Sword and sorcery: Difference between revisions

Content deleted Content added

Inline

Revision as of 21:47, 13 November 2015

Sword and sorcery (S&S) is a subgenre of fantasy generally characterized by sword-wielding heroes engaged in exciting and violent conflicts. An element of romance is often present, as is an element of magic and the supernatural. Unlike works of high fantasy, the tales, though dramatic, focus mainly on personal battles rather than world-endangering matters.^[1] Sword and sorcery commonly overlaps with heroic fantasy.^[2]

A film genre tangentially related to sword and sorcery, at least in name, is sword-and-sandal, though its subjects are generally oriented to biblical times and early history, instead of fantasy. Not to be confused with cloak and dagger or cloak and sword, which are alternate genres.

Origin

The term "sword and sorcery" was first coined in 1961 when the British author Michael Moorcock published a letter in the fanzine Amra, demanding a name for the sort of fantasy-adventure story written by Robert E. Howard.^{[citation needed]} He had initially proposed the term "epic fantasy". However, the celebrated American sword-and-sorcery author Fritz Leiber replied in the journal Ancalagon (6 April 1961) suggesting, "sword-and-sorcery as a good popular catchphrase for the field". He expanded on this in the July 1961 issue of Amra, commenting:

I feel more certain than ever that this field should be called the sword-and-sorcery story. This accurately describes the points of culture-level and supernatural element and also immediately distinguishes it from the cloak-and-sword (historical adventure) story—and (quite incidentally) from the cloak-and-dagger (international espionage) story too!
—Fritz Leiber, Amra, July 1961

Though not explicitly mentioned in Leiber's letter, the originally Italian film genre known as "sword and sandal", depicting heroic adventures in settings derived from the Bible or Greek mythology, was at the peak of its popularity in the US at the time when the letter was written.

Since its inception, many attempts have been made to redefine precisely what "sword and sorcery" is. Although many have debated the finer points, the consensus characterizes it by a strong bias toward fast-paced, action-rich tales set within a quasi-mythical or fantastical framework. Unlike high fantasy, the stakes in sword and sorcery tend to be personal, the danger confined to the moment of telling.^[3] Settings are typically exotic, and protagonists often morally compromised.^[4]

Many sword and sorcery tales have been turned into a lengthy series of adventures. Their lower stakes and less-than world-threatening dangers make this more plausible than a repetition of the perils of epic fantasy. So too does the nature of the heroes; most sword-and-sorcery protagonists, travellers by nature, find peace after adventure deathly dull.^[5] At one extreme, the heroes of E. R. Eddison's The Worm Ouroboros grieve for the end of the war and that they have no more foes equal to those they defeated; in answer to their prayers, the gods restore the enemy city so that they can fight the same war over again.^[6]

Sources

The subgenre has old roots. Ultimately, like much fantasy, it draws from mythology and classical epics such as Homer's Odyssey and the Norse sagas.^{[citation needed]}

It is also influenced by historical fiction, begun by Sir Walter Scott, under the influence of romantic collection of folklore and ballads.^[7] However, very few of his works contain fantastic elements; in most, the appearance of such is explained away,^[8] but in its themes of adventure in a strange society, this led to the adventures set in foreign lands by H. Rider Haggard and Edgar Rice Burroughs.^[9] Haggard's works included many fantastic elements.^[10]

However, sword and sorcery's immediate progenitors are the swashbuckling tales of Alexandre Dumas, père (The Three Musketeers (1844), etc.), Rafael Sabatini (Scaramouche (1921), etc.) and their pulp magazine imitators, such as Talbot Mundy, Harold Lamb, and H. Bedford-Jones, who all influenced Robert E. Howard.^[11] However, these historical "swashbucklers" lack the truly supernatural element (even though Dumas' fiction contained many fantasy tropes).^[12] Another influence was early fantasy fiction such as Lord Dunsany's "The Fortress Unvanquishable, Save for Sacnoth" (1910) and A. Merritt's The Ship of Ishtar (1924).^[13] All of these authors influenced sword and sorcery for the plots, characters, and landscapes used.^[14]

