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{{short description|Byzantine emperor from 1025 to 1028}}
{{short description|Byzantine emperor from 962 to 1028}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}}
{{good article}}
{{good article}}

{{Infobox monarch
{{Infobox monarch
| name =Constantine VIII
| name = Constantine VIII
| image=File:Konstantinos VIII.jpg
| image = Constantine VIII in the Exultet roll (2).jpg
| image_size = 230px
| caption = Constantine VIII, 15th-century miniature portrait from the [[Mutinensis gr. 122]]
| caption = Contemporary miniature of Constantine VIII, from a [[Bari]] [[Exultet roll]]{{sfn|Brand|Cutler|1991|pp=503–504}}{{sfn|Spatharakis|1976|pp=91–95}}
| succession =[[Byzantine emperor]]
| succession = [[Byzantine emperor]]
| coronation = 30 March 962
| coronation = 30 March 962
| reign = 15 December 1025{{dash}}<br>11 November 1028<ref group="n.">Co-Emperor with [[Romanos II]] (962–963), [[Nikephoros II Phokas]] (963–969), [[John I Tzimiskes]] (969–976) and [[Basil II]] (962–1025)</ref>
| reign = 15 December 1025{{dash}}<br />11 November 1028<ref group="n.">Co-Emperor with [[Romanos II]] (962–963), [[Nikephoros II Phokas]] (963–969), [[John I Tzimiskes]] (969–976) and [[Basil II]] (962–1025)</ref>
| predecessor =[[Romanos II]] and [[Basil II]]
| successor =[[Romanos III]]
| predecessor = [[Basil II]]
| successor = [[Romanos III Argyros|Romanos III]]
| spouse =[[Helena, daughter of Alypius|Helena]]
| spouse = [[Helena, daughter of Alypius|Helena]]
| issue =Eudokia<br>[[Zoe Porphyrogenita|Zoë]]<br>[[Theodora Porphyrogenita (11th century)|Theodora]]
| issue = {{ubl|[[Eudokia Porphyrogenita|Eudokia]]|[[Zoe Porphyrogenita|Zoe]]|[[Theodora Porphyrogenita|Theodora]]}}
| royal house =
| royal house =
| dynasty =[[Macedonian dynasty]]
| father =Romanos II
| dynasty = [[Macedonian dynasty]]
| mother =[[Theophano (born Anastaso)|Theophano]]
| father = [[Romanos II]]
| mother = [[Theophano (born Anastaso)|Theophano]]
| birth_date =960
| birth_place =
| birth_date = 960
| death_date =11/12 November 1028<br>(aged 67–68)
| birth_place =
| death_date = 11/12 November 1028<br />(aged 67–68)
| death_place =
| death_place =
| place of burial =
| place of burial = |
||title=[[List of Byzantine emperors|Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans]]}}
| title = [[List of Byzantine emperors|Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans]]
}}


'''Constantine VIII'''
'''Constantine VIII [[Porphyrogenitus]]''' ({{lang-el|Κωνσταντῖνος Η΄ Πορφυρογέννητος}}, ''Kōnstantinos&nbsp;VIII Porphyrogénnetos''; 960&nbsp;– 11/12 November 1028) was ''[[de jure]]'' [[Byzantine Emperor]] from 962 until his death. He was the younger son of Emperor [[Romanos II]] and Empress [[Theophano (born Anastaso)|Theophano]]. He was nominal co-emperor for 63 years (longer than any other), successively with his father; stepfather, [[Nikephoros II Phokas]]; uncle, [[John I Tzimiskes]]; and brother, [[Basil II]].
({{lang-el|Κωνσταντῖνος}}, ''Kōnstantinos'';<ref group="n.">Also called '''[[Porphyrogenitus]]''' ({{lang-el|Πορφυρογέννητος}}, ''Porphyrogénnetos''), although the epithet is almost exclusively used for [[Constantine VII]].</ref> 960&nbsp;– 11/12 November 1028) was ''[[de jure]]'' [[Byzantine emperor]] from 962 until his death. He was the younger son of Emperor [[Romanos II]] and Empress [[Theophano (born Anastaso)|Theophano]]. He was nominal co-emperor since 962, successively with his father; stepfather, [[Nikephoros II Phokas]]; uncle, [[John I Tzimiskes]]; and brother, [[Basil II]]. Basil's death in 1025 left Constantine as the sole emperor. He occupied the throne for 66 years in total, making him ''de jure'' the longest-reigning amongst [[List of Roman emperors|all Roman emperors]] since [[Augustus]].


