adopted them}}]]
{{nuclear weapons}}
'''Nuclear proliferation''' is a term now used to describe the spread of [[nuclear weapons]], fissile material, and weapons-applicable nuclear technology and information, to nations which are not recognized as "nuclear weapon States" by the ''Treaty on the Nonproliferation of Nuclear Weapons'', also known as the [[Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty]] or NPT. Proliferation has been opposed by many nations with and without nuclear weapons, the governments of which fear that more countries with nuclear weapons may increase the possibility of [[nuclear warfare]] (up to and including the so-called "[[countervalue]]" targeting of civilians with nuclear weapons), de-stabilize international or regional relations, or infringe upon the national [[sovereignty]] of [[nation-state|state]]s.


==Geography and climate==
Three nations, none of which signed or ratified the NPT, have acquired, or are presumed to have acquired, nuclear weapons: India, Pakistan and Israel. Critics of the NPT and nuclear weapon States cite this when they charge that the NPT-system is discriminatory.
Brownsville is located at {{coor dms|25|55|49|N|97|29|4|W|city}} (25.930307, -97.484424),{{GR|1}} on the [[U.S.-Mexico border]] (marked here by the [[Rio Grande]] or Río Bravo del Norte) from [[Matamoros, Tamaulipas|Matamoros]], [[Tamaulipas]]. The low latitude and elevation give Brownsville a subtropical climate. Broadleaf evergreen plants, including [[palm]]s, dominate Brownsville neighbourhoods to a greater degree than is seen elsewhere in Texas -- even in nearby cities such as [[Harlingen]] and [[San Benito, Texas|San Benito]]. Soils are mostly of clay to silty clay loam texture, moderately alkaline ([[soil pH|pH 8.2]]) to strongly alkaline ([[soil pH|pH8.5]]) and with a significant degree of [[soil salinity|salinity]] in many places.[http://websoilsurvey.nrcs.usda.gov/app/WebSoilSurvey.aspx]


According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 83.0 square miles (215.0 km²), making it by far the largest city in the [[Rio Grande Valley]]. 80.4 square miles (208.2 km²) of it is land and 2.6 square miles (6.8 km²) of it (3.16%) is water.
==History of Nuclear Proliferation==
<!--{{climate chart|[[Brownsville, TX|]]
|68.7|50.5|1.36
|72.2|53.3|1.18
|78.0|59.5|0.93
|82.3|65.2|1.96
|86.9|71.6|2.48
|90.5|74.9|2.99
|92.4|75.4|1.77
|92.6|75.3|2.99
|89.4|72.6|5.31
|84.0|65.9|3.78
|76.8|58.6|1.75
|70.2|52.0|1.11
|float=left
|clear=both
|units=imperial
}}-->


{{Infobox Weather
Earnest international efforts to promote '''nuclear non-proliferation''' began soon after World War II, when the Truman Administration proposed the [[Baruch Plan]]<ref>[http://www.atomicarchive.com/Docs/Deterrence/BaruchPlan.shtml The Baruch Plan | Arms Control, Deterrence and Nuclear Proliferation | Historical Documents | atomicarchive.com<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> of 1946, named after Bernard Baruch, America's first representative to the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission. The Baruch Plan, which drew heavily from the [[Acheson-Lilienthal Report]] of 1946, proposed the verifiable dismantlement and destruction of the U.S. nuclear arsenal (which, at that time, was the only nuclear arsenal in the world) after all governments had cooperated successfully to accomplish two things: (1) the establishment of an "international atomic development authority," which would actually own and control all military-applicable nuclear materials and activities, and (2) the creation of a system of automatic sanctions, which not even the U.N. Security Council could veto, and which would proportionately punish states attempting to acquire the capability to make nuclear weapons or fissile material.
|metric_first= <!--Entering Yes will display metric first. Leave blank for imperial-->
|single_line=Yes <!--Entering Yes will display metric and imperial units on same line.-->
|location = Brownsville, Texas
|Jan_Hi_°F =68.7 |Jan_REC_Hi_°F =91 <!--REC temps are optional; use sparely-->
|Feb_Hi_°F =72.2 |Feb_REC_Hi_°F =94
|Mar_Hi_°F =78.0 |Mar_REC_Hi_°F =106
|Apr_Hi_°F =82.3 |Apr_REC_Hi_°F =102
|May_Hi_°F =86.9 |May_REC_Hi_°F =102
|Jun_Hi_°F =90.5 |Jun_REC_Hi_°F =103
|Jul_Hi_°F =92.4 |Jul_REC_Hi_°F =103
|Aug_Hi_°F =92.6 |Aug_REC_Hi_°F =104
|Sep_Hi_°F =89.4 |Sep_REC_Hi_°F =105
|Oct_Hi_°F =84.0 |Oct_REC_Hi_°F =99
|Nov_Hi_°F =76.8 |Nov_REC_Hi_°F =98
|Dec_Hi_°F =70.2 |Dec_REC_Hi_°F =94
|Year_Hi_°F =82.0 |Year_REC_Hi_°F = 106
|Jan_Lo_°F =50.5 |Jan_REC_Lo_°F =18
|Feb_Lo_°F =53.3 |Feb_REC_Lo_°F =12
|Mar_Lo_°F =59.5 |Mar_REC_Lo_°F =28
|Apr_Lo_°F =65.2 |Apr_REC_Lo_°F =37
|May_Lo_°F =71.6 |May_REC_Lo_°F =41
|Jun_Lo_°F =74.9 |Jun_REC_Lo_°F =56
|Jul_Lo_°F =75.4 |Jul_REC_Lo_°F =57
|Aug_Lo_°F =75.3 |Aug_REC_Lo_°F =63
|Sep_Lo_°F =72.6 |Sep_REC_Lo_°F =51
|Oct_Lo_°F =65.9 |Oct_REC_Lo_°F =35
|Nov_Lo_°F =58.6 |Nov_REC_Lo_°F =27
|Dec_Lo_°F =52.0 |Dec_REC_Lo_°F =16
|Year_Lo_°F =64.6 |Year_REC_Lo_°F =12
|Jan_Precip_inch =1.36
|Feb_Precip_inch =1.18
|Mar_Precip_inch =0.93
|Apr_Precip_inch =1.96
|May_Precip_inch =2.48
|Jun_Precip_inch =2.99
|Jul_Precip_inch =1.77
|Aug_Precip_inch =2.99
|Sep_Precip_inch =5.31
|Oct_Precip_inch =3.78
|Nov_Precip_inch =1.75
|Dec_Precip_inch =1.11
|Year_Precip_inch =27.55
|source =[[National Weather Service]]<ref>[http://www.weather.gov/climate/xmacis.php?wfo=bro National Weather Service Brownsville]</ref>''
|accessdate =
}}


==Demographics==
Although the Baruch Plan enjoyed wide international support, it failed to emerge from the UNAEC because the Soviet Union planned to veto it in the Security Council. Still, it remained official American policy until 1953, when President Eisenhower made his "[[Atoms for Peace]]" proposal before the U.N. General Assembly. Eisenhower's proposal led eventually to the creation of the [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] (IAEA) in 1957. Under the "[[Atoms for Peace]]" program thousands of scientists from around the world were educated in nuclear science and then dispatched them home, where many later pursued secret weapons programs in their home country.<ref >{{Cite web|url= http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/IK29Df02.html |title= How you helped build Pakistan's bomb|accessdate=2007-11-30|publisher=Asia Times Online|year=2007|author= Catherine Collins and Douglas Frantz |format=HTML}}</ref>
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of 2000, there were 139,722 people, 38,174 households, and 32,180 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] was 1,737.8 people per square mile (671.0/km²). There were 42,323 housing units at an average density of 526.4/sq&nbsp;mi (203.2/km²). The racial makeup of the city is 81.65% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 0.41% [[African American (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.42% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 0.54% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.03% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 14.66% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 2.29% from two or more races. [[Hispanic (U.S. Census)|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race were 91.28% of the population.


There were 38,174 households out of which 50.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 59.3% were [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 20.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 15.7% were non-families. 13.7% of all households were made up of individuals and 6.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.62 and the average family size was 3.99.
Efforts to conclude an international agreement to limit the spread of nuclear weapons did not begin until the early 1960s, after four nations (i.e., the U.S., Soviet Union, Britain and France) had acquired nuclear weapons (see [[List of countries with nuclear weapons]] for more information). Although these efforts stalled in the early 1960s, they renewed once again in 1964, after the [[People's Republic of China]] detonated a nuclear weapon and became the fifth nation to have acquired nuclear weapons. In 1968, governments represented at the [[Eighteen Nation Disarmament Committee]] (ENDC) finished negotiations on the text of the NPT. In June 1968, the U.N. General Assembly endorsed the NPT with General Assembly Resolution 2373 (XXII), and in July 1968, the NPT opened for signature in Washington, DC, London and Moscow. The NPT entered into force in March 1970.


In the city the population was spread out with 34.6% under the age of 18, 11.2% from 18 to 24, 27.5% from 25 to 44, 17.2% from 45 to 64, and 9.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 28 years. For every 100 females there were 89.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 82.5 males.
Since the mid-1970s, the primary focus of nonproliferation efforts has been to maintain, and even increase, international control over the fissile material and specialized technologies necessary to build such devices because these are the most difficult and expensive parts of a nuclear weapons program. The main materials whose generation and distribution is controlled are highly [[enriched uranium]] and [[plutonium]]. Other than the acquisition of these special materials, the scientific and technical means for weapons construction to develop rudimentary, but working, nuclear explosive devices are considered to be within the reach of industrialized nations.


The median income for a household in the city was $24,468, and the median income for a family was $26,186. Males had a median income of $21,739 versus $17,116 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city was $9,762. About 32.4% of families and 36.0% of the population were below the [[poverty line]], giving it the highest poverty rate of any city in the country,<ref>[http://www.census.gov/prod/2003pubs/c2kbr-19.pdf 2000 Census]</ref> including 45.0% of those under age 18 and 31.0% of those age 65 or over.
Since its founding by the [[United Nations]] in 1957, the [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] (IAEA) has promoted two, sometimes contradictory, missions: on the one hand, the Agency seeks to promote and spread internationally the use of civilian nuclear energy; on the other hand, it seeks to prevent, or at least detect, the diversion of civilian nuclear energy to nuclear weapons, nuclear explosive devices or purposes unknown. The IAEA now operates a safeguards system as specified under Article III of the [[Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty]] (NPT) of 1968, which aims to ensure that civil stocks of [[uranium]], [[plutonium]], as well as facilities and technologies associated with these nuclear materials, are used only for peaceful purposes and do not contribute in any way to proliferation or nuclear weapons programs.


In 2000, the median gross rent paid for housing in Brownsville was $405 per month. This was the lowest of any city in the United States with more than 100,000 people.<ref>[http://www.census.gov/Press-Release/www/2003/cb03-90.html Census Bureau News<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
== Dual use technology ==
[[Dual use technology]] refers to the possibility of military use of civilian [[nuclear power]] technology. The [[enriched uranium]] used in most [[nuclear reactor]]s is not concentrated enough to build a bomb. Most nuclear reactors run on 4% enriched uranium; [[Little Boy]] used 80% enriched uranium; while lower enrichment levels could be used, the minimum bomb size would rapidly become unfeasibly large as the level was decreased. However, the same plants and technology used to enrich uranium for power generation can be used to make the highly enriched uranium needed to build a bomb.<ref name="wss-stsoet">{{Cite web|url=http://www.princeton.edu/~rskemp/Stemming_the_Spread_of_Enrichment_Plants.pdf|title=Stemming the Spread of Enrichment Technology|accessdate=2006-11-10|publisher=Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs|year=2006|author=Babur Habib et al|format=PDF}}</ref>


The Census Bureau ranks Brownsville as the most impoverished city in the nation, according to the bureau's 2006 American Community Survey released on Tuesday. via The Brownsville Herald
In addition, the [[plutonium]] produced in power reactors, if separated from spent fuel through chemical reprocessing (much less technically challenging than isotopic separation), can be used for a bomb. While the plutonium resulting from normal reactor fueling cycles is less than ideal for weapons use because of the concentration of [[Pu-240]], a usable weapon can be produced from it.<ref name="npec-afeotpdolwr">{{Cite web|url=http://www.npec-web.org/Reports/Report041022%20LWR.pdf|title=A Fresh Examination of the Proliferation Dangers of Light Water Reactors|accessdate=2006-11-10|publisher=Nonproliferation Policy Education Center|year=2004|author=Victor Galinsky, Marvin Miller & Harmon Hubbard|format=PDF}}</ref> If the reactor is operated on very short fueling cycles, bomb-grade plutonium can be produced. However, such operation would be virtually impossible to camouflage in many reactor designs, as the frequent shutdowns for refueling would be obvious, for instance in satellite photographs.