In addition, many early sword and sorcery writers, such as Robert E. Howard and Clark Ashton Smith, were heavily influenced by the Middle Eastern tales of the Arabian Nights, whose stories of magical monsters and evil sorcerers were a major influence on the genre-to-be.^{[citation needed]}

It can also be noted that in its frequent depictions of smoky taverns and smelly back alleys, sword and sorcery draws upon the picaresque genre;^{[original research?]} for example, Fritz Leiber's city of Lankhmar bears considerable similarity to 16th century Seville as depicted in Cervantes' tale Rinconete y Cortadillo.

Sword and sorcery proper only truly began in the pulp fantasy magazines, where it emerged from "weird fiction."^[15] Particularly important was the magazine Weird Tales, which published Howard's Conan stories and C. L. Moore's Jirel of Joiry tales, as well as such important S&S influences as Lovecraft and Clark Ashton Smith.^{[citation needed]}

Seminal works

The genre has been defined, strongly, by the work of Robert E. Howard, particularly his tales of Conan the Barbarian and Kull of Atlantis, mostly in Weird Tales from 1932 and 1929 respectively.^[16]^[17]

Other books and series that define the genre of sword-and-sorcery include:

Clark Ashton Smith's Zothique and Hyperborean tales, beginning with "The Empire of the Necromancers" and The Tale of Satampra Zeiros in 1932 and 1931 respectively.
C. L. Moore's Jirel of Joiry tales, beginning with "Black God's Kiss" (1934), which introduced the first notable sword and sorcery heroine.^[18]
Fritz Leiber's Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser sequence, beginning with "Two Sought Adventure" (1939).
Michael Moorcock's Elric sequence, beginning with The Dreaming City (published in Science Fantasy 1961), notable for its adherence to counterstereotype.
L. Sprague de Camp's Swords and Sorcery the first sword and sorcery anthology, Pyramid Books, December 1963.
Karl Edward Wagner's Kane novels, beginning with Darkness Weaves (1970), credited with reinvigorating the genre.^[19]
Robert Lynn Asprin's Thieves' World, a series of shared world anthologies first created in 1978.
Samuel R. Delany's Return to Nevèrÿon (series), a series of three story collections and one novel influenced by critical theory, published from 1979 to 1987.
Charles Saunders' Imaro novels, beginning with Imaro (1981), a collection of short stories first published in the seventies for Dark Fantasy fanzine. Notable for being the first notable black sword and sorcery protagonist.

Other pulp fantasy fiction — such as Edgar Rice Burroughs' Barsoom series and Leigh Brackett's Sea Kings of Mars — have a similar feel to sword and sorcery, but, because alien science replaces the supernatural, it is usually described as planetary romance or sword and planet, and considered to fall more in the area of science fiction.^[20] Despite this, planetary romance is closely aligned with sword and sorcery, and the work of Burroughs, Brackett, and others in the former field have been significant in creating and spreading S&S proper.^[21] Sword and sorcery itself has often blurred the lines between fantasy and science fiction, drawing elements from both like the "weird fiction" it sprang from.^[22]

Revival

From the 1960s up till the 1980s, under the guiding force of Lin Carter, a select group of writers formed the Swordsmen and Sorcerers' Guild of America (SAGA) to promote and enlarge the sword and sorcery genre. From 1973 to 1981 five anthologies featuring short works by SAGA members were published: edited by Carter, these were collectively known as Flashing Swords!. Because of these and other anthologies (such as the Ballantine Adult Fantasy series), his own fiction, and his criticism, Carter is considered one of the most important popularizers of genre fantasy in general, and S&S in particular.^[23]

Another notable sword and sorcery anthology series that ran from 1977 through 1979 was called "Swords Against Darkness" (Zebra Books), and was edited by Andrew J. Offutt. This series ran to five volumes and featured stories by such authors as Poul Anderson, David Drake, Ramsey Campbell, Andre Norton, and Manly Wade Wellman.

