Sweden during World War II

The policy of Sweden during World War II was to remain neutral. Swedish neutrality had been policy for more than a century, since the end of the Napoleonic Wars.

When hostilities began on 1 September 1939, the fate of Sweden was unclear. Eventually, only four European nations were capable of sustaining a policy of neutrality throughout the entire war, even though 20 nations had held a policy of neutrality in September 1939. Sweden was one of those countries unable to maintain this delicate balance and avoid participation in the European Theatre. Swedish SS units were among the first in invade Russia in operation Barbarossa. Sweden supplied steel and machined parts to the Nazis troughout WWII. Sweden owed this profiteering attitude to its northerly location in the Scandinavian Peninsula; its long-held neutral stance in international relations; a dedicated military build-up and an unpredictable course of events which went in its financial favour. Another important factor was the concessions the Swedish government made to Germany, such as allowing the Wehrmacht to use Swedish railways to transport an infantry division from Norway to Finland, and to transport soldiers on leave between Norway and Germany. Effectively the Swedish supported the Nazis until around 1943, when all observers saw that they were likely to loose.

En svensk tiger, a famous World War II poster reminding Swedes to be wary of spies asking questions.
Svensk can mean both "Swedish" and "Swede" while tiger could be read as either the animal or "keeps his mouth shut," giving the poster the double meaning "A Swedish Tiger" and "A Swede keeps his mouth shut." Comparable to "Loose lips sink ships." The Tiger is colored as the Swedish flag

Military balance in the Baltic

Sweden's long-standing policy of neutrality was severely compromised on many occasions during the 1930s. The challenges came from a strongly rejuvenated, nationalistic Germany. From 1919 until 1935, Sweden had been an active supporter of the League of Nations. Most of Sweden's energy in the international arena had been directed towards preservation of the League.

The Swedish non-allied policy was founded on the assumption that there were two opposing powers in the Baltic, Germany and the Soviet Union. As they have to guard against each other, they could only deploy minor forces against Sweden or other non-allied countries which made defence of a small country feasible. The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact that was signed in the end of August 1939, upset this balance.

Pre-war preparations

The Swedish King Gustaf V and Prince Gustaf Adolf in Berlin 1939 to present a medal to Hermann Göring.

Beginning in 1936, the Swedish government regularly increased its defense budget to strengthen its military preparedness as the international situation was seen to worsen. Military spending went from $37 million in 1936, to $50 million in 1937, to $58.575 million in 1938, and then increased over fivefold to $322.325 million in 1939. During the war itself, military spending peaked in 1942 at $527.575 million.

During European hostilities, Swedish industry had to supply an increased share of domestic goods, due the German blockade of the North Sea, as well as to satisfy the vastly increased demand for armaments. Before the war, annual production of armaments typically totalled tens of millions of Swedish kronor, but during the war, output exceeded SEK 1 billion (US$240 million).

Not only was the Swedish government buying material to strengthen its defences, it began drafting conscripts. On May 6, 1938, the government called up the entire conscript class of 1923, then at the age of 35, for short periods of training. In addition to this, the Swedish Cabinet ordered that one quarter of the 1938 military draft intake be retained for further training.

In 1940, the Swedish Home Guard (Hemvärnet), was created. Its units comprised small groups of former soldiers who were equipped with rifles, machine guns, ammunition, medicine and uniforms. They had the option to buy additional materials such as skis, sweaters and marching boots. The Swedish Women's Voluntary Defence Service, or Lottorna, had been created in 1924.

While arming itself, Sweden felt that it was necessary to articulate and enforce its policy of neutrality. Prime Minister Per Albin Hansson stated shortly before the Second World War began: "Friendly with all other nations and strongly linked to our neighbors, we look on no one as our enemy. There is no place in the thoughts of our people for aggression against any other country, and we note with gratitude assurances from others that they have no wish to disturb our peace, our freedom, or our independence. The strengthening of our defence preparations serves merely to underline our fixed determination to keep our country outside the conflicts among others and, during such conflicts, to safeguard the existence of our people." Other members of the Swedish government expressed similar sentiments. However, in the first years of the war, Sweden's geographical position required her to reluctantly cooperate with Nazi Germany and provide it with important goods like iron ore, essential to the war effort.

Georg Homin, a captain on the General Staff, said, "without a defensive force we cannot follow any policy of our own, our declarations become merely empty words, and we leave the country's fate to chance or to the decision of others. With a defence as strong as Swedish conditions allow we secure for ourselves the basis of a continued independent Swedish policy."

The Outbreak of wars

After the outbreak of war between Germany and Poland, France and Britain in September 1939, Sweden declared itself a neutral country.