Basil II died childless on 15 December 1025 and thus left the rule of the [[Byzantine Empire]] in Constantine's hands. Constantine had no interest in politics, statecraft or the military. His brief sole reign is said to have been "an unmitigated disaster", sparking "a collapse of the military power of the Empire". Constantine had no sons, so shortly before his death he married his daughter [[Zoe Porphyrogenita|Zoë]] to his chosen successor, [[Romanos Argyros]].
Constantine displayed a lifelong lack of interest in politics, statecraft and the military, and during his brief sole reign the government of the [[Byzantine Empire]] suffered from mismanagement and neglect. He had no sons and was instead succeeded by [[Romanos Argyros]], husband of his daughter [[Zoe Porphyrogenita|Zoe]].


==Family==
==Family==
{{stack|[[Image:GoldHistamenonZoeAndTheodora1042.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.65|Gold ''[[histamenon]]'' of Constantine's daughters Zoë and Theodora]]}}
[[Image:Romanos et Eudoxie.JPG|thumb|left|upright|Constantine VIII's father (left) in the [[Romanos Ivory]]]]
Constantine's father, [[Romanos II]], was the sixth Byzantine emperor of the [[Macedonian dynasty]]. After the death of his first wife, Bertha (who took the name Eudocia), daughter of [[Hugh of Arles]], he fell in love with and married an innkeeper's daughter from the Peloponnese, Theophano. Contemporaries called Theophano the most beautiful woman in Christendom as well as ambitious, an inveterate schemer and utterly amoral. She bore Romanos four children, including Constantine, born in 960, and his elder brother [[Basil II|Basil]], born in 958.{{sfn|Norwich|1991|p=174}} His sister [[Anna Porphyrogenita|Anna]]'s hand was considered such a prize that [[Vladimir I of Kiev]] converted to Christianity in order to marry her.{{sfn|Skylitzes|Wortley|2010|p=319 (footnote)}} Aged eight, Constantine was engaged to a daughter of Emperor [[Boris II of Bulgaria]] but in the end he married a Byzantine aristocrat, [[Helena, daughter of Alypius]]. By Helena he had three daughters: Eudokia, who became a nun; [[Zoë Porphyrogenita|Zoë]], who was empress for 22 years; and [[Theodora Porphyrogenita (11th century)|Theodora]], who reigned for 18 months and was the last of the Macedonian line.{{sfn|Garland|1999|pp=165–66}}
Constantine's father, [[Romanos II]], was the sixth Byzantine emperor of the [[Macedonian dynasty]]. After the death of his first wife, Bertha (who took the name Eudocia), daughter of [[Hugh of Arles]], he fell in love with and married an innkeeper's daughter from the Peloponnese, Theophano. Contemporaries called Theophano the most beautiful woman in Christendom as well as ambitious, an inveterate schemer and utterly amoral. She bore Romanos four children, including Constantine, born in 960, and his elder brother [[Basil II|Basil]], born in 958.{{sfn|Norwich|1991|p=174}} His sister [[Anna Porphyrogenita|Anna]]'s hand was considered such a prize that [[Vladimir I of Kiev]] converted to Christianity to marry her.{{sfn|Skylitzes|2010|p=319 (footnote)}} Aged eight, Constantine was engaged to a daughter of Emperor [[Boris II of Bulgaria]] but in the end, he married a Byzantine aristocrat, [[Helena, daughter of Alypius]]. By Helena he had three daughters: Eudokia, who became a nun after contracting [[smallpox]]; [[Zoe Porphyrogenita|Zoe]], who was empress for 22 years; and [[Theodora Porphyrogenita (11th century)|Theodora]], who reigned for 18 months and was the last of the Macedonian line.{{sfn|Garland|1999|pp=165–66}}


==Life==
==Life==
{{multiple image|direction=vertical|width=220
{{multiple image|direction=vertical|width=220
|image1=Constantine VII and Romanos II solidus.jpg
|image1=Constantine VII and Romanos II solidus.jpg
|caption1=Gold ''[[solidus (coin)|solidus]]'' of [[Romanos II]]'s father [[Constantine VII]] (left) and Romanos II (right)
|caption1=Gold ''[[solidus (coin)|solidus]]'' of [[Romanos II]]'s father [[Constantine VII]] (left) and Romanos II (right), with a [[Halo (religious iconography)|haloed]] Christ on reverse.
|image2=Histamenon nomisma-Nicephorus II and Basil II-sb1776.jpg
|image2=Histamenon nomisma-Nicephorus II and Basil II-sb1776.jpg
|caption2=''[[Histamenon]]'' of [[Nikephoros II]] (left) and [[Basil II]] (right)
|caption2=''[[Histamenon]]'' of [[Nikephoros II]] (left) and [[Basil II]] (right)
|image3=Histamenon nomisma-John I-sb1776.jpg
|image3=Histamenon nomisma-John I-sb1776.jpg
|caption3=''Histamenon'' of [[John Tzimiskes]] crowned by the Virgin Mary
|caption3=''Histamenon'' of [[John Tzimiskes]] crowned by the Virgin Mary
⚫
|image4=Histamenon of Basil II and Constantino VIII, 977–989(?).jpg
⚫
|caption4=''Histamenon'' of Basil II (left) and Constantine VIII (right)
|footer=All coins show a [[Halo (religious iconography)|haloed]] Christ on obverse.
}}
}}