Despite such authors' best efforts, sword and sorcery has more colloquially come to be known as a catch-all phrase for low grade, derivative fantasy as well as fiction written in such universes.^{[citation needed]} During the 1980s, influenced by the success of the 1982 feature film Conan the Barbarian many cheaply made fantasy films were released that came to be derisively known as "Sword & Sorcery". The term is sometimes used in a derogatory manner by writers and readers of the fantasy genre.

After the boom of the early 1980s, sword and sorcery once again dropped out of favor, with epic fantasy largely taking its place in the fantasy genre. However, the end of the 20th century saw another resurgence of S&S. Sometimes called the "new" or "literary" sword and sorcery, this development places emphasis on literary technique, and draws from epic fantasy and other genres to broaden the typical scope of S&S. Stories may feature the wide-ranging struggles national or world-spanning concerns common to high fantasy, but told from the point of view of characters more common to S&S and with the sense of adventure common to the latter. Writers associated with this include Steven Erikson, Joe Abercrombie, and Scott Lynch, and magazines such as Black Gate and the ezines Flashing Swords (not to be confused with the Lin Carter anthologies) and Beneath Ceaseless Skies publish short fiction in the style.^[24] These authors and editors are attempting to return the genre to the status it enjoyed during the pulp era of the twenties and thirties.^{[citation needed]}

Women creators and characters

Despite the importance of C. L. Moore, Leigh Brackett, Andre Norton, and other female authors, as well as Moore's early heroine, sword and sorcery has been characterized as having a strongly masculine bias. Female characters were generally distressed damsels to be rescued or protected, or otherwise served as an inducement or reward for a male hero's adventures. Women who had adventures of their own often did so to counter the threat of rape, or to gain revenge for same.^[25]^[22] Marion Zimmer Bradley's Sword and Sorceress anthology series (1984 onwards) attempted the reverse. Bradley encouraged female writers and protagonists: the stories feature skillful swordswomen and powerful sorceresses, working from a variety of motives.^[26]^[27] The series was immensely popular and Bradley was editing her final volume at the time of her death (the series continued under other editors). Jessica Amanda Salmonson similarly sought to broaden the range of roles for female characters in S&S through both her own stories and in editing the World Fantasy Award-winning^[28] Amazons (1979) and Amazons II (1982) anthologies; both drew on real and folkloric women warriors, often from areas outside of Europe.^[29]^[30] Today, active female characters who participate equally with the male heroes in the stories are a regular feature in modern sword and sorcery stories.^{[citation needed]}

Early sword and sorcery writer Robert E. Howard had feminist views despite his era and location, which he espoused in both personal and professional life. Howard wrote to his friends and associates defending the achievements and capabilities of women.^[31]^[32] Strong female characters in Howard's works of fiction include the protofeminist Dark Agnes de Chastillon (first appearing in "Sword Woman", circa 1932–34); the early modern pirate Helen Tavrel ("The Isle of Pirates' Doom", 1928), as well as two pirates and Conan the Barbarian supporting characters, Bêlit ("Queen of the Black Coast", 1934) and Valeria of the Red Brotherhood ("Red Nails", 1936).^[33]

Introduced as a minor character in a non-fantasy historical story by Howard, "The Shadow of the Vulture", Red Sonya of Rogatino would later inspire a fantasy heroine named Red Sonja, who first appeared in the comic book series Conan the Barbarian written by Roy Thomas and illustrated by Barry Windsor-Smith.^{[citation needed]} Red Sonja received her own comic book title and eventually a series of novels by David C. Smith and Richard L. Tierney, as well as Richard Fleischer's unsuccessful film adaptation in 1985.^{[citation needed]}