*According to the U.S. Census Bureau, only 51.7% of the population has a high school diploma.
[[Breeder reactor|Fast breeder reactors]] require reprocessing, generate more plutonium than they consume (and much than non-breeders), and can produce better than weapons-grade plutonium. New technology for breeder reactors, like [[SSTAR]], may lessen the risk of nuclear proliferation by providing sealed reactors with a limited self-contained fuel supply that could be remotely shut down in case of tampering.
*According to the U.S. Census Bureau, 87.2% speak a language other than English at home.<ref>[http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/SAFFFacts?_event=Search&geo_id=&_geoContext=&_street=&_county=Brownsville&_cityTown=Brownsville&_state=04000US48&_zip=&_lang=en&_sse=on&pctxt=fph&pgsl=010 Brownsville City Fact Sheet]</ref>


== History ==
==International cooperation==
[[Image:Emory-Brownsville.jpg|220px|thumb|right|Brownsville, Texas in 1857.]]
===Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty===
{{main|Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty}}


In 1845, construction of a fort on the Mexican border was commissioned, due to increased instability in the region. Before completion, the Mexican Army began the [[Siege of Fort Texas]], during the first active campaign in the [[Mexican-American War]], between May 3-9, 1846. The first battle of the war occurred on May 8, 1846, when General Zachary Taylor received word of the siege of the fort. They rushed to help, but were intercepted, resulting in the [[Battle of Palo Alto]] about 5 miles north of present-day Brownsville. The next morning the Mexican forces had retreated, and Taylor's troops caught up with them, resulting in the [[Battle of Resaca de la Palma]], which was fought within the present city limits. When Taylor finally arrived at the besieged Fort Texas, it was found that 2 soldiers had died, one of which was the fort's commander, Major Jacob Brown. In his honor, General Taylor renamed the fort [[Fort Brown]]. An old cannon at the [[University of Texas at Brownsville and Texas Southmost College]] marks the spot where Major Brown was fatally wounded.
At present, 189 countries are States Parties to the ''Treaty on the Nonproliferation of Nuclear Weapons'', more commonly known as the [[Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty]] or NPT. These include the five Nuclear Weapons States (NWS) recognized by the NPT: the [[People's Republic of China]], [[France]], [[Russian Federation]], the [[United Kingdom|UK]], and the [[United States|USA]].


Contrary to popular belief, however, there is few, if any, evidence that said Fort was called "Fort Texas". In fact, most official correspondence from the time describes the fort as "camp near Matamoros"
Notable non-signatories to the NPT are [[Israel]], [[Pakistan]], and [[India]] (the latter two have since tested nuclear weapons, while Israel is considered by most to be an unacknowledged nuclear weapons state). [[North Korea]] was once a signatory but withdrew in January 2003. The legality of North Korea's withdrawal is debatable but as of [[October 9]], [[2006]], North Korea clearly possesses the capability to make a nuclear explosive device.


The city of Brownsville was originally established late in 1848 by [[Charles Stillman]], and was made the county seat of the new [[Cameron County]] on January 13, 1849. The city was originally incorporated by the state on January 24, 1850. This was repealed on April 1, 1852, due to a land ownership dispute between Stillman and the former owners. The state reincorporated the city on February 7, 1853, which remains in effect. The issue of ownership was not decided until 1879, when the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in favor of Stillman.
===International Atomic Energy Agency===
{{main|International Atomic Energy Agency}}


On [[July 13]] [[1859]], the [[First Cortina War]] started. [[Juan Cortina|Juan Nepomuceno Cortina]] would become one of the most important historical figures of the area, and continued to exert a decisive influence in the local events until his arrest in 1875. The First Cortina War ended on [[December 27]], [[1859]]. In May 1861, the brief [[Second Cortina War]] took place.
The IAEA was set up by unanimous resolution of the [[United Nations]] in 1957 to help nations develop nuclear energy for peaceful purposes. Allied to this role is the administration of safeguards arrangements to provide assurance to the international community that individual countries are honoring their commitments under the treaty.


{{main|Cortina Troubles}}
The IAEA regularly inspects civil nuclear facilities to verify the accuracy of documentation supplied to it. The agency checks inventories, and samples and analyzes materials. Safeguards are designed to deter diversion of nuclear material by increasing the risk of early detection. They are complemented by controls on the export of sensitive technology from countries such as UK and USA through voluntary bodies such as the [[Nuclear Suppliers Group]]. The main concern of the IAEA is that uranium not be enriched beyond what is necessary for commercial civil plants, and that [[plutonium]] which is produced by [[nuclear reactor]]s not be refined into a form that would be suitable for bomb production.


During the [[American Civil War|Civil War]] Brownsville was used as a smuggling point for Confederate goods into [[Mexico]], most importantly cotton smuggled to European ships waiting at the Mexican port of [[Bagdad, Tamaulipas|Bagdad]]. Fort Brown was controlled by the Confederates. In November 1863, Union troops landed at [[Port Isabel]] and marched for Brownsville to stop the smuggling. Confederate forces abandoned the fort, blowing it up with 8000 pounds of explosives. In 1864, the town was reoccupied by the Confederates under [[John Salmon Ford|John Salmon 'Rip' Ford]]. On [[May 15]], [[1865]], a month after the surrender had been signed at [[Appomattox Court House]], the [[Battle of Palmito Ranch]] was fought and won by the Confederades.
===Scope of safeguards===
Traditional safeguards are arrangements to account for and control the use of nuclear materials. This verification is a key element in the international system which ensures that uranium in particular is used only for peaceful purposes.


On August 13 and 14, 1906, Brownsville was the site of the [[Brownsville Affair]]. Racial tensions were high between white townsfolk and black infantrymen stationed at [[Fort Brown]]. On the night of August 13th, one white bartender was killed and a white police officer was wounded by rifle shots in the street. Townsfolk, including the mayor, accused the infantrymen as the murderers. Without a chance to defend themselves in a hearing, President [[Theodore Roosevelt]] dishonorably discharged the entire 167 member regiment due to their accused "[[Conspiracy of silence (expression)|conspiracy of silence]]". Further investigations in the 1970s found that they were not at fault, and the [[Richard Nixon|Nixon Administration]] reversed all dishonorable discharges.
Parties to the NPT agree to accept technical safeguard measures applied by the IAEA. These require that operators of nuclear facilities maintain and declare detailed accounting records of all movements and transactions involving nuclear material. Over 550 facilities and several hundred other locations are subject to regular inspection, and their records and the nuclear material being audited. Inspections by the IAEA are complemented by other measures such as surveillance cameras and instrumentation.


On [[September 8]], [[1926]], The Junior College of the Lower Rio Grande Valley (later known as [[Texas Southmost College]]) admitted its first class. In 1945 Fort Brown was decommissioned and in 1948 the City and College acquired the land. Between 1945 to 1970 Brownsville population continued to grow gradually, doubled from 25,000 to 52,000 people.
The inspections act as an alert system providing a warning of the possible diversion of nuclear material from peaceful activities. The system relies on;
In 1991 Brownsville receives a University via the partnership between the [[University of Texas at Brownsville and Texas Southmost College]].


Brownsville was declared an [[All-America City Award|All-America City]] in the year 2001.
#Material Accountancy - tracking all inward and outward transfers and the flow of materials in any nuclear facility. This includes sampling and analysis of nuclear material, on-site inspections, and review and verification of operating records.
#Physical Security - restricting access to nuclear materials at the site.
#Containment and Surveillance - use of seals, automatic cameras and other instruments to detect unreported movement or tampering with nuclear materials, as well as spot checks on-site.
All NPT non-weapons states must accept these full-scope safeguards. In the five weapons states plus the non-NPT states ([[India]], [[Pakistan]] and [[Israel]]), facility-specific safeguards apply. IAEA inspectors regularly visit these facilities to verify completeness and accuracy of records.


On [[December 25]], [[2004]], Brownsville had its first instance of measurable snow in 109 years, with 1 1/2 inches, and the first recorded [[White Christmas]]. This was part of the [[2004 Christmas Eve Snowstorm]]. The snow was subsequently sold on [[eBay]].[http://www.usatoday.com/weather/stormcenter/2005-01-03-Texas-snowball_x.htm?csp=34]
The terms of the NPT cannot be enforced by the IAEA itself, nor can nations be forced to sign the treaty. In reality, as shown in [[Iraq]] and [[North Korea]], safeguards can be backed up by diplomatic, political and economic measures.


==City government==
While traditional safeguards easily verified the correctness of formal declarations by suspect states, in the 1990s attention turned to what might not have been declared. While accepting safeguards at declared facilities, Iraq had set up elaborate equipment elsewhere in an attempt to enrich uranium to weapons grade. North Korea attempted to use research reactors (not commercial electricity-generating reactors) and a [[nuclear reprocessing|reprocessing]] plant to produce some weapons-grade plutonium.
[[Image:Brnelizand10thst.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Picture of Brownsville; on the right is the "Old Federal Courthouse", where city commission meetings are held.]]
Brownsville has a Council-Manager style of Government. The Mayor and six City Commissioners, two At-Large and four District, serve staggered four year terms. With elections for one At-Large and two District seats every two years. Municipal elections are held on the first Saturday of May in odd numbered years.


As of 2006, the members of the Commission are:
The weakness of the NPT regime lay in the fact that no obvious diversion of material was involved. The uranium used as fuel probably came from indigenous sources, and the nuclear facilities were built by the countries themselves without being declared or placed under safeguards. Iraq, as an NPT party, was obliged to declare all facilities but did not do so. Nevertheless, the activities were detected and brought under control using international diplomacy. In Iraq, a military defeat assisted this process.
*Mayor: [[Pat Ahumada]] (Since 2007)
*Commissioner At-Large "A": Anthony Troiani(Since 2007)
*Commissioner At-Large "B": Leo T. Garza (Since 2007)
*Commissioner District 1: Ricardo Longoria Jr. (Since 2003)
*Commissioner District 2: Charlie Atkinson (Since 2006)
*Commissioner District 3: Carlos Cisneros (Since 2002)
*Commissioner District 4: Edward Camarillo (Since 2005)


The next regular elections for the City will occur in the following years:
In North Korea, the activities concerned took place before the conclusion of its NPT safeguards agreement. With North Korea, the promised provision of commercial power reactors appeared to resolve the situation for a time, but it later withdrew from the NPT and declared it had nuclear weapons.
*Mayor: 2011
*At-Large "A": 2011
*At-Large "B": 2009 (*)
*District 1: 2011
*District 2: 2011
*District 3: 2009
*District 4: 2009


(*) Leo T. Garza will run for the At-Large "B" position again in 2009 as he is completing the remainder of the term left by Ernie Hernandez resigning his commission seat.
===Additional Protocol===
In 1993 a program was initiated to strengthen and extend the classical safeguards system, and a model protocol was agreed by the IAEA Board of Governors 1997. The measures boosted the IAEA's ability to detect undeclared nuclear activities, including those with no connection to the civil fuel cycle.


The City Commission appoints the City Manager. As of 2006, the City Manager is Charlie Cabler.
Innovations were of two kinds. Some could be implemented on the basis of IAEA's existing legal authority through safeguards agreements and inspections. Others required further legal authority to be conferred through an Additional Protocol. This must be agreed by each non-weapons state with IAEA, as a supplement to any existing comprehensive safeguards agreement. Weapons states have agreed to accept the principles of the model additional protocol.


The City Commission also appoints a six member Public Utilities Board for a four-year term. Members are limited to two consecutive or non-consecutive terms. The Mayor is an ex-officio member of the Board.
Key elements of the model Additional Protocol:


==Education==
*The IAEA is to be given considerably more information on nuclear and nuclear-related activities, including R & D, production of uranium and [[thorium]] (regardless of whether it is traded), and nuclear-related imports and exports.
===Universities and colleges===
*IAEA inspectors will have greater rights of access. This will include any suspect location, it can be at short notice (e.g., two hours), and the IAEA can deploy environmental sampling and remote monitoring techniques to detect illicit activities.
*States must streamline administrative procedures so that IAEA inspectors get automatic visa renewal and can communicate more readily with IAEA headquarters.
*Further evolution of safeguards is towards evaluation of each state, taking account of its particular situation and the kind of nuclear materials it has. This will involve greater judgement on the part of IAEA and the development of effective methodologies which reassure NPT States.