===Childhood===
===Childhood===
Romanos died in 963, amidst rumours that Theophano had poisoned him; Constantine was three years old. Constantine had been crowned co-emperors by his father in 962, probably on 30 March.{{sfn|Brand|Cutler|1991|pp=503–504}} The widowed Theophano installed herself as regent for her sons and promptly purged the [[Byzantine bureaucracy and aristocracy|imperial government]], appointing her own men. Passing over a bevy of suitors among Constantinople's courtiers, she made an alliance with [[Nikephoros II|Nikephoros Phokas]]. Nikephoros, a physically repulsive ascetic twice her age, was the greatest military hero of the Empire. In return for her hand, the childless Nikephoros gave his sacred pledge to protect her children and their interests. Nikephoros entered Constantinople three months after Romanos' death, breaking the resistance of [[Joseph Bringas]], a eunuch palace official who had been Romanos' chief counsellor, in street fighting.{{sfn|Ostrogorsky|1957|p=284}} Nikephoros was crowned emperor in the presence of his nominal co-emperors, Constantine and Basil. A month later he married their mother.{{sfn|Norwich|1991|pp=174–75, 183–190}}
Romanos died suddenly in 963. Although Constantine was only three years old, he had already been crowned co-emperor in the preceding year, probably on 30 March.{{sfn|Brand|Cutler|1991|pp=503–504}} The widowed Theophano installed herself as [[regent]] for her sons and stocked the [[Byzantine bureaucracy and aristocracy|imperial government]] with supporters, but she faced competition for power with [[Joseph Bringas]], a former advisor of Romanos. Theophano allied with [[Nikephoros II|Nikephoros Phokas]], a celebrated general and opponent of Bringas. In return for her hand, the childless Nikephoros gave his sacred pledge to protect her children and their interests. Three months after Romanos' death, supporters of Nikephoros ousted Bringas from power.{{sfn|Ostrogorsky|1957|p=284}} Nikephoros was crowned emperor in the presence of his nominal co-emperors, Constantine and Basil. A month later he married their mother.{{sfn|Norwich|1991|pp=174–75, 183–190}}


Six years later, Nikephoros was murdered at Theophano's instigation and her lover and co-conspirator [[John Tzimiskes]] was acclaimed emperor. Tzimiskes proposed to marry Theophano but the Empress had by then been too damaged by gossip and rumours, many of them accurate. [[Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople|Patriarch]] [[Patriarch Polyeuctus of Constantinople|Polyeuktos]] refused to perform the coronation unless Tzimiskes removed the "scarlet empress" from the court. Tzimiskes calculated that his legitimacy would be better enhanced by church approval than betrothal to the unpopular empress and acceded to the Patriarch's demands. Theophano was sent into exile and Tzimiskes was crowned, again with Constantine and Basil as co-emperors.{{sfn|Ash|1995|p=248}}{{sfn|Norwich|1991|p=240}} He married [[Theodora, daughter of Constantine VII|Theodora]], Constantine's aunt.{{sfn|Ostrogorsky|1957|p=261}}
Six years later, Nikephoros was murdered at Theophano's instigation and her lover and co-conspirator [[John Tzimiskes]] was acclaimed emperor. Fearing that the empress' many enemies would damage his political prospects, Tzimiskes turned against Theophano and sent her into exile. Constantine and Basil stayed in the capital and retained their status as co-emperors.{{sfn|Ash|1995|p=248}}{{sfn|Norwich|1991|p=240}}


===Adulthood===
===Adulthood===
Following the death of Tzimiskes in January 976, Basil and Constantine took power. Although the sixteen year old Constantine was nominally co-emperor it was clear that Basil was the senior ''Basileus''.{{sfn|Ostrogorsky|1957|p=264}} Constantine as a young man was tall and graceful, he was a superb horseman and trained his own horses. He competed in athletic and wrestling competitions, which he brought back into fashion. He had an excellent speaking voice and a good grasp of rhetoric. He was a gourmet and a gourmand.{{sfn|Norwich|1991|pp=267, 269}} He had no interest in politics, statecraft or the military and never developed any.{{sfn|Norwich|1991|p=231}} Constantine led troops alongside his brother in 989; the campaign ended without any combat and Constantine was not appointed to military command again.{{sfn|Norwich|1991|pp=242–43}}
Tzimiskes died in January 976, when Constantine was sixteen years old. Basil and Constantine became the new heads of state; nominally the brothers were equals, but Basil devoted himself to the responsibilities of his office and emerged as the senior ''Basileus''.{{sfn|Ostrogorsky|1957|p=264}} Constantine had no comparable interest in state business, and never developed any.{{sfn|Norwich|1991|p=231}} Apart from participating in a military campaign in 989, which ended without any combat,{{sfn|Norwich|1991|pp=242–43}} he devoted his years as Basil's colleague to a range of private interests.