References

^ "The Demarcation of Sword and Sorcery". Black Gate. Retrieved 13 November 2015.
^ Clute, John; Grant, John; Ashley, Mike; Hartwell, David G.; Westfahl, Gary (1999). The Encyclopedia of Fantasy (1st St. Martin's Griffin ed.). New York: St. Martin's Griffin. p. 464. ISBN 0-312-19869-8.
^ Martin, Philip (2002). The Writer's Guide to Fantasy Literature: From Dragon's Lair to Hero's Quest: how to Write Fantasy Stories of Lasting Value (1st ed.). Waukesha, WI: Writer Books. p. 35. ISBN 0-87116-195-8.
^ Strahan, Jonathan; Anders, Lou (2010). Swords & Dark Magic: The New Sword and Sorcery (1st ed.). New York: Eos. p. xi. ISBN 978-0-06-172381-0.
^ Martin, Philip (2002). The Writer's Guide to Fantasy Literature: From Dragon's Lair to Hero's Quest: how to Write Fantasy Stories of Lasting Value (1st ed.). Waukesha, WI: Writer Books. p. 37. ISBN 0-87116-195-8.
^ Camp, L. Sprague de (1976). Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers: The Makers of Heroic Fantasy. Sauk City, Wis.: Arkham House. p. 116. ISBN 0-87054-076-9.
^ Moorcock, Michael (2004). Wizardry & Wild Romance: A Study of Epic Fantasy (rev. ed.). Austin, Tex.: MonkeyBrain. p. 79. ISBN 1-932265-07-4.
^ Clute, John; Grant, John; Ashley, Mike; Hartwell, David G.; Westfahl, Gary (1999). The Encyclopedia of Fantasy (1st St. Martin's Griffin ed.). New York: St. Martin's Griffin. p. 845. ISBN 0-312-19869-8.
^ Moorcock, Michael (2004). Wizardry & Wild Romance: A Study of Epic Fantasy (rev. ed.). Austin, Tex.: MonkeyBrain. p. 80-81. ISBN 1-932265-07-4.
^ Clute, John; Grant, John; Ashley, Mike; Hartwell, David G.; Westfahl, Gary (1999). The Encyclopedia of Fantasy (1st St. Martin's Griffin ed.). New York: St. Martin's Griffin. pp. 444–445. ISBN 0-312-19869-8.
^ Pringle, David; Pratchett, Terry (2007). The Ultimate Encyclopedia of Fantasy. North Sydney, N.S.W.: Random House Australia. p. 34. ISBN 9781741665826.
^ Clute, John; Grant, John; Ashley, Mike; Hartwell, David G.; Westfahl, Gary (1999). The Encyclopedia of Fantasy (1st St. Martin's Griffin ed.). New York: St. Martin's Griffin. p. 300. ISBN 0-312-19869-8.
^ [1]^{[dead link]}
^ Moorcock, Michael (2004). Wizardry & Wild Romance: A Study of Epic Fantasy (rev. ed.). Austin, Tex.: MonkeyBrain. p. 82. ISBN 1-932265-07-4.
^ Stiles, Paula R. (November 2011). "Tales From the Brass Bikini: Feminist Sword and Sorcery". Broad Universe. Retrieved 20 June 2012.