[[Image:The UT SPH Bronwsville Regional Campus.jpg|thumb|right|200px|UT School of Public Health]]
As of 9 October 2008, 88 countries have brought Additional Protocols into force. The IAEA is also applying the measures of the Additional Protocol in Taiwan, China.<ref>[http://www.iaea.org/OurWork/SV/Safeguards/sg_protocol.html Additional Protocols to Nuclear Safeguards Agreements]</ref>
*[[The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston]], School of Public Health (UTSPH), Brownsville Regional Campus
The university opened in 2001 as part of the legislated Regional Academic
Health Center program, or RAHC and is phyically located on the campus of the University of Texas at Brownsville. UTSPH - Brownsville is a regional campus of the University
of Texas School of Public Health statewide network which offer students a graduate
certificate in public health and the Master of Public Health (M.P.H.) graduate degree in a subtropical, multicultural, bilingual, bordertown community. Major public health concerns of the faculty and researchers found here in the Lower Rio Grande Valley Texas include diabetes, tuberculosis, obesity, cardiovascular disease and hepatitis. Other public health concerns include occupation health and safety (especially among the migrant and international communities), behavioral and lifestyle concerns among adolescents (pregnancy, STDs, and otherwise reckless decisions), air and environmental pollution, as well as examining the impacts and issues that are affected as a result of cross-border health, health care and prescription services. To date, over $10 million in research funding has been received by the Brownsville Regional Campus to address these local concerns.
http://www.sph.uth.tmc.edu/brownsville).
*[[University of Texas at Brownsville and Texas Southmost College]]
*[http://www.stvt.edu/ South Texas Vocational Technical Institute]


===Limitations of Safeguards===
===Primary and secondary schools===
====Public schools====
The greatest risk from nuclear weapons proliferation comes from countries which have not joined the NPT and which have significant unsafeguarded nuclear activities; [[India]], [[Pakistan]], and [[Israel]] fall within this category. While safeguards apply to some of their activities, others remain beyond scrutiny.
Most of Brownsville is served by [[Brownsville Independent School District]]. The BISD counted its total enrollment in the 2003-04 at 45,986 students in 50 schools. It is the 17th largest school district in Texas. A portion of northern Brownsville is served by the [[Los Fresnos Consolidated Independent School District]].


In addition, Brownsville residents are allowed to apply to magnet schools operated by the [[South Texas Independent School District]], as well as BISD magnet schools. Each BISD high school has a magnet school within the school (example, Homer Hanna High School, a BISD high school, has the district's medical magnet program).
A further concern is that countries may develop various sensitive [[nuclear fuel]] cycle facilities and research reactors under full safeguards and then subsequently opt out of the NPT. Bilateral agreements, such as insisted upon by [[Australia]] and [[Canada]] for sale of [[uranium]], address this by including fallback provisions, but many countries are outside the scope of these agreements. If a nuclear-capable country does leave the NPT, it is likely to be reported by the [[International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)|IAEA]] to the UN Security Council, just as if it were in breach of its safeguards agreement. Trade sanctions would then be likely.


=====State charter schools=====
IAEA safeguards, together with bilateral safeguards applied under the NPT can, and do, ensure that [[uranium]] supplied by countries such as [[Australia]] and [[Canada]] does not contribute to nuclear weapons proliferation. In fact, the worldwide application of those safeguards and the substantial world trade in uranium for nuclear [[electricity]] make the proliferation of nuclear weapons much less likely.
*Raul Yzaguirre School For Success
*Sentry Technology Prep Charter High School
*IDEA Public Schools Frontier Academy and College Prep
*Harmony Science Academy-Brownsville (K-12)


====Private and parochial Schools====
The Additional Protocol, once it is widely in force, will provide credible assurance that there are no undeclared nuclear materials or activities in the states concerned. This will be a major step forward in preventing nuclear proliferation.
Grades 9-12:
* Livingway Christian School (grades K3-12)
*[[Saint Joseph Academy]] (grades 7 through 12)
*Valley Christian High School
* First Baptist High School


Grades 1-8:
===Other IAEA developments===
*Brownsville SDA School
The [[Zangger Committee]] communicated its guidelines, essentially a set of export rules, to the IAEA in 1978. These were to ensure that transfers of nuclear material or equipment would not be diverted to unsafeguarded nuclear fuel cycle or nuclear explosive activities, and formal government assurances to this effect were required from recipients. The Guidelines also recognised the need for physical protection measures in the transfer of sensitive facilities, technology and weapons-usable materials, and strengthened retransfer provisions. The group began with seven members -- the [[United States|USA]], the former [[Soviet Union|USSR]], the [[United Kingdom|UK]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Canada]] and [[Japan]] -- but now includes 35 countries.
*Episcopal Day School
*First Baptist School
*Faith Christian Academy
*[[Guadalupe Regional Middle School]]
*Incarnate Word Academy
*Kenmont Montessori School
*St. Luke's Catholic School
*St. Mary's Catholic School


The [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Brownsville]] operates area Catholic schools.
According to Kenneth D. Bergeron's ''Tritium on Ice: The Dangerous New Alliance of Nuclear Weapons and Nuclear Power'', tritium is not classified as a 'special nuclear material' but rather as a 'by-product'. It is seen as an important litmus test on the seriousness of the United State's intention to nuclear disarm. This radioactive super-heavy hydrogen isotope is used to boost the efficiency of fissile materials in nuclear weapons. The United States resumed tritium production in 2003 for the first time in 15 years. This could indicate that there is a potential nuclear arm stockpile replacement since the isotope naturally decays.


==Transportation==
In May 1995, NPT parties reaffirmed their commitment to a Fissile Materials Cut-off Treaty to prohibit the production of any further fissile material for weapons. This aims to complement the [[Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty]] of 1996 and to codify commitments made by USA, UK, France and Russia to cease production of weapons material, as well as putting a similar ban on China. This treaty will also put more pressure on Israel, India and Pakistan to agree to international verification.
[[Image:Bocaand77.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A picture of Boca Chica Blvd. overlooking in the background U.S. Highway 77. Boca Chica Blvd. is a major traffic artery in Brownsville.]]
[[Image:Mcdavittovps.jpg|thumb|right|200px|U.S. Highway 77/83 overpass construction over Mcdavitt Blvd.]]


===Mass transit===
On [[August 9]], [[2005]] [[Ayatollah]] [[Ali Khamenei]] issued a [[fatwa]] forbidding the production, stockpiling and use of [[nuclear weapon]]s. The full text of the [[fatwa]] was released in an official statement at the meeting of the [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] (IAEA) in Vienna. [http://www.ww4report.com/node/929] As of February 2006 [[Iran]] formally announced that [[uranium enrichment]] within their borders has continued. [[Iran]] claims it is for peaceful purposes but the [[United Kingdom]], [[France]], [[Germany]], and the [[United States]] claim the purpose is for [[nuclear weapon]]s research and construction. [http://www.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/meast/03/06/iran.nuclear/index.html]
Established in mid-Brownsville in 1978, with expanding bus service to rapidly developing North Brownsville. The [[Brownsville Urban System]] (BUS) consists of 14 buses running 11 routes covering a large portion of Brownsville. [http://bus.cityofbrownsville.us/]


===Highways===
==Unsanctioned nuclear activity==
Brownsville is served by the following [[U.S. Highways]]:
{{WMD}}
*[[U.S. Route 77]]/[[U.S. Route 83]] (U.S. 77 is a proposed part of the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]]'s future [[Interstate 69]]).
*[[U.S. Route 281]]


===Iraq===
===International bridges===
Brownsville has three international bridges:
Up to the late 1980s it was generally assumed that any undeclared nuclear activities would have to be based on the diversion of nuclear material from safeguards. States acknowledged the possibility of nuclear activities entirely separate from those covered by safeguards, but it was assumed they would be detected by national intelligence activities. There was no particular effort by IAEA to attempt to detect them.
*The [[Brownsville & Matamoros International Bridge]] (B&M), known locally as the "Old Bridge".
**The B&M International Bridge also serves as an international railway for [[Union Pacific]]
*[[Gateway International Bridge]], known locally as the "new bridge" despite the fact that it's no longer the city's newest international bridge.
*The [[Veteran's International Bridge]] at Los Tomates, or locally simply known as the "Los Tomates" or "Veteran's" bridge.


===Airport===
Iraq had been making efforts to secure a nuclear potential since the 1960s. In the late 1970s a specialised plant, [[Osiraq]], was constructed near Baghdad. The plant was attacked during the [[Iran–Iraq War]] and was [[Operation Opera|destroyed by Israeli bombers]] in June 1981.
Brownsville has its own city-owned airport, the [[Brownsville/South Padre Island International Airport]]. The airport is used for general aviation and is served by one commercial airline, [[Continental Airlines]], with an average of seven flights to [[George Bush Intercontinental Airport|Houston-Intercontinental]] (depending on the day of the week).


==Art and culture==
Not until the 1990 NPT Review Conference did some states raise the possibility of making more use of (for example) provisions for "special inspections" in existing NPT Safeguards Agreements. Special inspections can be undertaken at locations other than those where safeguards routinely apply, if there is reason to believe there may be undeclared material or activities.
The Brownsville area is full of well-established art galleries and museums that represent not only art of the region and Mexico but feature traveling exhibits from around the world.
[http://www.brownsvillehistory.org The Brownsville Heritage Complex].


[[Simon Vega]] operates the "Little [[Graceland]]" Museum, replete with [[Elvis Presley]] [[memorabilia]] in [[Los Fresnos, Texas|Los Fresnos]] just north of Brownsville.
After inspections in Iraq following the UN [[Gulf War]] cease-fire resolution showed the extent of Iraq's clandestine nuclear weapons program, it became clear that the IAEA would have to broaden the scope of its activities. Iraq was an NPT Party, and had thus agreed to place all its nuclear material under IAEA safeguards. But the inspections revealed that it had been pursuing an extensive clandestine uranium enrichment programme, as well as a nuclear weapons design programme.


==Media and journalism==
The main thrust of Iraq's uranium enrichment program was the development of technology for [[electromagnetic isotope separation]] (EMIS) of indigenous uranium. This uses the same principles as a [[mass spectrometer]] (albeit on a much larger scale). Ions of uranium-238 and uranium-235 are separated because they describe arcs of different radii when they move through a magnetic field. This process was used in the [[Manhattan Project]] to make the highly enriched uranium used in the [[Little Boy|Hiroshima bomb]], but was abandoned soon afterwards.
===Television===
The Brownsville area is served by numerous local television affiliates.
* [[KVEO-TV]] (NBC 23) - Brownsville
* [[KGBT-TV]] (CBS 4) - [[Harlingen, TX|Harlingen]]
* [[KRGV-TV]] (ABC 5) - [[Weslaco, TX|Weslaco]]
* [[KNVO-TV]] (Univision 48) - [[McAllen, TX|McAllen]][http://knvotv48.com/ Official Site]
* [[XHRIO-TV]] (FOX 2) - [[Matamoros, Tamaulipas]] [http://foxrio2.com/ Official Site]
* [[KTLM]] (Telemundo 40) - McAllen
* [[KMBH-TV]] (PBS 60) - Harlingen
* [[KVTF-CA]] (Telefutura 20) - Brownsville
* [[KLUJ-TV]] (TBN 44) - Harlingen
* [[KBDF-LP]] (Azteca America 64) - Brownsville


===Radio===
The Iraqis did the basic research work at their nuclear research establishment at Tuwaitha, near [[Baghdad]], and were building two full-scale facilities at Tarmiya and Ash Sharqat, north of Baghdad. However, when the war broke out, only a few separators had been installed at Tarmiya, and none at Ash Sharqat.
* KURV 710 AM News Talk
* KFRQ 94.5FM
* KKPS 99.5FM
* KNVO 101.1FM
* KVLY 107.9FM
* KBFM 104.1FM
* KBNR 88.3 FM Radio Manantial (Spanish Christian)


===Newspapers===
The Iraqis were also very interested in [[Nuclear fuel cycle#Enrichment|centrifuge enrichment]], and had been able to acquire some components including some carbon-fibre rotors, which they were at an early stage of testing.
* ''[[The Brownsville Herald]]''
* ''[[Valley Morning Star]]''
* ''[[The Monitor (Texas)|The Monitor]]''
* ''[[Island Breeze]]''
* ''[[The UTB/TSC Collegian]]''http://blue.utb.edu/collegian/


==Notable facts==
They were clearly in violation of their NPT and safeguards obligations, and the IAEA Board of Governors ruled to that effect. The [[UN Security Council]] then ordered the IAEA to remove, destroy or render harmless Iraq's nuclear weapons capability. This was done by mid 1998, but Iraq then ceased all cooperation with the UN, so the IAEA withdrew from this work.
{{Trivia|date=July 2008}}
[[Image:Brnmasonictemp.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A picture of the Brownsville Masonic Temple [[Rio Grande Lodge No. 81]], constructed in 1882 it was originally the [[Cameron County, Texas|County Courthouse]] it is a good example of Brownsville's 19th century architecture.]]


* The Census Bureau ranks Brownsville as the most impoverished city in the nation
The revelations from Iraq provided the impetus for a very far-reaching reconsideration of what safeguards are intended to achieve.