Constantine was tall, graceful, and athletic in his youth, enjoying an excellent speaking voice and a good grasp of rhetoric. He participated in wrestling competitions— which he brought back into fashion— and in the training and riding of horses. Alongside these active pursuits he was a gourmet and a gourmand,{{sfn|Norwich|1991|pp=267, 269}} leading in later years to chronic [[gout]] which impaired his ability to walk.


===Emperor===
===Emperor===
{{multiple image|direction=vertical|width=170|align=left
[[File:Histamenon nomisma-Constantine VIII-sb1776.jpg|thumb|left|''[[Histamenon]]'' of Constantine VIII. On the reverse is an image of [[Christ]].]]
⚫
|image1=Histamenon of Basil II & Constantine VIII.png
|caption1=''[[Histamenon]]'' of Constantine VIII and Basil II
⚫
|image2=Histamenon of Constantine VIII.png
|caption2=''Histamenon'' of Constantine VIII as sole emperor.
}}


Basil II had an illustrious reign, earning the sobriquet "Bulgar-slayer" (''Bulgaroktonus''). He died childless on 15 December 1025 and Constantine, a sixty-five-year-old widower, became sole emperor as Constantine VIII. He had been a co-emperor for sixty-three years but had always been content to enjoy the privileges of imperial status, without concerning himself with state affairs.{{sfn|Brand|Cutler|1991|pp=503–504}} He spent his life in the search of pleasure and entertainment, or amusing himself with riding and hunting. He was "of frivolous disposition, he desired nothing more than to pass his life wallowing in extravagant pleasures."{{sfn|Ostrogorsky|1957|p=265}} Constantine as emperor carried on as he always had – hunting, feasting, and enjoying life – and avoided state business as much as possible.{{sfn|Ostrogorsky|1957|p=265}}
Basil II had an illustrious reign, pursuing both government reforms and a series of successful wars. He died childless on 15 December 1025 and Constantine, a sixty-five-year-old widower, became the sole emperor as Constantine VIII. During his long term as co-emperor, he had been content to enjoy the privileges of imperial status, without concerning himself with state affairs.{{sfn|Brand|Cutler|1991|pp=503–504}} Sole rulership did not fundamentally alter this desire "to pass his life wallowing in extravagant pleasures".{{sfn|Ostrogorsky|1957|p=265}}
[[File:Appointment of Alexios Stoudites as patriarch.png|thumb|Appointment of [[Alexius of Constantinople|Alexius Stoudites]] as patriarch (top) by Emperor Constantine VIII.]]
The Byzantine aristocracy had been rigorously controlled by Basil II. By comparison, they judged Constantine to be "[d]evoid of any semblance of moral fibre", and worked steadily to extract concessions from him.{{sfn|Norwich|1991|p=268}} Unqualified men received senior government posts, and Basil's land laws were dropped under pressure from the aristocracy of [[Anatolia]]. These interactions with Constantine were not without risk; when challenged, or led to suspect conspiracies, the emperor responded with impulsive cruelty. Condemned members of the elite suffered torture or were sentenced to [[political mutilation in Byzantine culture|blinding]].


[[File:Emperor Constantine VIII orders the blinding of Nikephoros Komnenos.png|thumb|Emperor Constantine VIII (left) orders the blinding of [[Nikephoros Komnenos]],miniature from the ''[[Madrid Skylitzes]]'']]
By the time he became emperor he had chronic gout and could hardly walk. He met challenges with impulsive cruelty, persecuting the nobility and ordering an orgy of torture; [[political mutilation in Byzantine culture|blinding]] was a favoured punishment for crimes real or imagined. He filled the senior court and state positions with nonentities. Within months the land laws of Basil&nbsp;II were dropped, under pressure from the [[Anatolia]]n aristocracy. "Devoid of any semblance of moral fibre"{{sfn|Norwich|1991|p=268}} he would grant any concession.{{sfn|Norwich|1991|p=268}} Favouritism failed to win him friends and he persecuted the nobility when he felt threatened by conspiracy. The start of the decline of the Byzantine Empire has been linked to Constantine's accession to the throne.{{sfn|Ostrogorsky|1957|p=283}} His reign has been described as "an unmitigated disaster", "a break up of the system" and causing "a collapse of the military power of the Empire".{{sfn|Norwich|1991|pp=283, 268}}{{sfn|Ostrogorsky|1957|p=264}}
The start of the decline of the Byzantine Empire has been linked to Constantine's accession to the throne.{{sfn|Ostrogorsky|1957|p=283}} His reign has been described as "an unmitigated disaster", "a break up of the system" and the cause of "a collapse of the military power of the Empire".{{sfn|Norwich|1991|pp=283, 268}}{{sfn|Ostrogorsky|1957|p=264}}