^ Waggoner, Diana (1978). The Hills of Faraway: A Guide to Fantasy. New York: Atheneum. pp. 47–48. ISBN 0-689-10846-X.
^ Howard, Robert E.; Sweet, Justin (2006). Kull: Exile of Atlantis. New York: Del Rey. p. xix. ISBN 0-345-49017-7.
^ Clute, John; Grant, John; Ashley, Mike; Hartwell, David G.; Westfahl, Gary (1999). The Encyclopedia of Fantasy (1st St. Martin's Griffin ed.). New York: St. Martin's Griffin. p. 661. ISBN 0-312-19869-8.
^ Clute, John; Grant, John; Ashley, Mike; Hartwell, David G.; Westfahl, Gary (1999). The Encyclopedia of Fantasy (1st St. Martin's Griffin ed.). New York: St. Martin's Griffin. p. 990. ISBN 0-312-19869-8.
^ Clute, John; Grant, John; Ashley, Mike; Hartwell, David G.; Westfahl, Gary (1999). The Encyclopedia of Fantasy (1st St. Martin's Griffin ed.). New York: St. Martin's Griffin. p. 152. ISBN 0-312-19869-8.
^ Clute, John; Grant, John; Ashley, Mike; Hartwell, David G.; Westfahl, Gary (1999). The Encyclopedia of Fantasy (1st St. Martin's Griffin ed.). New York: St. Martin's Griffin. p. 915. ISBN 0-312-19869-8.
^ ^a ^b Stiles. "Tales From the Brass Bikini". Retrieved 20 June 2012.
^ Clute, John; Grant, John; Ashley, Mike; Hartwell, David G.; Westfahl, Gary (1999). The Encyclopedia of Fantasy (1st St. Martin's Griffin ed.). New York: St. Martin's Griffin. p. 171. ISBN 0-312-19869-8.
^ [2]^{[dead link]}
^ Bradley, Marion Zimmer (1984). Sword and Sorceress. New York: DAW Books. p. 11. ISBN 0-87997-928-3.
^ Strahan, Jonathan; Anders, Lou (2010). Swords & Dark Magic: The New Sword and Sorcery (1st ed.). New York: Eos. p. xvii. ISBN 978-0-06-172381-0.
^ Bradley, Marion Zimmer (2001). Sword and Sorceress XVII. New York, NY: DAW Books. pp. 9–13. ISBN 0886779960.
^ "1980 World Fantasy Award Winners and Nominees". World Fantasy Convention. World Fantasy Board. Retrieved 18 June 2012.
^ Salmonson, Jessica Amanda (1982). Amazons II. New York: DAW Books. pp. 7–19. ISBN 0-87997-736-1.
^ Clute, John; Grant, John; Ashley, Mike; Hartwell, David G.; Westfahl, Gary (1999). The Encyclopedia of Fantasy (1st St. Martin's Griffin ed.). New York: St. Martin's Griffin. p. 832. ISBN 0-312-19869-8.
^ Finn, Mark (2006). Blood & Thunder: The Life & Art of Robert E. Howard. Austin, Tex.: MonkeyBrain Books. p. 141. ISBN 1-932265-21-X.
^ [3]^{[dead link]}
^ Finn, Mark (2006). Blood & Thunder: The Life & Art of Robert E. Howard. Austin, Tex.: MonkeyBrain Books. p. 186-187. ISBN 1-932265-21-X.