* Brownsville is the largest city in the [[Rio Grande Valley]], both in population and size.
''See also: [[Iraq and weapons of mass destruction]]''


* The motto of Brownsville is "On the Border by the Sea".
=== North Korea ===
The Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK) acceded to the NPT in 1985 as a condition for the supply of a nuclear power station by the [[Soviet Union|USSR]]. However, it delayed concluding its NPT Safeguards Agreement with the IAEA, a process which should take only 18 months, until April 1992.


* Local attractions include the [[Gladys Porter Zoo]], Camille Lightner Playhouse, a historical downtown with buildings over 150 years old, the Port of Brownsville and the Children's Museum of Brownsville. There is also easy access to [[South Padre Island]] and the Mexican city of [[Matamoros, Tamaulipas]].
During that period, it brought into operation a small gas-cooled, graphite-moderated, natural-uranium (metal) fuelled "Experimental Power Reactor" of about 25 [[MWt]] (5 [[MWe]]), based on the [[UK]] [[Magnox]] design. While this was a well-suited design to start a wholly indigenous nuclear reactor development, it also exhibited all the features of a small plutonium production reactor for weapons purposes. North Korea also made substantial progress in the construction of two larger reactors designed on the same principles, a prototype of about 200 MWt (50 MWe), and a full-scale version of about 800 MWt (200 MWe). They made only slow progress; construction halted on both in 1994 and has not resumed. Both reactors have degraded considerably since that time and would take significant efforts to refurbish.


* Sunrise Mall is the largest [[shopping mall]] in the city of Brownsville. Since being remodeled in 2000 the mall has become the primary mall in the Brownsville-Harlingen metroplex. Brownsville previously had another shopping mall, [[Amigoland Mall]] by [[Simon Property Group|Simon]], though the building has since been purchased by the [[University of Texas at Brownsville]] after many of its tenants moved from Amigoland to Sunrise.
In addition it completed and commissioned a reprocessing plant that makes the Magnox [[spent nuclear fuel]] safe, recovering [[uranium]] and [[plutonium]]. That plutonium, if the fuel was only irradiated to a very low burn-up, would have been in a form very suitable for weapons. Although all these facilities at [[Yongbyon Nuclear Scientific Research Center|Yongbyon]] were to be under safeguards, there was always the risk that at some stage, the DPRK would withdraw from the NPT and use the plutonium for weapons.


* City Park Plaza Mall is the second largest mall in Brownsville. The mall is famous for its City Park Center (in the center of the mall) which host many South Texas Events.
One of the first steps in applying NPT safeguards is for the IAEA to verify the initial stocks of uranium and plutonium to ensure that all the nuclear material in the country have been declared for safeguards purposes. While undertaking this work in 1992, IAEA inspectors found discrepancies which indicated that the reprocessing plant had been used more often than the DPRK had declared, which suggested that the DPRK could have weapons-grade plutonium which it had not declared to the IAEA. Information passed to the IAEA by a Member State (as required by the IAEA) supported that suggestion by indicating that the DPRK had two undeclared waste or other storage sites.


* Winter retreat of noted television celebrity and cowboy chef, John "White Gravy" Neutzling.
In February 1993 the IAEA called on the DPRK to allow special inspections of the two sites so that the initial stocks of nuclear material could be verified. The DPRK refused, and on [[12 March]] announced its intention to withdraw from the NPT (three months' notice is required). In April 1993 the IAEA Board concluded that the DPRK was in non-compliance with its safeguards obligations and reported the matter to the UN Security Council. In June 1993 the DPRK announced that it had "suspended" its withdrawal from the NPT, but subsequently claimed a "special status" with respect to its safeguards obligations. This was rejected by IAEA.


* Brownsville (Brownsville-Harlingen-Raymondville) is one of the "America's Greenest Cities" according to Forbes.com.<ref>[http://www.forbes.com/logistics/2006/04/03/greenest-cities-america-cx_rm_0403green.html America's Greenest Cities - Forbes.com<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
Once the DPRK's non-compliance had been reported to the UN Security Council, the essential part of the IAEA's mission had been completed. Inspections in the DPRK continued, although inspectors were increasingly hampered in what they were permitted to do by the DPRK's claim of a "special status". However, some 8,000 corroding fuel rods associated with the experimental reactor have remained under close surveillance.


* Brownsville has been referenced in a number of songs. [[Bob Dylan]] performed a song called "Brownsville Girl" (co-written with Sam Shepard). It is mentioned in the song "Matamoros Banks" by [[Bruce Springsteen]], and in the song "Texas Women" by [[Hank Williams Jr]]. [[Jim White]] recorded a song titled "That Girl from Brownsville, Texas". [[John Darnielle]] of [[the Mountain Goats]] wrote a song about Brownsville called "It's All Here in Brownsville" that appeared on [[Full Force Galesburg]]. Brownsville Bay is referenced in the song "Somewhere Between Texas and Mexico" recorded by Pat Green. Also, Brownsville is in the first track title of the album ''[[Chill Out]]'' by the ambient/trance group [[The KLF]] ("Brownsville Turnaround on the Tex-Mex Border").
Following bilateral negotiations between DPRK and the USA, and the conclusion of the [[Agreed Framework]] in October 1994, the IAEA has been given additional responsibilities. The agreement requires a freeze on the operation and construction of the DPRK's plutonium production reactors and their related facilities, and the IAEA is responsible for monitoring the freeze until the facilities are eventually dismantled. The DPRK remains uncooperative with the IAEA verification work and has yet to comply with its safeguards agreement.


* Judge Reynaldo G. Garza (1915-2004) [http://www.utexas.edu/law/news/2004/091604_garza.html] of Brownsville was first appointed to the United States District Court in 1961 by President Kennedy, and to the United States Court of Appeals by President Carter in 1978. Garza's biography ''All Rise: The First Mexican-American Federal Judge'' was written by Louise Ann Fisch, also a Brownsville native.<ref>[http://www.tamu.edu/upress/BOOKS/1996/fisch.htm All Rise<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
While Iraq was defeated in a war, allowing the UN the opportunity to seek out and destroy its nuclear weapons programme as part of the cease-fire conditions, the DPRK was not defeated, nor was it vulnerable to other measures, such as [[trade sanctions]]. It can scarcely afford to import anything, and sanctions on vital commodities, such as oil, would either be ineffective, or risk provoking war.


* The US Ambassador to Mexico, [[Antonio Garza|Antonio Oscar Garza]], was born in Brownsville.
Ultimately, the DPRK was persuaded to stop what appeared to be its nuclear weapons programme in exchange, under the agreed framework, for about US$5 billion in energy-related assistance. This included two 1000 MWe light water nuclear power reactors based on an advanced US System-80 design.


* [[Federico Peña]], former U.S. Transportation Secretary, former U.S. Energy Secretary and former mayor of [[Denver, Colorado|Denver]], [[Colorado]], was raised in Brownsville.
In January 2003 the DPRK withdrew from the NPT. In response a series of discussions between the DPRK, USA, and the PRC, a series of six-party talks (the parties being the DPRK, ROK, PRC, Japan, USA and Russia) were held in [[Beijing]]; the first beginning in April 2004 concerning North Korea's weapons program.


* Actor [[Kris Kristofferson]] was born in Brownsville on June 22, 1936.
On [[January 10]] [[2005]] North Korea declared that it was in the possession of nuclear weapons. At the end of 2005 the DPRK has halted all six-party talks concerning its nuclear programme for 13 months due to the US freezing its international financial assets such as those in a bank in Macau.


* Actress [[Elka Walker]],<ref>[http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0907720/ IMDB link]</ref> best known for "The Real World" series, was born in Brownsville on February 2, 1978.
On [[October 9]] [[2006]] North Korea announced that it has performed its first-ever nuclear weapon test. On [[December 18]] [[2006]], the six-party talks finally resumed.


* Formerly the home of Eagle International (later Eagle Bus Manufacturing), from 1975 until filing for bankruptcy in January 1998.
''See also: [[North Korea and weapons of mass destruction]] and [[Six-party talks]]''


*The last battle of the Civil War was fought in Palmito Ranch in Brownsville, Texas.
===South Africa===
In 1991, South Africa acceded to the NPT, concluded a comprehensive safeguards agreement with the IAEA, and submitted a report on its nuclear material subject to safeguards. At the time, the state had a nuclear power programme producing nearly 10% of the country's electricity, whereas Iraq and North Korea only had research reactors.


* Racquetball professional Kane Waselenchuk now lives in Brownsville, Texas.
The IAEA's initial verification task was complicated by South Africa's announcement that between 1979 and 1989 it built and then dismantled a number of nuclear weapons. South Africa asked the IAEA to verify the conclusion of its weapons programme. In 1995 the IAEA declared that it was satisfied all materials were accounted for and the weapons programme had been terminated and dismantled.


==External links==
South Africa has signed the NPT, and now holds the distinction of being the only known state to have indigenously produced nuclear weapons, and then verifiably dismantled them.<ref name="fas-sanwp">{{Cite web|url=http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/rsa/nuke/|title=Nuclear Weapons Program|accessdate=2006-11-10|publisher=Federation of American Scientists|year=2000|work=WMD Around the World — South Africa}}</ref>
{{portalpar|Texas|Texasflaginstate.PNG}}

{{Wikisource1911Enc|Brownsville}}
===United States-NATO nuclear weapons sharing===
*[http://www.ci.brownsville.tx.us/ City of Brownsville]
The [[United States]] provides about 180 tactical [[B61 nuclear bomb]]s for use by [[Belgium]], [[Germany]], [[Italy]], the [[Netherlands]] and [[Turkey]] under a [[NATO]] [[nuclear weapons sharing]] agreement.
*[http://www.wildtexas.com/parks/results.php?nearby_cities=Brownsville Brownsville Area Parks]
Some states believe this violates Articles I and II of the [[Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty]], where the U.S. has committed:
*[http://www.brownsville.org/ Brownsville Convention and Visitors Bureau]
:"... not to transfer to any recipient whatsoever nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices or control over such weapons or explosive devices directly, or indirectly...".
*[http://www.brownsvillechamber.com/ Brownsville Chamber of Commerce]
The U.S. insists its forces control the weapons and that no transfer of the nuclear bombs or control over them is intended "unless and until a decision were made to go to war, at which the [NPT] treaty would no longer be controlling", so there is no breach of the NPT. However the pilots and other staff of the "non-nuclear" NATO countries practice handling and delivering the U.S. nuclear bombs.
*[http://www.bedc.com/ Brownsville Economic Development Council]

*[http://www.brownsvillehistory.org/ Brownsville History]
===United States cooperation on nuclear weapons with the United Kingdom===
*[http://brownsvilleart.blogspot.com/ The Art of Brownsville Blog]
The US has given the UK considerable assistance with nuclear weapon design and construction since the [[1958 US-UK Mutual Defence Agreement]]. In 1974 a CIA proliferation assessment noted that "In many cases [Britain's sensitive technology in nuclear and missile fields] is based on technology received from the US and could not legitimately be passed on without US permission."<ref name=SNIE-4-1-74>{{citation|url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB240/snie.pdf|series=Special National Intelligence Estimate|title=Prospects for Further Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons|page=40|publisher=[[CIA]]|date=23 August 1974|id=SNIE 4-1-74|accessdate=2008-01-20}}</ref>
*[http://www.brownsvilleherald.com/ The Brownsville Herald]

*[http://www.loc.gov/chroniclingamerica/search_fulltext_advanced.html Search the Brownsville Daily Herald]
The [[U.S. President]] authorised the transfer of "nuclear weapon parts" to the UK between at least the years 1975 to 1996.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ford.utexas.edu/library/document/nsdmnssm/nsdm276a.htm|title=National Security Decision Memorandum 276|publisher=[[U.S. National Security Council]]|date=October 15, 1974|accessdate=2007-03-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://bushlibrary.tamu.edu/research/pdfs/nsd/nsd61.pdf|title=National Security Directive 61|publisher=[[The White House]]|date=July 2, 1991|accessdate=2007-03-15|format=PDF}}</ref> The UK [[National Audit Office (United Kingdom)|National Audit Office]] noted that most of the [[UK Trident programme|UK Trident]] warhead development and production expenditure was incurred in the U.S. who would supply "certain warhead-related components".<ref>{{cite paper|url=http://www.danplesch.net/articles/WMD/WMDMar10FINAL.pdf|title=The Future of Britain’s WMD|pages=15|author=Dan Plesch|publisher=[[Foreign Policy Centre]]|date=March 2006|accessdate=2007-03-15|format=PDF}}</ref><ref name=NAO-1987>{{cite book|title=Ministry of Defence and Property Services Agency: Control and Management of the Trident Programme|publisher=[[National Audit Office (United Kingdom)|National Audit Office]]|date=29 June 1987|pages=para. 1.1, 3.27, A4.4|isbn=0102027889}}</ref> Some of the [[fissile material]]s for the UK Trident warhead were purchased from the U.S.<ref name=NAO-1987 /> Declassified [[United States Department of Energy|U.S. Department of Energy]] documents indicate the UK Trident warhead system was involved in non-nuclear design activities alongside the [[W76|U.S. W76 nuclear warhead]] fitted in some [[U.S. Navy]] [[Trident missile]]s,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fas.org/blog/ssp/images/W76req.pdf|title=Stockpile Stewardship Plan: Second Annual Update (FY 1999)|publisher=[[U.S. Department of Energy]]|month=April | year=1998|accessdate=2007-03-15|format=PDF}}</ref> leading the [[Federation of American Scientists]] to speculate that the UK warhead may share design information from the W76.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fas.org/blog/ssp/2006/12/britains_next_nuclear_era_1.php|title=Britain's Next Nuclear Era|publisher=[[Federation of American Scientists]]|date=December 7, 2006|accessdate=2007-03-15}}</ref>
*[http://www.tsha.utexas.edu/handbook/online/articles/BB/hdb4.html The Handbook of Texas Online ''Brownsville, Texas'']