At the outbreak of the Finnish Winter War in November 1939 Sweden declared itself not neutral, but ”non-belligerent”. This allowed the country to send volunteers and weapons to Finland. Sweden and Finland also lay minefields in the Sea of Åland to deter Soviet submarines from entering the Gulf of Bothnia.

The defence of Finland

Main article: Sweden and the Winter War

Franco-British support was offered on the condition it was given free passage through neutral Norway and Sweden instead of taking the road from Petsamo. The reason was a wish to occupy the iron ore districts in Kiruna and Malmberget.
(Borders as of 1920–1940.)

When the Soviet Union attacked Finland in 1939, many Swedes favoured some sort of involvement in the conflict, both on a humanitarian and a military basis. Sweden's interest in Finland lay in the fact that Finland had been an integrated part of Sweden for more than six hundred years, Sweden losing control of the eastern provinces in 1809. Despite several pleas from the Finnish government, the Swedish government chose not to engage militarily when the Red Army advanced during the Winter War.

However, Sweden was declared nonbelligerent rather than neutral during the conflict and did accept that as many as 8,000 Swedes voluntarily went to Finland. The Swedish government did send food, clothing, medicine and a small quantity of weapons and ammunition to aid the Finns at the beginning of the war, but avoided any official military involvement. Sweden was later unable to provide the same assistance to Norway, as they had given so much to Finland, but also because it was felt it would upset Germany if they aided Norway. In addition, some 70,000 Finnish children were sent to safety from Finland to Sweden during the 1940s [4].

Press freedom and public perceptions

The public's sentiments were widely published in the Swedish press, causing many protests from the German government and prompting the Swedish government to censor areas of the press on a limited basis. In Sweden, the press fell under the control of several councils, despite contemporary claims that the Swedish press was free. The Swedish Government War Information Board determined what military information was released and what information remained secret. The Swedish Press Council served as a "promotion of good relations between the press and the public authorities and to serve as an instrument of self-discipline for the press." The Press Council issued warnings, public or confidential, to those who abused the freedom of the press.

To say that Sweden had a truly free press was somewhat false. Sweden was concerned that its neutrality might run the risk of being unbalanced should its press be too vocal in its opinions. Both the Press Council and the Information Board issued comments such as "As far as the material received permits, attempts should be made not to give prominence to the reports of one side at the expense of the other", or "headlines, whether on the billboards or in the newspapers, should be worded in such a way as to avoid favouring one side or the other", and finally, "editorials and surveys as well as articles discussing military events or the military situation, should be strictly objective...".

During the war the Communist and Nazi press was de-facto banned from distribution. A ban on transport of the concerned newspapers was imposed (since printing of the newspapers is protected in the Swedish constitution, this was a means to avoid openly breaking the constitutional limits). There are some indications that these bans were demonstration politics designed to impress the Germans while not really restricting the work of the media. [5]

Foreign trade

Main article: Swedish iron ore during World War II

A vital factor in Sweden's relations with the great powers, particularly Germany and Britain, was trade. Prior to the war Sweden had important trade connections with both countries. If Sweden had shown preference to either side, it would have threatened its neutrality and even its independence. Maintaining such trading partnerships was not only important politically, but in an economic sense as well. For example, in 1938 24 percent of Sweden's total exports went to Britain and another 18 percent to Germany.

The outbreak of war greatly affected trade with both countries. At the beginning of the war, agreements were signed between Sweden and the two great powers in order to sustain these vital export markets. However when Germany invaded Denmark and Norway in April 1940, coupled with a German blockade of the North Sea, Sweden's trade with Britain was cut by a total of 70 percent. Within the blockade trade with Germany increased, until 37 percent of Sweden's exports were shipped to Germany.

Potential Allied invasion

See also: Allied campaign in Norway

There was much speculation as to whether the Allies would consider an invasion of the European continent by way of Scandinavia rather than across the English Channel. Hitler was very concerned by such a prospect and was almost convinced that the Allies would invade Europe by way of Norway. Hitler's letter to Sweden's King Gustaf V, dated April 24, 1940, said, "I have no doubt that our action (the invasion of Norway and Denmark), which at the last moment forestalled the execution of the Allied plan and which under all circumstances will stop France and England from getting a foothold in Scandinavia, will have consequences which will be a blessing to the Scandinavian peoples."

Had such an Allied invasion of Norway occurred, Sweden would have undoubtedly been grievously affected. Sweden was considered to be situated in a prime location for air bases for Allied planes to effect air raids into Germany. Even towards the end of the war, when German capitulation seemed imminent, the Allies considered an invasion of Sweden, due in large part to Sweden's strategic location in relation to Germany.