External links

Oxford English Dictionary citations for Sword and Sorcery.

[1] "The Demarcation of Sword and Sorcery". Black Gate. Retrieved 13 November 2015.

[2] Clute, John; Grant, John; Ashley, Mike; Hartwell, David G.; Westfahl, Gary (1999). The Encyclopedia of Fantasy (1st St. Martin's Griffin ed.). New York: St. Martin's Griffin. p. 464. ISBN 0-312-19869-8.

[3] Martin, Philip (2002). The Writer's Guide to Fantasy Literature: From Dragon's Lair to Hero's Quest: how to Write Fantasy Stories of Lasting Value (1st ed.). Waukesha, WI: Writer Books. p. 35. ISBN 0-87116-195-8.

[4] Strahan, Jonathan; Anders, Lou (2010). Swords & Dark Magic: The New Sword and Sorcery (1st ed.). New York: Eos. p. xi. ISBN 978-0-06-172381-0.

[5] Martin, Philip (2002). The Writer's Guide to Fantasy Literature: From Dragon's Lair to Hero's Quest: how to Write Fantasy Stories of Lasting Value (1st ed.). Waukesha, WI: Writer Books. p. 37. ISBN 0-87116-195-8.

[6] Camp, L. Sprague de (1976). Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers: The Makers of Heroic Fantasy. Sauk City, Wis.: Arkham House. p. 116. ISBN 0-87054-076-9.

[7] Moorcock, Michael (2004). Wizardry & Wild Romance: A Study of Epic Fantasy (rev. ed.). Austin, Tex.: MonkeyBrain. p. 79. ISBN 1-932265-07-4.

[8] Clute, John; Grant, John; Ashley, Mike; Hartwell, David G.; Westfahl, Gary (1999). The Encyclopedia of Fantasy (1st St. Martin's Griffin ed.). New York: St. Martin's Griffin. p. 845. ISBN 0-312-19869-8.

[9] Moorcock, Michael (2004). Wizardry & Wild Romance: A Study of Epic Fantasy (rev. ed.). Austin, Tex.: MonkeyBrain. p. 80-81. ISBN 1-932265-07-4.

[10] Clute, John; Grant, John; Ashley, Mike; Hartwell, David G.; Westfahl, Gary (1999). The Encyclopedia of Fantasy (1st St. Martin's Griffin ed.). New York: St. Martin's Griffin. pp. 444–445. ISBN 0-312-19869-8.

[11] Pringle, David; Pratchett, Terry (2007). The Ultimate Encyclopedia of Fantasy. North Sydney, N.S.W.: Random House Australia. p. 34. ISBN 9781741665826.

[12] Clute, John; Grant, John; Ashley, Mike; Hartwell, David G.; Westfahl, Gary (1999). The Encyclopedia of Fantasy (1st St. Martin's Griffin ed.). New York: St. Martin's Griffin. p. 300. ISBN 0-312-19869-8.

[13] [1]^{[dead link]}

[14] Moorcock, Michael (2004). Wizardry & Wild Romance: A Study of Epic Fantasy (rev. ed.). Austin, Tex.: MonkeyBrain. p. 82. ISBN 1-932265-07-4.

[15] Stiles, Paula R. (November 2011). "Tales From the Brass Bikini: Feminist Sword and Sorcery". Broad Universe. Retrieved 20 June 2012.

[16] Waggoner, Diana (1978). The Hills of Faraway: A Guide to Fantasy. New York: Atheneum. pp. 47–48. ISBN 0-689-10846-X.

[17] Howard, Robert E.; Sweet, Justin (2006). Kull: Exile of Atlantis. New York: Del Rey. p. xix. ISBN 0-345-49017-7.

[18] Clute, John; Grant, John; Ashley, Mike; Hartwell, David G.; Westfahl, Gary (1999). The Encyclopedia of Fantasy (1st St. Martin's Griffin ed.). New York: St. Martin's Griffin. p. 661. ISBN 0-312-19869-8.

[19] Clute, John; Grant, John; Ashley, Mike; Hartwell, David G.; Westfahl, Gary (1999). The Encyclopedia of Fantasy (1st St. Martin's Griffin ed.). New York: St. Martin's Griffin. p. 990. ISBN 0-312-19869-8.

[20] Clute, John; Grant, John; Ashley, Mike; Hartwell, David G.; Westfahl, Gary (1999). The Encyclopedia of Fantasy (1st St. Martin's Griffin ed.). New York: St. Martin's Griffin. p. 152. ISBN 0-312-19869-8.

[21] Clute, John; Grant, John; Ashley, Mike; Hartwell, David G.; Westfahl, Gary (1999). The Encyclopedia of Fantasy (1st St. Martin's Griffin ed.). New York: St. Martin's Griffin. p. 915. ISBN 0-312-19869-8.

[stiles1-22] Stiles. "Tales From the Brass Bikini". Retrieved 20 June 2012.