*[http://www.rgvwingcaf.com/ Rio Grande Valley Wing of the Commemorative Air Force]
Under the Mutual Defence Agreement 5.37 [[tonne]]s of UK produced [[plutonium]] was sent to the U.S. in return for 6.7 kg of [[tritium]] and 7.5 tonnes of [[highly enriched uranium]] over the period 1960-1979. A further 0.47 tonne of plutonium was swapped between the UK and U.S. for reasons that remain classified.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mod.uk/NR/rdonlyres/B31B4EF0-A584-4CC6-9B14-B5E89E6848F8/0/plutoniumandaldermaston.pdf|title=Plutonium and Aldermaston - an historical account|publisher=[[UK Ministry of Defence]]|date=4 September 2001|accessdate=2007-03-15|format=PDF}}</ref> Some of the UK produced plutonium was used in 1962 by the U.S. for a nuclear weapon test of reactor-grade plutonium .<ref>{{cite web|url=http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/websites/osti.gov/www.osti.gov/html/osti/opennet/document/press/pc29.html|title=Additional Information Concerning Underground Nuclear Weapon Test of Reactor-Grade Plutonium|publisher=[[U.S. Department of Energy]]|month=June | year=1994|accessdate=2007-03-15}}</ref>
{{Geolinks-US-cityscale|25.930307|-97.484424}}

The United States has supplied nuclear weapon delivery systems to support the UK nuclear forces since before the signing of the NPT. The renewal of this agreement is due to take place through the second decade of the 21st century. [http://www.acronym.org.uk/dd/dd76/76news04.htm] [http://www.una-uk.org/peaceandsecurity/UNA%20brief%203%20(HDS)%20A4.pdf]

===Non-signatory States===
[[India]], [[Pakistan]] and [[Israel]] have been "threshold" countries in terms of the international non-proliferation regime. They possess or are quickly capable of assembling one or more nuclear weapons. They have remained outside the 1970 NPT. They are thus largely excluded from trade in nuclear plant or materials, except for safety-related devices for a few safeguarded facilities.

In May 1998 India and Pakistan each exploded several nuclear devices underground. This heightened concerns regarding an arms race between them, with [[Pakistan]] involving the [[People's Republic of China]], an acknowledged nuclear weapons state. Both countries are opposed to the NPT as it stands, and [[India]] has consistently attacked the Treaty since its inception in 1970 labeling it as a lopsided treaty in favor of the nuclear powers.

Relations between the two countries are tense and hostile, and the risks of nuclear conflict between them have long been considered quite high. [[Kashmir]] is a prime cause of bilateral tension, its sovereignty being in dispute since 1948. There is persistent low level military conflict due to Pakistan backing an insurgency there and the disputed status of Kashmir.

Both engaged in a [[conventional arms]] race in the 1980s, including sophisticated technology and equipment capable of delivering nuclear weapons. In the 1990s the arms race quickened. In 1994 India reversed a four-year trend of reduced allocations for defence, and despite its much smaller economy, Pakistan was expected to push its own expenditures yet higher. Both have lost their patrons: India, the former USSR, and Pakistan, the United States.

But it is the growth and modernization of China's nuclear arsenal and its assistance with Pakistan's nuclear power programme and, reportedly, with missile technology, which exacerbate Indian concerns. In particular, Pakistan is aided by China's [[People's Liberation Army]], which operates somewhat autonomously within that country as an exporter of military material.

====India====
Nuclear power for civil use is well established in India. Its civil nuclear strategy has been directed towards complete independence in the nuclear fuel cycle, necessary because of its outspoken rejection of the NPT. This self-sufficiency extends from uranium exploration and mining through fuel fabrication, heavy water production, reactor design and construction, to reprocessing and waste management. It has a small fast [[breeder reactor]] and is planning a much larger one. It is also developing technology to utilise its abundant resources of thorium as a nuclear fuel.

India has 14 small nuclear power reactors in commercial operation, two larger ones under construction, and ten more planned. The 14 operating ones (2548 MWe total) comprise:
*two 150 MWe BWRs from USA, which started up in 1969, now use locally-enriched uranium and are under safeguards,
*two small Canadian PHWRs (1972 & 1980), also under safeguards, and
*ten local PHWRs based on Canadian designs, two of 150 and eight 200 MWe.
*two new 540 MWe and two 700 MWe plants are tarapore (known as TAPP :Tarapore Atomic Power Project)

The two under construction and two of the planned ones are 450 MWe versions of these 200 MWe domestic products. Construction has been seriously delayed by financial and technical problems. In 2001 a final agreement was signed with Russia for the country's first large nuclear power plant, comprising two VVER-1000 reactors, under a Russian-financed US$3 billion contract. The first unit is due to be commissioned in 2007. A further two Russian units are under consideration for the site.

Nuclear power supplied 3.1% of India's electricity in 2000 and this is expected to reach 10% by 2005. Its industry is largely without IAEA safeguards, though a few plants (see above) are under facility-specific safeguards. As a result India's nuclear power programme proceeds largely without fuel or technological assistance from other countries.

Its weapons material appears to come from a Canadian-designed 40MW "research" reactor which started up in 1960, well before the NPT, and a 100MW indigenous unit in operation since 1985. Both use local uranium, as India does not import any nuclear fuel. It is estimated that India may have built up enough weapons-grade plutonium for a hundred nuclear warheads.

It is widely believed that the nuclear programs of India and Pakistan used CANDU reactors to produce fissionable materials for their weapons; however, this is not accurate. Both Canada (by supplying the 40 MW research reactor) and the United States (by supplying 21 tons of heavy water) supplied India with the technology necessary to create a nuclear weapons program, dubbed CIRUS (Canada-India Reactor, United States). Canada sold India the reactor on the condition that the reactor and any by-products would be [http://www.nci.org/06nci/04/Canada-India%20CIRUS%20agreement.htm "employed for peaceful purposes only."]. Similarly, the U.S. sold New Delhi heavy water for use in the reactor [http://www.nci.org/06nci/04/US-India%20CIRUS%20agreement.htm "only... in connection with research into and the use of atomic energy for peaceful purposes"]. India, in violation of these agreements, used the Canadian-supplied reactor and American-supplied heavy water to produce plutonium for their first nuclear explosion, [[Smiling Buddha]].<ref name="nwa-inwptb">{{Cite web|url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaOrigin.html|title=The Beginning: 1944-1960|accessdate=2006-11-10|publisher=Nuclear Weapon Archive|year=2001|work=India's Nuclear Weapons Program}}</ref> The Indian government controversially justified this, however, by claiming that Smiling Buddha was a "peaceful nuclear explosion."

The country has at least three other research reactors including the tiny one which is exploring the use of thorium as a nuclear fuel, by breeding fissile U-233. In addition, an advanced heavy-water thorium cycle is under development.

India [[nuclear testing|exploded a nuclear device]] in 1974, the so-called [[Smiling Buddha]] test, which it has consistently claimed was for peaceful purposes. Others saw it as a response to China's nuclear weapons capability. It was then universally perceived, notwithstanding official denials, to possess, or to be able to quickly assemble, nuclear weapons. In 1997 it deployed its own medium-range missile and is now developing a long-range missile capable of reaching targets in China's industrial heartland.

In 1995 the USA quietly intervened to head off a proposed nuclear test. However, in 1998 there were five more tests in [[Operation Shakti]]. These were unambiguously military, including one claimed to be of a sophisticated thermonuclear device, and their declared purpose was "to help in the design of nuclear weapons of different yields and different delivery systems".

Indian security policies are driven by:
*its determination to be recognized as a dominant power in the region
*its increasing concern with China's expanding nuclear weapons and missile delivery programmes
*its concern with Pakistan's capability to deliver nuclear weapons deep into India

It perceives nuclear weapons as a cost-effective political counter to China's nuclear and conventional weaponry, and the effects of its nuclear weapons policy in provoking Pakistan is, by some accounts, considered incidental.
India has had an unhappy relationship with China. After an uneasy ceasefire ended the [[Sino-Indian War|1962 war]], relations between the two nations were frozen until 1998. Since then a degree of high-level contact has been established and a few elementary confidence-building measures put in place. China still occupies some territory which it captured during the aforementioned war, claimed by India, and India still occupies some territory claimed by China. Its nuclear weapon and missile support for Pakistan is a major bone of contention.

Recently, [[United States of America|American]] [[President]] [[George W. Bush]] met with [[India]] [[Prime Minister]] [[Manmohan Singh]] to discuss India's involvement with nuclear weapons. The two countries agreed that the United States would give nuclear power assistance to India. India would also be allowed to produce more nuclear weapons.{{Fact|date=September 2007}}

====Pakistan====
[[Image:Libya centrifuges 2003 (at Y12).jpg|thumb|In 2003, [[Libya]] admitted that the nuclear weapons-related material including these [[centrifuge]]s were acquired from Pakistan]]
Pakistan is believed to have produced the material for its weapons from an indigenous enrichment program.<ref name="fas-pnwac">{{Cite web|url=http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/pakistan/nuke/chron.htm|title=Pakistan Nuclear Weapons — A Chronology|accessdate=2006-11-10|publisher=Federation of American Scientists|year=1998|work=WMD Around the World}}</ref>

In Pakistan, nuclear power supplies only 1.7% of the country's electricity. It has one small (125 [[MWe]]) Canadian [[PHWR]] nuclear power reactor from 1971 which is under international safeguards, and a 300 MWe [[pressurized water reactor|PWR]] supplied by China under safeguards, which started up in May 2000. A third one, a Chinese PWR, is planned. Enriched fuel for the PWRs will be imported from China.

It also has a 9 MW research reactor of 1965 vintage, and there are persistent reports of another "multipurpose" reactor, a 50 MW PHWR near [[Khushab]], which is presumed to have potential for producing weapons plutonium.

Pakistan's concentration is on weapons technology, particularly the production of highly enriched uranium suitable for nuclear weapons, utilising indigenous uranium. It has at least one small centrifuge enrichment plant. In 1990 the US Administration cut off aid because it was unable to certify that Pakistan was not pursuing a policy of manufacturing nuclear weapons. This was relaxed late in 2001. In 1996 USA froze export loans to China because it was allegedly supplying centrifuge enrichment technology to Pakistan. Indian opinion is in no doubt about Pakistan's nuclear weapons capability.

Pakistan has made it clear since early 1996 that it had done the basic development work, and that if India staged a nuclear test, Pakistan would immediately start assembling its own nuclear explosive device. It is assumed to now have enough highly-enriched uranium for up to forty nuclear warheads.

In April 1998 Pakistan test fired a [[Ghauri|long-range missile]] capable of reaching [[Chennai|Madras]] in southern India, pushing home the point by naming it after a 12th century Muslim conqueror. This development removed India's main military advantage over Pakistan.
Pakistan's security concerns derive from India's possession of a nuclear weapons capability.

In May 1998 Pakistan announced that they had conducted six underground tests in the Chagai Hills, five on the 28th and one on the 30th of that month. Seismic events consistent with these claims were recorded.

==== Pakistan-North Korea Nuclear Proliferation and Missile Cooperation ====
{{Refimprove|section|date=May 2008}}
Pakistan and North Korea's efforts to acquire nuclear weapons have had some similarities. Both countries first attempted the plutonium route to acquire such weapons and, when this was thwarted, turned towards uranium enrichment.

===== Pakistan =====
{{grammar}}
In the 1970s, Pakistan first focused on the plutonium route. They expected to obtain the fissile material from a reprocessing plant provided by France. This plan failed due to U.S. intervention. Pakistan, not wanting to give up, redoubled its efforts to obtain uranium enrichment technology. The main efforts towards this direction were done under Dr. [[Abdul Qadeer Khan]]. Dr. Khan had earlier worked with Fysisch Dynamisch Onderzoekslaboratorium (FDO). FDO was a subsidiary of the Dutch firm VMF-Stork based in Amsterdam. From 1972 to 1975 Dr. Khan had access to classified data used to enrich ordinary uranium to weapons grade concentrations. FDO was working on the development of ultra high-speed centrifuges for [[URENCO]].