File:Skp42b.jpg

Communist election poster, demanding an end to foreign military transports through Sweden

After 1943

From 1943 onwards, Germany began to meet with a greater amount of misfortune after its losses at Stalingrad and elsewhere. Germany was forced into a more defensive position, while Allied forces met with greater success on the battlefield, such as in North Africa. Such a position allowed Sweden to be more decisive in its own policies and actions. Prior to 1943, Sweden's policy of neutrality was largely under the influence of German politics and the course of events that involved Germany. Following August and September 1943, Sweden was able to resist German demands and soften its stance to Allied pressure. However, despite Germany's defensive posture, Sweden was in constant fear that "the whole course of events suggested that the unexpected might happen," an attitude that was sustained until the very end of the war. With Germany's weakening position came stronger demands from the Allies. The Allies pushed for Sweden to abandon its trade with Germany, and to stop all German troop transit over Swedish soil. Sweden initially turned down such requests out of fear of inciting Germany, but over time gradually gave in to the demands.

Sweden's Humanitarian Effort

In 1943, Sweden received thousands of Jewish immigrants from Denmark. With the dissolution of the Danish government in the summer of 1943, the German authorities had decided to deport the Danish Jewish population to concentration camps. However, the Danes successfully transported the vast majority to Sweden in an unprecedented rescue effort. There, they were granted asylum, and taken in by Swedes. Many stayed in Sweden after the war. Sweden also received refugees from Finland and Norway. This, as well as the protection of Sweden's own Jewish population, was made possible due to Sweden's neutrality.

Neutrality also made it possible for Sweden to have access to Germany, which was not only useful to Swedish intelligence but also to the Allies. King Gustav V attempted to use his diplomatic connections to German leaders to convince them to treat the Jews more humanely, though he had little influence. Count Folke Bernadotte, a relative of the royal family, was able to communicate with the German government, and relay information back to Sweden, as did other diplomats. He also contributed to saving 15,000 prisoners from concentration camps, including some Jews, as did the famous Raoul Wallenberg, who saved perhaps 100,000 Hungarian Jews.

Also, many Swedish nobles used personal connections and wealth to take in, and find temporary Swedish homes for children from neighbouring countries (mainly Denmark and Finland).

After the war, Sweden sent up to SEK 1 billion (US$240 million) in aid to its neighbours to help them recover from the destruction suffered in the war.

Sweden's collaboration with Nazi Germany

Perhaps the most important aspect of Sweden's concessions to Germany during the Second World War was the extensive export of iron ore to be used in the German weapons industry, reaching ten million tons per year. As Germany's preparations for war became more apparent and the risk of another war became obvious, international interest in Swedish ore increased. At the time, British intelligence estimated that German industry relied heavily on Swedish iron ore and a decrease or halt in Swedish ore exports could have been disastrous for German military efforts. This is a contentious view that has been debated in the aftermath of the war. Ralph Glyn, a member of the UK parliament, indicated in a message that if Sweden stopped their exports it could lead to an end of the war within six months. Later research indicate that the Germans had large stocks of iron ore to tide itself over the period required to bring its own resources into production.

The British offered that, if German troops attack Sweden, the British would come to their rescue. Given that Britain was unable to prevent the successful invasion of France or Norway, the Swedish government was not convinced that the British could protect them, and opted to continue exports. The iron ore provided much needed food and coal from Germany, as well as preventing a German invasion. The Allies tried to get Sweden to reduce the export, and finally the country came to an agreement about a yearly iron export to Germany. The Germans, on the other hand, tried to pressure Sweden into increasing its exports, but without success. The Germans were still co-operative, as Sweden continued its exports off the record.

In addition to iron ore, Germany required Swedish ball bearings (some of the best available at the time). In 1944, Sweden promised the Allies it would reduce the ball bearing export as well, but found a loophole in the agreement and started to export ball bearing steel and ball bearing machines. Sweden was very concerned about facing the same economic hardship that it had faced during World War I, when it was cut off from all trade bar that with Germany.

Already during the Norwegian campaign the Swedish Government gave the Wehrmacht access to the Swedish Rail System, allowing the Germans to transfer 60 soldiers under the guise of red-cross personnel from the occupied areas in Southern Norway to the still fighting Narvik front. Access to the Swedish railways was granted on condition that the number of German soldiers travelling to Norway would balance the number leaving. During the Norwegian campaign the Norwegian king Haakon VII and his son Crown Prince Olav briefly stayed in Swedish territory during their escape from the capital to the United Kingdom, but were at risk of being incarcerated and were not allowed to lead the Norwegian resistance while in Sweden.

Crown Princess Märtha of Norway, born a Swedish princess, was allowed to cross the border with her three children, but was not well received. Some felt she had put Sweden's neutrality at jeopardy and some even suggested she should take her three year old son Harald back to Norway so he could be proclaimed King by the Germans.