⚫
He ruled for less than three years before his death, on 11 or 12 November 1028.{{refn|Sources do not agree on the exact date of his death.<ref>''[[Lupus Protospatharius]]''; [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/protospatarius.shtml 1029]: "mortuus est Constantinus Imperator in vigilia S. Martini." On the eve of [[Martin of Tours]]', that is, the day before 12 November (unless it's referring to the very same day).</ref><ref>''[[Georgius Cedrenus]]'' − ''[[Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae|CSHB]]'' '''9''': [https://books.google.com/books?id=nbkVAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA484 484-5]: "Nona Novembris die, indictione 12, anno 6537, subito morbo correptus Constantinus... triduo post Constantinus vivendi finem fecit, cum vixisset annos." The Latin translation indicates that he fell ill on the 9th and died 3 days later. However, the text could also be interpreted as ''the third day since'' his illness, that is, 11 November.</ref><ref>According to the ''[[Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium|ODB]]'', [[Yahya of Antioch]] gives 12 November.</ref><ref>The [https://archive.org/details/kleinchroniken1/page/n80/mode/1up Chronicle 15/7] of the ''Chronica byzantina breviora'' gives 11 November, although it also gives Basil's death as 12 December.</ref>|group="n."}} On his deathbed and without a male heir, Constantine named as successor [[Constantine Dalassenos (duke of Antioch)|Constantine Dalessenos, Duke of Antioch]], a senior aristocrat and member of one of the few powerful patrician families who had been unswervingly loyal to the Macedonian dynasty.{{sfn|Norwich|1991|p=269}} Constantine Dalassenos was summoned from his estates in the [[Armeniac Theme]], with the intention that he should certify his position as successor by marrying the emperor's daughter Zoe. Before Dalassenos completed his journey to [[Constantinople]], the situation had changed. The emperor's advisors preferred a different candidate, [[Romanos III Argyros|Romanos Argyros]], who showed promise of being a weak ruler whom they could control. Characteristically, Constantine acquiesced to this preference. Romanos was named as the new imperial heir, and compelled to divorce his wife and marry Zoe. The wedding took place on 12 November and Romanos was crowned four days later.{{sfn|Ostrogorsky|1957|p=322}}
[[File:Miliaresion-Romanus III-sb1822.jpg|thumb|left|''[[Miliaresion]]'' of Romanos III. On the reverse is the [[Virgin Mary]] holding the infant [[Christ]].]]
⚫
He ruled for less than three years before his death on 11/12 November 1028.{{refn|Sources do not agree on the exact date of his death.<ref>''[[Lupus Protospatharius]]''; [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/protospatarius.shtml 1029]: "mortuus est Constantinus Imperator in vigilia S. Martini." On the eve of [[Martin of Tours]]', that is, the day before 12 November (unless it's referring to the very same day). </ref><ref>''[[Georgius Cedrenus]]'' − ''[[Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae|CSHB]]'' '''9''': [https://books.google.com/books?id=nbkVAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA484 484-5]: "Nona Novembris die, indictione 12, anno 6537, subito morbo correptus Constantinus... triduo post Constantinus vivendi finem fecit, cum vixisset annos." The latin translation indicates that he fell ill on the 9th and died 3 days later. However, the text could also be interpreted as ''the third day since'' his illness, that is, 11 November.</ref><ref>According to the ''[[Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium|ODB]]'', [[Yahya of Antioch]] gives 12 November.</ref><ref>The [https://archive.org/details/kleinchroniken1/page/n80/mode/1up Chronicle 15/7] of the ''Chronica byzantina breviora'' gives 11 November, altought it also gives Basil's death as 12 December.</ref>|group="n."}} On his deathbed, and without a male heir, Constantine recalled the senior aristocrat [[Constantine Dalassenos (duke of Antioch)|Constantine Dalessenos, Duke of Antioch]], to the capital in order to marry his daughter Zoë. The Dalassenus were one of the few powerful patrician families who had been unswervingly loyal to the Macedonian dynasty.{{sfn|Norwich|1991|p=269}} Constantine Dalassenos set out from his estates in the [[Armeniac Theme]], but before reaching [[Constantinople]] the situation changed: the emperor's advisors preferred a weak ruler whom they could control, and, typically, Constantine was persuaded. He choose [[Romanos III Argyros|Romanos Argyros]] instead, forcing him to divorce his wife and marry Zoë. The wedding took place on 12 November and Romanos was crowned four days later.{{sfn|Ostrogorsky|1957|p=322}}