In 1974 while he was on secondment for 16 days as a translator to the URENCO plant in Almelo, he obtained photographs and documents of the plant. Dr. Khan returned to Pakistan in 1976 and initiated the Uranium enrichment program on the basis of the technology he had stolen from his previous employer. Dr. Khan relied on nuclear technology supplied by American, Canadian, Swiss, German, Dutch, British, Japanese and Russian companies. Dr. Khan said of the assistance he got from the Japanese, "Next month the Japanese would come here and all the work would be done under their supervision." After the British Government stopped the British subsidiary of the American Emerson Electric Co from shipping the nuclear technology to Pakistan, Dr. Khan describes his frustration with a supplier from Germany as "That man from the German team was unethical. When he did not get the order from us, he wrote a letter to a Labour Party member and questions were asked in [British] Parliament."<ref >{{Cite web|url= http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/IK29Df02.html |title= How you helped build Pakistan's bomb|accessdate=2007-11-30|publisher=Asia Times Online|year=2007|author= Catherine Collins and Douglas Frantz |format=HTML}}</ref>

His efforts made Dr. Khan into a national hero. In 1981, as a tribute, the president of Pakistan, General [[Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq]], renamed the enrichment plant the [[A. Q. Khan Research Laboratories]].

In 2003, IAEA unearthed a [[nuclear black market]] with close ties to Pakistan. It was widely believed to have direct involvement of the government of Pakistan. This claim could not be verified due to the refusal of the government of Pakistan to allow IAEA to interview the alleged head of the nuclear black market, who happened to be no other than Dr. Khan. Dr. Khan later confessed to his crimes on national television, bailing out the government by taking full responsibility. He confessed to nuclear proliferation from Pakistan to Iran and North Korea. He was immediately given presidential immunity. Exact nature of the involvement at the governmental level is still unclear, but the manner in which the government acted cast doubt on the sincerity of Pakistan.

===== North Korea =====
North Korea joined the NPT in 1985 and had subsequently signed a safeguards agreement with the IAEA. However it was believed that North Korea was diverting plutonium extracted from the fuel of its reactor at Yongbyon, for use in nuclear weapons. The subsequent confrontation with IAEA on the issue of inspections and suspected violations, resulted in North Korea threatening to withdraw from the NPT in 1993. This led to negotiations with the US resulting in the Agreed Framework of 1994, which provided for IAEA safeguards being applied to its reactors and spent fuel rods. These spent fuel rods were sealed in canisters by US to prevent North Korea from extracting plutonium from them. North Korea had to therefore freeze its plutonium programme.

During this period Pakistan-North Korea cooperation in missile technology transfer was being established. A high level Pakistani military delegation visited North Korea in August-September 1992, reportedly to discuss the supply Scud missile technology to Pakistan. In 1993, PM [[Benazir Bhutto]] traveled to China and North Korea. The visits are believed to be related to the subsequent acquisition of Ghauri (North Korean No-dong) missiles by Pakistan. During the period 1992-1994, A.Q. Khan was reported to have visited North Korea thirteen times. The missile cooperation program with North Korea was under Dr. A. Q. Khan's Kahuta Research Laboratories. At this time China was under US pressure not to supply the M series of missiles to Pakistan. This forced the latter (possibly with Chinese connivance) to approach North Korea for missile transfers. Reports indicate that North Korea was willing to supply missile sub-systems including rocket motors, inertial guidance systems, control and testing equipment of [[Scud]] SSMs for US$ 50 million.

It is not clear what North Korea got in return. Joseph S. Bermudez Jr. in ''[[Jane's Defence Weekly]]'' ([[27 November]] 2002) reports that Western analysts had begun to question what North Korea received in payment for the missiles; many suspected it was nuclear technology and components. Khan's KRL was in charge of both Pakistan's uranium enrichment program and also of the missile program with North Korea. It is therefore likely during this period that cooperation in nuclear technology between Pakistan and North Korea was initiated. Western intelligence agencies began to notice exchange of personnel, technology and components between KRL and entities of the North Korean 2nd Economic Committee (responsible for weapons production).

A ''[[New York Times]]'' report on [[October 18]], 2002 quoted US intelligence officials having stated that Pakistan was a major supplier of critical equipment to North Korea. The report added that equipment such as gas centrifuges appeared to have been "part of a barter deal" in which North Korea supplied Pakistan with missiles. Separate reports indicate (''[[Washington Times]]'', [[November 22]], 2002) that U.S. intelligence had as early as 1999 picked up signs that North Korea was continuing to develop nuclear arms. Other reports also indicate that North Korea had been working covertly to develop an enrichment capability for nuclear weapons for at least five years and had used technology obtained from Pakistan (Washington Times, [[October 18]], 2002).

===== Nuclear arms control in the region =====
The public stance of the two states on non-proliferation differs markedly. Pakistan appears to have dominated a continuing propaganda debate.

Pakistan has initiated a series of regional security proposals. It has repeatedly proposed a nuclear free zone in South Asia and has proclaimed its willingness to engage in nuclear disarmament and to sign the Non-Proliferation Treaty if India would do so. It has endorsed a United States proposal for a regional five power conference to consider non-proliferation in South Asia.

India has taken the view that solutions to regional security issues should be found at the international rather than the regional level, since its chief concern is with China. It therefore rejects Pakistan's proposals.

Instead, the '[[Gandhi Plan]]', put forward in 1988, proposed the revision of the Non-Proliferation Treaty, which it regards as inherently discriminatory in favor of the nuclear-weapon States, and a timetable for complete nuclear weapons disarmament. It endorsed early proposals for a Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty and for an international convention to ban the production of highly enriched uranium and plutonium for weapons purposes, known as the 'cut-off' convention.

The United States for some years, especially under the [[Bill Clinton|Clinton]] administration, pursued a variety of initiatives to persuade India and Pakistan to abandon their nuclear weapons programs and to accept comprehensive international safeguards on all their nuclear activities. To this end, the Clinton administration proposed a conference of the five nuclear-weapon states, Japan, Germany, India and Pakistan.

India refused this and similar previous proposals, and countered with demands that other potential weapons states, such as Iran and North Korea, should be invited, and that regional limitations would only be acceptable if they were accepted equally by China. The USA would not accept the participation of Iran and North Korea and these initiatives have lapsed.

Another, more recent approach, centers on 'capping' the production of fissile material for weapons purposes, which would hopefully be followed by 'roll back'. To this end, India and the United States jointly sponsored a UN General Assembly resolution in 1993 calling for negotiations for a 'cut-off' convention. Should India and Pakistan join such a convention, they would have to agree to halt the production of fissile materials for weapons and to accept international verification on their relevant nuclear facilities (enrichment and reprocessing plants). It appears that India is now prepared to join negotiations regarding such a Cut-off Treaty, under the UN Conference on Disarmament.

Bilateral confidence-building measures between India and Pakistan to reduce the prospects of confrontation have been limited. In 1990 each side ratified a treaty not to attack the other's nuclear installations, and at the end of 1991 they provided one another with a list showing the location of all their nuclear plants, even though the respective lists were regarded as not being wholly accurate. Early in 1994 India proposed a bilateral agreement for a 'no first use' of nuclear weapons and an extension of the 'no attack' treaty to cover civilian and industrial targets as well as nuclear installations.

Having promoted the [[Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty]] since 1954, India dropped its support in 1995 and in 1996 attempted to block the Treaty. Following the 1998 tests the question has been reopened and both Pakistan and India have indicated their intention to sign the CTBT. Indian ratification may be conditional upon the five weapons states agreeing to specific reductions in nuclear arsenals. The UN Conference on Disarmament has also called upon both countries "to accede without delay to the Non-Proliferation Treaty", presumably as non-weapons states.

====Israel====
Israel is also thought to possess an arsenal of potentially up to several hundred nuclear warheads and associated [[Jericho missile|delivery systems]], but this has never been openly confirmed or denied.

An Israeli nuclear installation is located about ten kilometers to the south of [[Dimona]], the [[Negev Nuclear Research Center]]. Its construction commenced in 1958, with [[France|French]] assistance. The official reason given by the Israeli and French governments was to build a nuclear reactor to power a "[[desalination plant]]", in order to "green the Negev". The purpose of the Dimona plant is widely assumed to be the manufacturing of nuclear weapons, and the majority of defense experts have concluded that it does in fact do that. However, the Israeli government refuses to confirm or deny this publicly, a policy it refers to as "ambiguity".

Norway sold 20 tonnes of heavy water needed for the reactor to Israel in 1959 and 1960 in a secret deal. There were no "safeguards" required in this deal to prevent usage of the heavy water for non-peaceful purposes. The British newspaper ''Daily Express'' accused Israel of working on a bomb in 1960. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/newsnight/4743493.stm]
When the [[United States]] intelligence community discovered the purpose of the Dimona plant in the early 1960s, it demanded that Israel agree to international inspections. Israel agreed, but on a condition that US, rather than IAEA, inspectors were used, and that Israel would receive advanced notice of all inspections.

[[Image:Vanunu-glove-box-bomb-components.jpg|thumb|right|[[Mordechai Vanunu]]'s photograph of a [[Negev Nuclear Research Center]] glove box containing nuclear materials in a model bomb assembly, one of about 60 photographs he later gave to the British press]]
Some claim that because Israel knew the schedule of the inspectors' visits, it was able to hide the alleged purpose of the site from the inspectors by installing temporary false walls and other devices before each inspection. The inspectors eventually informed the U.S. government that their inspections were useless due to Israeli restrictions on what areas of the facility they could inspect. In 1969, the United States terminated the inspections.

In 1986, [[Mordechai Vanunu]], a former technician at the Dimona plant, revealed to the media some evidence of Israel's nuclear program. Israeli agents arrested him from Italy, drugged him and transported him to Israel, and an Israeli court then tried him in secret on charges of [[treason]] and [[espionage]] {{Fact|date=July 2007}}, and sentenced him to eighteen years imprisonment. He was freed on April 21st, 2004, but was severely limited by the Israeli government. He was arrested again on November 11, 2004, though formal charges were not immediately filed.

Comments on photographs taken by [[Mordechai Vanunu]] inside the [[Negev Nuclear Research Center]] have been made by prominent scientists. British nuclear weapons scientist [[Frank Barnaby]], who questioned Vanunu over several days, estimated Israel had enough plutonium for about 150 weapons.<ref name=barnaby-opinion>{{citation|url=http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/israel/barnaby.pdf|title=Expert opinion of Frank Charles Barnaby in the matter of Mordechai Vanunu|author=Frank Barnaby|date=14 June 2004|accessdate=2007-12-16}}</ref> [[Ted Taylor]], a bomb designer employed by the the United States of America has confirmed the several hundred warhead estimate based on Vanunu's photographs.{{Fact|date=October 2008}}

''See also: [[Israel and weapons of mass destruction]]''

==Arguments in Favor of Proliferation==
There has been much debate in the academic study of International Security as to the advisability of proliferation. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, Gen. [[Pierre Marie Gallois]] of France, an adviser to Charles DeGaulle, argued in books like ''The Balance of Terror: Strategy for the Nuclear Age'' (1961) that mere possession of a nuclear arsenal, what the French called the ''[[force de frappe]]'', was enough to ensure deterrence, and thus concluded that the spread of nuclear weapons could increase international stability.

Some very prominent [[neorealism|neo-realist]] scholars, such as [[Kenneth Waltz]], Emeritus Professor of Political Science at UC Berkeley and Adjunct Senior Research Scholar at Columbia University, and [[John Mearsheimer]], R. Wendell Harrison Distinguished Service Professor of Political Science at the University of Chicago, continue to argue along the lines of Gallois (though these scholars rarely acknowledge their intellectual debt to Gallois and his contemporaries). Specifically, these scholars advocate some forms of nuclear proliferation, arguing that it will decrease the likelihood of war, especially in troubled regions of the world. Aside from the majority opinion which opposes proliferation in any form, there are two schools of thought on the matter. Those, like Mearsheimer, who favor selective proliferation, and those such as Waltz, who advocate a laissez-faire attitude to programs like North Korea's.

===Total Proliferation===
In embryo, Waltz argues that the logic of [[Mutually Assured Destruction]] (MAD) should work in all security environments, regardless of historical tensions or recent hostility. He sees the [[Cold War]] as the ultimate proof of MAD logic -- the only occasion when enmity between two Great Powers did not result in military conflict. This was, he argues, because nuclear weapons promote caution in decision-makers. Neither Washington nor Moscow would risk nuclear Armageddon to advance territorial or power goals, hence a peaceful stalemate ensued (Waltz and Sagan (2003), p. 24). Waltz believes there to be no reason why this effect would not occur in all circumstances.