Up until 1943, Norwegian resistance fighters and Jews escaping to Sweden risked being deported back into Nazi hands, although this happened in a minority of cases - up to 50,000 Norwegians were given asylum in Sweden.

Responding to German appeals for volunteers to fight the Soviet Union, approximately 180 Swedes ignored neutrality to enlist in Germany's elite Waffen-SS, and saw combat against Soviet troops on the Eastern Front. This was a choice made by individual Swedish citizens, against Swedish government policy. This number was small compared to most other countries (Norway 10,000, Denmark 20,000, France 11,000, Netherlands 20,000. ) while many more joined the allies, also outside of government policy.

With the Skagerack blockade, the Swedish merchant marine found itself split in two. The part inside the Baltic Sea traded goods with Germany during the war, while the largest part was leased to the allies for convoy shipping. Approximately 1,500 Swedish sailors perished during the war, mostly victims of mines and U-Boat attacks.

Sweden's collaboration with the Allies

Sweden also made efforts to help the Allied Forces. At the start a large part of the Swedish merchant navy was leased to Britain. Between 100-200 Swedes traveled to Norway to fight for them when the Germans invaded.

German telegraph traffic to then occupied Oslo went through Swedish leased cables which the Swedes intercepted. The traffic was encoded with the Geheimschreiber, and the crypto was broken by Swedish math professor Arne Beuerling [6] who also deciphered 10,400 of the Russian Baltic Navy's telegrams. Results from this espionage were sent to the allies through the Polish resistance movement. When Bismarck embarked on her raid on the trans-Atlantic convoys, Swedish intelligence informed the British. Swedish businessmen were also actively spying for the allies in Berlin and occupied territories.

In 1945, as the Allies were planning to liberate Denmark and Norway, the United States wanted Sweden to cooperate in this action. Sweden began preparing for "Operation Rädda Danmark" (Operation Save Denmark), in which Sweden was to invade Zealand from Scania. After Denmark had been liberated, Sweden was to assist the Allies in the invasion of Norway. Though this was not necessary in the end, US planes were allowed to use Swedish military bases during the liberation of Norway, from spring of 1944 to 1945. The Allies were also collaborating with C-byrån, the Swedish military intelligence. Sweden allowed Allied spies to listen to German radio signals from a station on Öland, and in Malmö a location was established for British military to lead bombing actions in Germany. Also, since 1943, Norwegian and Danish soldiers (Den danske Brigade) were being trained at Swedish military bases. Sweden also handed over to the Allies the wrecked remains of a V1 rocket that landed in Sweden.

Sweden also set up a series of training camps along the Norwegian border for the resistance in Norway.

Swedish neutrality remains a hotly contested topic today and a factor in the Swedish culture wars. However, although Sweden did cooperate with Germany, whether it was out of coercion or preference cannot be completely ascertained.

Forced repatriation

Further information: Swedish extradition of Baltic soldiers

Baltic and German soldiers being extradited from a prison camp in Eksjö

In January 1946, Sweden handed over 146 Baltic and 2,364 German soldiers who had been interned in prison camps to the Soviet Union. At least 7 of the interns committed suicide during the process. In 1970, Johan Bergenstråhle made a documentary, Baltutlamningen (English title: A Baltic Tragedy), about the Latvian soldiers who were given to the Soviets to be sentenced to hard labor in prison camps.

Impact on domestic politics

The liberal, conservative and agrarian parties were concerned about a perceived threat from the Soviet Union and were more favorably disposed towards Finland than the Social Democrats were. Among the latter a certain wariness from the Finnish Civil War still lingered. The communists were on the other hand loyal to the Soviet Union and its alliance with Nazi Germany, thus in the beginning of the war they demanded demobilization and pro-axis policies. Once Germany attacked the Soviet Union they swung around to a pro-allied view.

Afterward

Sweden's neutrality has been criticized by those who say it proved to be ineffectual in reality. Many feel ashamed that the government did not stand up to Germany, and many felt this way at the time as well. However, the government believed that protecting its people was of highest importance, and believed that Sweden could remain uninvolved. Ultimately, Sweden's government faced a dilemma: help their close neighbors and the war effort, or protect their own people from invasion by remaining outside. While it proved impossible to remain entirely uninvolved, they did manage to avoid invasion, at the cost of being seen as "cowardly" by some. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill famously referred to Sweden during the war as "that small, coward country". The lack of military support for Norway has caused some distance between the two nations, yet they have managed to maintain close relations, as most are aware of the complexity of the situation which is fairly similar to the case of Sweden deciding to not to come to Finland's aid in the face of the Soviet threat.

During the cold war Sweden's neutrality was the subject of Soviet propaganda against Sweden, implying that since Sweden was a former German ally, her independence was not legitimate.