==Ancestry==
==Ancestry==
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===Bibliography===
===Bibliography===
{{sfn whitelist|CITEREFBrandCutler1991}}
====Primary sources====
====Primary sources====
{{refbegin}}
{{refbegin}}
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{{refbegin}}
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book|last=Ash|first=John|title=A Byzantine Journey|publisher=I. B. Tauris|year=1995|isbn=978-1-86064-015-5|location=London}}
* {{cite book|last=Ash|first=John|title=A Byzantine Journey|publisher=I. B. Tauris|year=1995|isbn=978-1-86064-015-5|location=London}}
* {{Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium|last1=Brand|first1=C. M.|last2=Cutler|first2=A.|title=Constantine VIII|url=https://archive.org/details/odb_20210521/page/503/mode/1up}}
* {{Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium|last1=Brand|first1=C. M.|last2=Cutler|first2=A.|title=Constantine VIII|url=https://archive.org/details/odb_20210521/page/503/mode/1up|pages=503–504}}
* {{cite book|last=Charanis|first=Peter|author-link=Peter Charanis|title=The Armenians in the Byzantine Empire|publisher=Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian|year=1963|oclc=17186882}}
* {{cite book|last=Charanis|first=Peter|authorlink=Peter Charanis|title=The Armenians in the Byzantine Empire|year=1963|location=Lisbon|publisher=[[Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation|Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian]] Armenian Library|url=http://www.attalus.org/armenian/chartoc.html|oclc=17186882}}
* {{cite book|last=Garland|first=Lynda|author-link=Lynda Garland|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6JY2fpMTkKwC|title=Byzantine Empresses: Women and Power in Byzantium, AD 527–1204|publisher=Routledge|year=1999|isbn=978-0-415-14688-3|location=London and New York}}
* {{cite book|last=Garland|first=Lynda|author-link=Lynda Garland|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6JY2fpMTkKwC|title=Byzantine Empresses: Women and Power in Byzantium, AD 527–1204|publisher=Routledge|year=1999|isbn=978-0-415-14688-3|location=London and New York}}
* {{Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium|ref={{harvid|ODB}}}}
* {{Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium|ref={{harvid|ODB}}}}
* {{cite book|last=Norwich|first=John Julius|author-link=John Julius Norwich|title=Byzantium: the Apogee|publisher=Penguin|year=1991|isbn=978-0-670-80252-4|location=London}}
* {{cite book|last=Norwich|first=John Julius|author-link=John Julius Norwich|title=Byzantium: the Apogee|publisher=Penguin|year=1991|isbn=978-0-670-80252-4|location=London}}
* {{cite book|last=Ostrogorsky|first=George|author-link=George Ostrogorsky|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofbyzanti00ostr|title=History of The Byzantine State|publisher=Rutgers University Press|year=1957|location=New Brunswick|oclc=422217218}}
* {{cite book|last=Ostrogorsky|first=George|author-link=George Ostrogorsky|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofbyzanti00ostr|title=History of The Byzantine State|publisher=Rutgers University Press|year=1957|location=New Brunswick|oclc=422217218}}
*{{cite book |last=Spatharakis|first=Ioannis|date=1976 |title=The Portrait in Byzantine Illuminated Manuscripts|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AQ4VAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA91 |publisher=Brill |isbn= 978-9004047839}}
* {{cite book|last=Patlagean|first=Évelyne|author-link=Évelyne Patlagean|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVloAAAAMAAJ|title=Un Moyen Âge Grec: Byzance, IXe–XVe siècle|publisher=Albin Michel|year=2007|isbn=978-2-226-17110-8|location=Paris, France|language=fr}}
* {{cite book|last=Patlagean|first=Évelyne|author-link=Évelyne Patlagean|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVloAAAAMAAJ|title=Un Moyen Âge Grec: Byzance, IXe–XVe siècle|publisher=Albin Michel|year=2007|isbn=978-2-226-17110-8|location=Paris, France|language=fr}}
* {{A History of the Byzantine State and Society}}
* {{cite book|last=Treadgold|first=Warren|author-link=Warren Treadgold|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nYbnr5XVbzUC|title=A History of the Byzantine State and Society|publisher=Stanford University Press|year=1997|isbn=978-0-8047-2630-6|location=Stanford}}
{{refend}}
{{refend}}


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Revision as of 01:53, 24 March 2024

Constantine VIII
Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans
Contemporary miniature of Constantine VIII, from a Bari Exultet roll[1][2]
Byzantine emperor
Reign15 December 1025 –
11 November 1028[n. 1]
Coronation30 March 962
PredecessorBasil II
SuccessorRomanos III
Born960
Died11/12 November 1028
(aged 67–68)
SpouseHelena
Issue
DynastyMacedonian dynasty
FatherRomanos II
MotherTheophano

Constantine VIII (Greek: Κωνσταντῖνος, Kōnstantinos;[n. 2] 960 – 11/12 November 1028) was de jure Byzantine emperor from 962 until his death. He was the younger son of Emperor Romanos II and Empress Theophano. He was nominal co-emperor since 962, successively with his father; stepfather, Nikephoros II Phokas; uncle, John I Tzimiskes; and brother, Basil II. Basil's death in 1025 left Constantine as the sole emperor. He occupied the throne for 66 years in total, making him de jure the longest-reigning amongst all Roman emperors since Augustus.