===Selective Proliferation===
John Mearsheimer would not support Waltz's optimism in the majority of potential instances; however, he has argued for nuclear proliferation as policy in certain places, such as post-Cold War Europe. In two famous articles, Professor Mearsheimer opines that Europe is bound to return to its pre-Cold War environment of regular conflagration and suspicion at some point in the future. He advocates arming both Germany and the Ukraine with nuclear weaponry in order to achieve a balance of power between these states in the east and France/Britain in the west. If this does not occur, he is certain that war will eventually break out on the European continent (Mearsheimer (1990), pp. 5-56 and (1993), pp. 50-66).

Another separate argument against Waltz's open proliferation and in favor of Mearsheimer's selective distribution is the possibility of nuclear terrorism. Some countries included in the aforementioned laissez-faire distribution could predispose the transfer of nuclear materials or a bomb falling into the hands of groups not affiliated with any governments. Such countries would not have the political will or ability to safeguard attempts at devices being transferred to a third party. Not being deterred by self-annihilation, terrorism groups could push forth their own nuclear agendas or be used as shadow fronts to carry out the attack plans by mentioned unstable governments.

===Arguments Against Both Positions===
There are numerous arguments to be found against both of these positions. For Mearsheimer specifically, most argue that Europe's economy is too intertwined for war to ever be a possibility again. They point to the further integration and expansion of Europe in recent years as proof that Mearsheimer's predictions are fatally flawed.

As for Waltz, the general opinion is that most states are not in a position to safely guard against nuclear use, that he under-estimates the long-standing antipathy in many regions, and that weak states will be unable to prevent - or will actively provide for - the disastrous possibility of nuclear terrorism. Waltz has dealt with all of these objections at some point in his work; though to many, he has not adequately responded (Betts (2000)).

The Learning Channel documentary Doomsday: "On The Brink" illustrated 40 years of U.S. and Soviet nuclear weapons accidents. Even the 1995 [[Norwegian rocket incident]] demonstrated a potential scenario in which Russian democratization and military downsizing at the end of the Cold War did not eliminate the danger of accidental nuclear war through command and control errors. After asking: might a future Russian ruler or renegade Russian general be tempted to use nuclear weapons to make foreign policy? the documentary writers revealed a greater danger of Russian security over its nuclear stocks, but especially the ultimate danger of human nature to want the ultimate weapon of mass destruction to exercise political and military power. Future world leaders might not understand how close the Soviets, Russians, and Americans were to doomsday, how easy it all seemed because apocalypse was avoided for a mere 40 years between rivals, politicians not terrorists, who loved their children and did not want to die, against 30,000 years of human prehistory. History and military experts agree that proliferation can be slowed, but never stopped (technology cannot be uninvented).<ref>Doomsday: On The Brink, The Learning Channel, 1997</ref>

==See also==
* [[List of states with nuclear weapons]], including the figures
* [[Nuclear disarmament]]
* [[Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone]]
* [[Nuclear weapon]]
* [[Nuclear warfare]]
* [[Nuclear power]]
* [[Ten Threats]] identified by the [[UN]]
* [[Dual-use technology]]
* [[International Atomic Energy Agency]]
* [[Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty]]
* [[Seabed Arms Control Treaty]]
* [[Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty]]
* [[Fissile Material Cutoff Treaty]]
* [[Chemical weapon proliferation]]
* [[International Science and Technology Center]]


==References==
==References==
{{reflist|2}}
{{reflist}}


{{Cameron County, Texas}}
==External links and references==
{{Texas}}
{{wikinewscat|Nuclear proliferation}}
*Official website of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA): http://www.iaea.org/
Organizations
*[http://www.thebulletin.org Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists] - A non-technical public policy and global security magazine that has reported on nuclear proliferation issues since 1945.
*[http://www.carnegieendowment.org/npp/ Carnegie Endowment for International Peace's Nonproliferation Website]
* [http://www.armscontrolcenter.org/nuclear/ Center for Arms Control and Non-Proliferation]
* [http://www.clw.org/policy/nuclearweapons/ Council for a Livable World]
*[http://fas.org Federation of American Scientists]
*[[Monterey Institute of International Studies]], [http://cns.miis.edu Center for Nonproliferation Studies]
*[[Nevada Desert Experience]] [http://www.nevadadesertexperience.org Nevada Desert Experience]
*[http://www.npec-web.org Nonproliferation Policy Education Center] - A not-for-profit organization based in Washington, D.C., and founded in 1994 to promote a better understanding of strategic weapons proliferation issues among policymakers, scholars and the media.
*[http://www.nti.org Nuclear Threat Initiative]
* [http://www.ifri.org/frontDispatcher/ifri/publications/proliferation_papers_1090224187156 Proliferation Papers] - Electronic papers published by the French Institute of International Relations (Ifri, Paris and Brussels).
*[http://www.uic.com.au/ The Uranium Information Centre] provided much of the original material in this article.
*Union of Concerned Scientists articles on nuclear weapons [http://www.ucsusa.org/global_security/nuclear_weapons]
*[http://www.wslfweb.org Western States Legal Foundation]
Articles, Books and Other Media
*[http://newsquake.netscape.com/2007/06/26/g/ "Going Nuclear: William Langewiesche on ''The Atomic Bazaar''" June 26, 2007 interview] at Propeller.com
*[http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/200511/aq-khan The Wrath of Khan] from [[The Atlantic Monthly]]
*[http://www.cfr.org/publication/10067/ ''Preventing Catastrophic Nuclear Terrorism''], a Council on Foreign Relations Special Report by Senior Fellow Charles Ferguson
*[http://www.anthrax.osd.mil/documents/library/proliferation.pdf Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction: Assessing the Risks] - U.S. Congress, Office of Techchnology Assessment (OTA-ISC-559, August 1993)
*[http://www.nytimes.com/2004/02/12/international/asia/12NUKE.html?hp "A Tale of Nuclear Proliferation: How Pakistani Built His Network"]
*[http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=issues/Proliferation Annotated bibliography on nuclear proliferation from the Alsos Digital Library]
*[http://fletcher.tufts.edu/news/2004/02/najam.shtml Opinion essay arguing for a totally "nuclear-free" world] by Prof. [[Adil Najam]] in [[USA Today]].
* [http://www.pinkyshow.org/archives/episodes/070211/ ''27,000 Holocausts''] - a ''Pinky Show'' online video interview with John Burroughs (Lawyers Committee on Nuclear Policy).
*Pierre Gallois, ''The Balance of Terror: Strategy for the Nuclear Age'' (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1961).
*S. Sagan and K. Waltz (2003), ''The Spread of Nuclear Weapons: A Debate Renewed'', New York: W.W. Norton and Co.
*J.J. Mearsheimer (1990), ‘Back to the future: Instability in Europe after the Cold War’ in ''International Security'', Vol. 15, pp. 5-56
*J.J. Mearsheimer (1993), ‘Case for a Ukrainian deterrent’ in ''Foreign Affairs'', Vol. 72, pp. 50-66
*R.K. Betts (2000), ‘Universal deterrence or conceptual collapse? Liberal pessimism or utopian realism’ in V. A. Utgoff (ed.), ''The Coming Crisis: Nuclear Proliferation, US Interests and World Order'', Cambridge MA: MIT Press
*[http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/issues/proliferation/index.htm Nuclear Files.org] Comprehensive information regarding nuclear proliferation, including case studies.
*[http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/issues/terrorism/director-general-threat-of-nuclear-terrorism.html Nuclear Files.org] Nuclear Proliferation and the Potential Threat of Nuclear Terrorism
* [http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/nuke/RL31559.pdf Proliferation Control Regimes: Background and Status] Congressional Research Service Report, December 26, 2006.


{{Nuclear Technology}}
{{Texas county seats}}


[[Category:Nuclear weapons]]
[[Category:Brownsville, Texas| ]]
[[Category:Nuclear weapons policy]]
[[Category:Cameron County, Texas]]
[[Category:Nuclear proliferation|*]]
[[Category:Cities in Texas]]
[[Category:Mexico-United States border crossings]]
[[Category:County seats in Texas]]
[[Category:Texas communities with Hispanic majority populations]]
[[Category:Settlements established in 1845]]


[[bg:Браунсвил]]
[[cy:Amlhau niwclear]]
[[ca:Brownsville (Texas)]]
[[fr:Prolifération nucléaire]]
[[da:Brownsville]]
[[simple:Nuclear proliferation]]
[[de:Brownsville (Texas)]]
[[sl:Širjenje jedrskega orožja]]
[[es:Brownsville]]
[[fa:براونزویل، تگزاس]]
[[fr:Brownsville]]
[[ht:Brownsville, Texas]]
[[nl:Brownsville (Texas)]]
[[ja:ブラウンズヴィル (テキサス州)]]
[[no:Brownsville]]
[[pl:Brownsville (Teksas)]]
[[pt:Brownsville (Texas)]]
[[simple:Brownsville, Texas]]
[[fi:Brownsville (Teksas)]]
[[sv:Brownsville, Texas]]
[[vo:Brownsville (Texas)]]
[[zh:布朗斯維爾 (德克薩斯州)]]

Revision as of 00:12, 12 October 2008

City of Brownsville
City
Nickname: 
The Green City
Motto: 
On the Border by the Sea
Location within the state of Texas
Location within the state of Texas
Location within Cameron County
Location within Cameron County
CountryUnited States
StateTexas
CountyCameron
Government
 • MayorPatricio M. Ahumada, Jr.
Area
 • City83.0 sq mi (215.0 km2)
 • Land80.4 sq mi (208.2 km2)
 • Water2.6 sq mi (6.8 km2)
Elevation
33 ft (10 m)
Population
 (2006)
 • City172,806 (city proper)
 • Density1,738/sq mi (671.0/km2)
 • Metro
387,717
Time zoneUTC-6 (CST)
 • Summer (DST)UTC-5 (CDT)
Area code956
FIPS code48-10768Template:GR
GNIS feature ID1372749Template:GR
Websitehttp://www.ci.brownsville.tx.us/

Brownsville is a city in and the county seat of Cameron County, Texas, United States.Template:GR Brownsville is the 15th largest city in the state of Texas and the 130th largest in the United States. The 2000 United States Census population was 139,722, with a July 1, 2007 Census estimate of 172,806; which reflects growth rate of 23.7 percent. Brownsville is also the southernmost city in Texas.

Brownsville is the principal city of the Brownsville–Harlingen Metropolitan Statistical Area, which is part of the larger Brownsville–Harlingen–Raymondville Combined Statistical Area.

Geography and climate

Brownsville is located at 25°55′49″N 97°29′4″W / 25.93028°N 97.48444°W / 25.93028; -97.48444Invalid arguments have been passed to the {{#coordinates:}} function (25.930307, -97.484424),Template:GR on the U.S.-Mexico border (marked here by the Rio Grande or Río Bravo del Norte) from Matamoros, Tamaulipas. The low latitude and elevation give Brownsville a subtropical climate. Broadleaf evergreen plants, including palms, dominate Brownsville neighbourhoods to a greater degree than is seen elsewhere in Texas -- even in nearby cities such as Harlingen and San Benito. Soils are mostly of clay to silty clay loam texture, moderately alkaline (pH 8.2) to strongly alkaline (pH8.5) and with a significant degree of salinity in many places.[1]

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 83.0 square miles (215.0 km²), making it by far the largest city in the Rio Grande Valley. 80.4 square miles (208.2 km²) of it is land and 2.6 square miles (6.8 km²) of it (3.16%) is water.

Climate data for Brownsville, Texas
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Source: National Weather Service[1]

Demographics

As of the censusTemplate:GR of 2000, there were 139,722 people, 38,174 households, and 32,180 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,737.8 people per square mile (671.0/km²). There were 42,323 housing units at an average density of 526.4/sq mi (203.2/km²). The racial makeup of the city is 81.65% White, 0.41% African American, 0.42% Native American, 0.54% Asian, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 14.66% from other races, and 2.29% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 91.28% of the population.

There were 38,174 households out of which 50.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 59.3% were married couples living together, 20.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 15.7% were non-families. 13.7% of all households were made up of individuals and 6.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.62 and the average family size was 3.99.

In the city the population was spread out with 34.6% under the age of 18, 11.2% from 18 to 24, 27.5% from 25 to 44, 17.2% from 45 to 64, and 9.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 28 years. For every 100 females there were 89.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 82.5 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $24,468, and the median income for a family was $26,186. Males had a median income of $21,739 versus $17,116 for females. The per capita income for the city was $9,762. About 32.4% of families and 36.0% of the population were below the poverty line, giving it the highest poverty rate of any city in the country,[2] including 45.0% of those under age 18 and 31.0% of those age 65 or over.