Constantine displayed a lifelong lack of interest in politics, statecraft and the military, and during his brief sole reign the government of the Byzantine Empire suffered from mismanagement and neglect. He had no sons and was instead succeeded by Romanos Argyros, husband of his daughter Zoe.

Family

Constantine VIII's father (left) in the Romanos Ivory

Constantine's father, Romanos II, was the sixth Byzantine emperor of the Macedonian dynasty. After the death of his first wife, Bertha (who took the name Eudocia), daughter of Hugh of Arles, he fell in love with and married an innkeeper's daughter from the Peloponnese, Theophano. Contemporaries called Theophano the most beautiful woman in Christendom as well as ambitious, an inveterate schemer and utterly amoral. She bore Romanos four children, including Constantine, born in 960, and his elder brother Basil, born in 958.[3] His sister Anna's hand was considered such a prize that Vladimir I of Kiev converted to Christianity to marry her.[4] Aged eight, Constantine was engaged to a daughter of Emperor Boris II of Bulgaria but in the end, he married a Byzantine aristocrat, Helena, daughter of Alypius. By Helena he had three daughters: Eudokia, who became a nun after contracting smallpox; Zoe, who was empress for 22 years; and Theodora, who reigned for 18 months and was the last of the Macedonian line.[5]

Life

Gold solidus of Romanos II's father Constantine VII (left) and Romanos II (right), with a haloed Christ on reverse.
Histamenon of Nikephoros II (left) and Basil II (right)
Histamenon of John Tzimiskes crowned by the Virgin Mary

Childhood

Romanos died suddenly in 963. Although Constantine was only three years old, he had already been crowned co-emperor in the preceding year, probably on 30 March.[1] The widowed Theophano installed herself as regent for her sons and stocked the imperial government with supporters, but she faced competition for power with Joseph Bringas, a former advisor of Romanos. Theophano allied with Nikephoros Phokas, a celebrated general and opponent of Bringas. In return for her hand, the childless Nikephoros gave his sacred pledge to protect her children and their interests. Three months after Romanos' death, supporters of Nikephoros ousted Bringas from power.[6] Nikephoros was crowned emperor in the presence of his nominal co-emperors, Constantine and Basil. A month later he married their mother.[7]

Six years later, Nikephoros was murdered at Theophano's instigation and her lover and co-conspirator John Tzimiskes was acclaimed emperor. Fearing that the empress' many enemies would damage his political prospects, Tzimiskes turned against Theophano and sent her into exile. Constantine and Basil stayed in the capital and retained their status as co-emperors.[8][9]

Adulthood

Tzimiskes died in January 976, when Constantine was sixteen years old. Basil and Constantine became the new heads of state; nominally the brothers were equals, but Basil devoted himself to the responsibilities of his office and emerged as the senior Basileus.[10] Constantine had no comparable interest in state business, and never developed any.[11] Apart from participating in a military campaign in 989, which ended without any combat,[12] he devoted his years as Basil's colleague to a range of private interests.

Constantine was tall, graceful, and athletic in his youth, enjoying an excellent speaking voice and a good grasp of rhetoric. He participated in wrestling competitions— which he brought back into fashion— and in the training and riding of horses. Alongside these active pursuits he was a gourmet and a gourmand,[13] leading in later years to chronic gout which impaired his ability to walk.

Emperor

Histamenon of Constantine VIII and Basil II
Histamenon of Constantine VIII as sole emperor.

Basil II had an illustrious reign, pursuing both government reforms and a series of successful wars. He died childless on 15 December 1025 and Constantine, a sixty-five-year-old widower, became the sole emperor as Constantine VIII. During his long term as co-emperor, he had been content to enjoy the privileges of imperial status, without concerning himself with state affairs.[1] Sole rulership did not fundamentally alter this desire "to pass his life wallowing in extravagant pleasures".[14]

Appointment of Alexius Stoudites as patriarch (top) by Emperor Constantine VIII.

The Byzantine aristocracy had been rigorously controlled by Basil II. By comparison, they judged Constantine to be "[d]evoid of any semblance of moral fibre", and worked steadily to extract concessions from him.[15] Unqualified men received senior government posts, and Basil's land laws were dropped under pressure from the aristocracy of Anatolia. These interactions with Constantine were not without risk; when challenged, or led to suspect conspiracies, the emperor responded with impulsive cruelty. Condemned members of the elite suffered torture or were sentenced to blinding.