In 2000, the median gross rent paid for housing in Brownsville was $405 per month. This was the lowest of any city in the United States with more than 100,000 people.[3]

The Census Bureau ranks Brownsville as the most impoverished city in the nation, according to the bureau's 2006 American Community Survey released on Tuesday. via The Brownsville Herald

  • According to the U.S. Census Bureau, only 51.7% of the population has a high school diploma.
  • According to the U.S. Census Bureau, 87.2% speak a language other than English at home.[4]

History

Brownsville, Texas in 1857.

In 1845, construction of a fort on the Mexican border was commissioned, due to increased instability in the region. Before completion, the Mexican Army began the Siege of Fort Texas, during the first active campaign in the Mexican-American War, between May 3-9, 1846. The first battle of the war occurred on May 8, 1846, when General Zachary Taylor received word of the siege of the fort. They rushed to help, but were intercepted, resulting in the Battle of Palo Alto about 5 miles north of present-day Brownsville. The next morning the Mexican forces had retreated, and Taylor's troops caught up with them, resulting in the Battle of Resaca de la Palma, which was fought within the present city limits. When Taylor finally arrived at the besieged Fort Texas, it was found that 2 soldiers had died, one of which was the fort's commander, Major Jacob Brown. In his honor, General Taylor renamed the fort Fort Brown. An old cannon at the University of Texas at Brownsville and Texas Southmost College marks the spot where Major Brown was fatally wounded.

Contrary to popular belief, however, there is few, if any, evidence that said Fort was called "Fort Texas". In fact, most official correspondence from the time describes the fort as "camp near Matamoros"

The city of Brownsville was originally established late in 1848 by Charles Stillman, and was made the county seat of the new Cameron County on January 13, 1849. The city was originally incorporated by the state on January 24, 1850. This was repealed on April 1, 1852, due to a land ownership dispute between Stillman and the former owners. The state reincorporated the city on February 7, 1853, which remains in effect. The issue of ownership was not decided until 1879, when the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in favor of Stillman.

On July 13 1859, the First Cortina War started. Juan Nepomuceno Cortina would become one of the most important historical figures of the area, and continued to exert a decisive influence in the local events until his arrest in 1875. The First Cortina War ended on December 27, 1859. In May 1861, the brief Second Cortina War took place.

Main article: Cortina Troubles

During the Civil War Brownsville was used as a smuggling point for Confederate goods into Mexico, most importantly cotton smuggled to European ships waiting at the Mexican port of Bagdad. Fort Brown was controlled by the Confederates. In November 1863, Union troops landed at Port Isabel and marched for Brownsville to stop the smuggling. Confederate forces abandoned the fort, blowing it up with 8000 pounds of explosives. In 1864, the town was reoccupied by the Confederates under John Salmon 'Rip' Ford. On May 15, 1865, a month after the surrender had been signed at Appomattox Court House, the Battle of Palmito Ranch was fought and won by the Confederades.

On August 13 and 14, 1906, Brownsville was the site of the Brownsville Affair. Racial tensions were high between white townsfolk and black infantrymen stationed at Fort Brown. On the night of August 13th, one white bartender was killed and a white police officer was wounded by rifle shots in the street. Townsfolk, including the mayor, accused the infantrymen as the murderers. Without a chance to defend themselves in a hearing, President Theodore Roosevelt dishonorably discharged the entire 167 member regiment due to their accused "conspiracy of silence". Further investigations in the 1970s found that they were not at fault, and the Nixon Administration reversed all dishonorable discharges.

On September 8, 1926, The Junior College of the Lower Rio Grande Valley (later known as Texas Southmost College) admitted its first class. In 1945 Fort Brown was decommissioned and in 1948 the City and College acquired the land. Between 1945 to 1970 Brownsville population continued to grow gradually, doubled from 25,000 to 52,000 people. In 1991 Brownsville receives a University via the partnership between the University of Texas at Brownsville and Texas Southmost College.

Brownsville was declared an All-America City in the year 2001.

On December 25, 2004, Brownsville had its first instance of measurable snow in 109 years, with 1 1/2 inches, and the first recorded White Christmas. This was part of the 2004 Christmas Eve Snowstorm. The snow was subsequently sold on eBay.[2]

City government

Picture of Brownsville; on the right is the "Old Federal Courthouse", where city commission meetings are held.

Brownsville has a Council-Manager style of Government. The Mayor and six City Commissioners, two At-Large and four District, serve staggered four year terms. With elections for one At-Large and two District seats every two years. Municipal elections are held on the first Saturday of May in odd numbered years.

As of 2006, the members of the Commission are:

  • Mayor: Pat Ahumada (Since 2007)
  • Commissioner At-Large "A": Anthony Troiani(Since 2007)
  • Commissioner At-Large "B": Leo T. Garza (Since 2007)
  • Commissioner District 1: Ricardo Longoria Jr. (Since 2003)
  • Commissioner District 2: Charlie Atkinson (Since 2006)
  • Commissioner District 3: Carlos Cisneros (Since 2002)
  • Commissioner District 4: Edward Camarillo (Since 2005)

The next regular elections for the City will occur in the following years:

  • Mayor: 2011
  • At-Large "A": 2011
  • At-Large "B": 2009 (*)
  • District 1: 2011
  • District 2: 2011
  • District 3: 2009
  • District 4: 2009

(*) Leo T. Garza will run for the At-Large "B" position again in 2009 as he is completing the remainder of the term left by Ernie Hernandez resigning his commission seat.

The City Commission appoints the City Manager. As of 2006, the City Manager is Charlie Cabler.

The City Commission also appoints a six member Public Utilities Board for a four-year term. Members are limited to two consecutive or non-consecutive terms. The Mayor is an ex-officio member of the Board.

Education

Universities and colleges

UT School of Public Health

The university opened in 2001 as part of the legislated Regional Academic Health Center program, or RAHC and is phyically located on the campus of the University of Texas at Brownsville. UTSPH - Brownsville is a regional campus of the University of Texas School of Public Health statewide network which offer students a graduate certificate in public health and the Master of Public Health (M.P.H.) graduate degree in a subtropical, multicultural, bilingual, bordertown community. Major public health concerns of the faculty and researchers found here in the Lower Rio Grande Valley Texas include diabetes, tuberculosis, obesity, cardiovascular disease and hepatitis. Other public health concerns include occupation health and safety (especially among the migrant and international communities), behavioral and lifestyle concerns among adolescents (pregnancy, STDs, and otherwise reckless decisions), air and environmental pollution, as well as examining the impacts and issues that are affected as a result of cross-border health, health care and prescription services. To date, over $10 million in research funding has been received by the Brownsville Regional Campus to address these local concerns. http://www.sph.uth.tmc.edu/brownsville).

Primary and secondary schools

Public schools

Most of Brownsville is served by Brownsville Independent School District. The BISD counted its total enrollment in the 2003-04 at 45,986 students in 50 schools. It is the 17th largest school district in Texas. A portion of northern Brownsville is served by the Los Fresnos Consolidated Independent School District.

In addition, Brownsville residents are allowed to apply to magnet schools operated by the South Texas Independent School District, as well as BISD magnet schools. Each BISD high school has a magnet school within the school (example, Homer Hanna High School, a BISD high school, has the district's medical magnet program).

State charter schools
  • Raul Yzaguirre School For Success
  • Sentry Technology Prep Charter High School
  • IDEA Public Schools Frontier Academy and College Prep
  • Harmony Science Academy-Brownsville (K-12)

Private and parochial Schools

Grades 9-12:

  • Livingway Christian School (grades K3-12)
  • Saint Joseph Academy (grades 7 through 12)
  • Valley Christian High School
  • First Baptist High School

Grades 1-8:

  • Brownsville SDA School
  • Episcopal Day School
  • First Baptist School
  • Faith Christian Academy
  • Guadalupe Regional Middle School
  • Incarnate Word Academy
  • Kenmont Montessori School
  • St. Luke's Catholic School
  • St. Mary's Catholic School

The Roman Catholic Diocese of Brownsville operates area Catholic schools.

Transportation

A picture of Boca Chica Blvd. overlooking in the background U.S. Highway 77. Boca Chica Blvd. is a major traffic artery in Brownsville.
File:Mcdavittovps.jpg
U.S. Highway 77/83 overpass construction over Mcdavitt Blvd.

Mass transit

Established in mid-Brownsville in 1978, with expanding bus service to rapidly developing North Brownsville. The Brownsville Urban System (BUS) consists of 14 buses running 11 routes covering a large portion of Brownsville. [3]

Highways

Brownsville is served by the following U.S. Highways:

International bridges

Brownsville has three international bridges:

Airport

Brownsville has its own city-owned airport, the Brownsville/South Padre Island International Airport. The airport is used for general aviation and is served by one commercial airline, Continental Airlines, with an average of seven flights to Houston-Intercontinental (depending on the day of the week).

Art and culture

The Brownsville area is full of well-established art galleries and museums that represent not only art of the region and Mexico but feature traveling exhibits from around the world. The Brownsville Heritage Complex.

Simon Vega operates the "Little Graceland" Museum, replete with Elvis Presley memorabilia in Los Fresnos just north of Brownsville.

Media and journalism

Television

The Brownsville area is served by numerous local television affiliates.

Radio

  • KURV 710 AM News Talk
  • KFRQ 94.5FM
  • KKPS 99.5FM
  • KNVO 101.1FM
  • KVLY 107.9FM
  • KBFM 104.1FM
  • KBNR 88.3 FM Radio Manantial (Spanish Christian)

Newspapers

Notable facts

A picture of the Brownsville Masonic Temple Rio Grande Lodge No. 81, constructed in 1882 it was originally the County Courthouse it is a good example of Brownsville's 19th century architecture.
  • The Census Bureau ranks Brownsville as the most impoverished city in the nation
  • Brownsville is the largest city in the Rio Grande Valley, both in population and size.
  • The motto of Brownsville is "On the Border by the Sea".
  • Local attractions include the Gladys Porter Zoo, Camille Lightner Playhouse, a historical downtown with buildings over 150 years old, the Port of Brownsville and the Children's Museum of Brownsville. There is also easy access to South Padre Island and the Mexican city of Matamoros, Tamaulipas.
  • Sunrise Mall is the largest shopping mall in the city of Brownsville. Since being remodeled in 2000 the mall has become the primary mall in the Brownsville-Harlingen metroplex. Brownsville previously had another shopping mall, Amigoland Mall by Simon, though the building has since been purchased by the University of Texas at Brownsville after many of its tenants moved from Amigoland to Sunrise.
  • City Park Plaza Mall is the second largest mall in Brownsville. The mall is famous for its City Park Center (in the center of the mall) which host many South Texas Events.
  • Winter retreat of noted television celebrity and cowboy chef, John "White Gravy" Neutzling.
  • Brownsville (Brownsville-Harlingen-Raymondville) is one of the "America's Greenest Cities" according to Forbes.com.[5]
  • Brownsville has been referenced in a number of songs. Bob Dylan performed a song called "Brownsville Girl" (co-written with Sam Shepard). It is mentioned in the song "Matamoros Banks" by Bruce Springsteen, and in the song "Texas Women" by Hank Williams Jr. Jim White recorded a song titled "That Girl from Brownsville, Texas". John Darnielle of the Mountain Goats wrote a song about Brownsville called "It's All Here in Brownsville" that appeared on Full Force Galesburg. Brownsville Bay is referenced in the song "Somewhere Between Texas and Mexico" recorded by Pat Green. Also, Brownsville is in the first track title of the album Chill Out by the ambient/trance group The KLF ("Brownsville Turnaround on the Tex-Mex Border").
  • Judge Reynaldo G. Garza (1915-2004) [4] of Brownsville was first appointed to the United States District Court in 1961 by President Kennedy, and to the United States Court of Appeals by President Carter in 1978. Garza's biography All Rise: The First Mexican-American Federal Judge was written by Louise Ann Fisch, also a Brownsville native.[6]
  • Federico Peña, former U.S. Transportation Secretary, former U.S. Energy Secretary and former mayor of Denver, Colorado, was raised in Brownsville.
  • Actress Elka Walker,[7] best known for "The Real World" series, was born in Brownsville on February 2, 1978.
  • Formerly the home of Eagle International (later Eagle Bus Manufacturing), from 1975 until filing for bankruptcy in January 1998.
  • The last battle of the Civil War was fought in Palmito Ranch in Brownsville, Texas.
  • Racquetball professional Kane Waselenchuk now lives in Brownsville, Texas.

External links

Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Brownsville".

Template:Geolinks-US-cityscale

References

  1. ^ National Weather Service Brownsville
  2. ^ 2000 Census
  3. ^ Census Bureau News
  4. ^ Brownsville City Fact Sheet
  5. ^ America's Greenest Cities - Forbes.com
  6. ^ All Rise
  7. ^ IMDB link
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_proliferation&oldid=244675568"