Emperor Constantine VIII (left) orders the blinding of Nikephoros Komnenos,miniature from the Madrid Skylitzes

The start of the decline of the Byzantine Empire has been linked to Constantine's accession to the throne.[16] His reign has been described as "an unmitigated disaster", "a break up of the system" and the cause of "a collapse of the military power of the Empire".[17][10]

He ruled for less than three years before his death, on 11 or 12 November 1028.[n. 3] On his deathbed and without a male heir, Constantine named as successor Constantine Dalessenos, Duke of Antioch, a senior aristocrat and member of one of the few powerful patrician families who had been unswervingly loyal to the Macedonian dynasty.[22] Constantine Dalassenos was summoned from his estates in the Armeniac Theme, with the intention that he should certify his position as successor by marrying the emperor's daughter Zoe. Before Dalassenos completed his journey to Constantinople, the situation had changed. The emperor's advisors preferred a different candidate, Romanos Argyros, who showed promise of being a weak ruler whom they could control. Characteristically, Constantine acquiesced to this preference. Romanos was named as the new imperial heir, and compelled to divorce his wife and marry Zoe. The wedding took place on 12 November and Romanos was crowned four days later.[23]

Ancestry

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Co-Emperor with Romanos II (962–963), Nikephoros II Phokas (963–969), John I Tzimiskes (969–976) and Basil II (962–1025)
  2. ^ Also called Porphyrogenitus (Greek: Πορφυρογέννητος, Porphyrogénnetos), although the epithet is almost exclusively used for Constantine VII.
  3. ^ Sources do not agree on the exact date of his death.[18][19][20][21]

References

Citations

  1. ^ a b c Brand & Cutler 1991, pp. 503–504.
  2. ^ Spatharakis 1976, pp. 91–95.
  3. ^ Norwich 1991, p. 174.
  4. ^ Skylitzes 2010, p. 319 (footnote).
  5. ^ Garland 1999, pp. 165–66.
  6. ^ Ostrogorsky 1957, p. 284.
  7. ^ Norwich 1991, pp. 174–75, 183–190.
  8. ^ Ash 1995, p. 248.
  9. ^ Norwich 1991, p. 240.
  10. ^ a b Ostrogorsky 1957, p. 264.
  11. ^ Norwich 1991, p. 231.
  12. ^ Norwich 1991, pp. 242–43.
  13. ^ Norwich 1991, pp. 267, 269.
  14. ^ Ostrogorsky 1957, p. 265.
  15. ^ Norwich 1991, p. 268.
  16. ^ Ostrogorsky 1957, p. 283.
  17. ^ Norwich 1991, pp. 283, 268.
  18. ^ Lupus Protospatharius; 1029: "mortuus est Constantinus Imperator in vigilia S. Martini." On the eve of Martin of Tours', that is, the day before 12 November (unless it's referring to the very same day).
  19. ^ Georgius Cedrenus − CSHB 9: 484-5: "Nona Novembris die, indictione 12, anno 6537, subito morbo correptus Constantinus... triduo post Constantinus vivendi finem fecit, cum vixisset annos." The Latin translation indicates that he fell ill on the 9th and died 3 days later. However, the text could also be interpreted as the third day since his illness, that is, 11 November.
  20. ^ According to the ODB, Yahya of Antioch gives 12 November.
  21. ^ The Chronicle 15/7 of the Chronica byzantina breviora gives 11 November, although it also gives Basil's death as 12 December.
  22. ^ Norwich 1991, p. 269.
  23. ^ Ostrogorsky 1957, p. 322.
  24. ^ a b c d e f g h i ODB, "Macedonian dynasty" genealogical table, p. 1263.
  25. ^ a b Garland (1999), pp. 126, 128
  26. ^ a b c ODB, "Lekapenos" (A. Kazhdan), pp. 1203–1204.
  27. ^ Charanis (1963), p. 35.

Bibliography

Primary sources

  • Psellus, Michael (1979). Chronographia. Penguin classics (E.R.A. Sewter ed.). London: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-044169-7.
  • Skylitzes, John (1973) [1060]. Synopsis historiarum. Corpus Fontium Historiae Byzantinae V (Hans Thurn ed.). Berlin-New York: De Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-002285-8.

Secondary sources

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Konstantinos VIII.
Constantine VIII
Born: 960 Died: 11 November 1028
Regnal titles
Preceded by Byzantine emperor
962–1028
with Romanos II (962–963)
with Nikephoros II Phokas (963–969)
with John I Tzimiskes (969–976)
with Basil II (962–1025) 		Succeeded by
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