[23] Clute, John; Grant, John; Ashley, Mike; Hartwell, David G.; Westfahl, Gary (1999). The Encyclopedia of Fantasy (1st St. Martin's Griffin ed.). New York: St. Martin's Griffin. p. 171. ISBN 0-312-19869-8.

[24] [2]^{[dead link]}

[25] Bradley, Marion Zimmer (1984). Sword and Sorceress. New York: DAW Books. p. 11. ISBN 0-87997-928-3.

[26] Strahan, Jonathan; Anders, Lou (2010). Swords & Dark Magic: The New Sword and Sorcery (1st ed.). New York: Eos. p. xvii. ISBN 978-0-06-172381-0.

[27] Bradley, Marion Zimmer (2001). Sword and Sorceress XVII. New York, NY: DAW Books. pp. 9–13. ISBN 0886779960.

[28] "1980 World Fantasy Award Winners and Nominees". World Fantasy Convention. World Fantasy Board. Retrieved 18 June 2012.

[29] Salmonson, Jessica Amanda (1982). Amazons II. New York: DAW Books. pp. 7–19. ISBN 0-87997-736-1.

[30] Clute, John; Grant, John; Ashley, Mike; Hartwell, David G.; Westfahl, Gary (1999). The Encyclopedia of Fantasy (1st St. Martin's Griffin ed.). New York: St. Martin's Griffin. p. 832. ISBN 0-312-19869-8.

[31] Finn, Mark (2006). Blood & Thunder: The Life & Art of Robert E. Howard. Austin, Tex.: MonkeyBrain Books. p. 141. ISBN 1-932265-21-X.

[32] [3]^{[dead link]}

[33] Finn, Mark (2006). Blood & Thunder: The Life & Art of Robert E. Howard. Austin, Tex.: MonkeyBrain Books. p. 186-187. ISBN 1-932265-21-X.

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

[20]

[21]

[22]

[23]

[24]

[25]

[26]

[27]

[28]

[29]

[30]

[31]

[32]

[33]

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 {{two other uses|the subgenre|the line of role-playing products|Sword and Sorcery Studios|the video game|Superbrothers: Sword & Sworcery EP}}
-{{Copy edit}}
+{{Copy edit|date=November 2015}}
 {{Use dmy dates|date=October 2012}}
 {{Fantasy}}
@@ Line 20: / Line 20: @@
 ==Sources==
-{{Refimprove|section}}
+{{Refimprove|section|date=November 2015}}
-The subgenre has old roots. Ultimately, like much fantasy, it draws from mythology and classical epics such as [[Homer]]'s [[Odyssey]] and the [[Norse sagas]].{{Citation needed}}
+The subgenre has old roots. Ultimately, like much fantasy, it draws from mythology and classical epics such as [[Homer]]'s [[Odyssey]] and the [[Norse sagas]].{{Citation needed|date=November 2015}}
 It is also influenced by [[historical fiction]], begun by [[Sir Walter Scott]], under the influence of romantic collection of folklore and ballads.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Moorcock|first1=Michael|title=Wizardry & Wild Romance: A Study of Epic Fantasy|date=2004|publisher=MonkeyBrain|location=Austin, Tex.|isbn=1-932265-07-4|page=79|edition=rev.}}</ref> However, very few of his works contain fantastic elements; in most, the appearance of such is explained away,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Clute|first1=John|last2=Grant|first2=John|last3=Ashley|first3=Mike|last4=Hartwell|first4=David G.|last5=Westfahl|first5=Gary|title=The Encyclopedia of Fantasy|date=1999|publisher=St. Martin's Griffin|location=New York|isbn=0-312-19869-8|page=845|edition=1st St. Martin's Griffin}}</ref> but in its themes of adventure in a strange society, this led to the adventures set in foreign lands by [[H. Rider Haggard]] and [[Edgar Rice Burroughs]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Moorcock|first1=Michael|title=Wizardry & Wild Romance: A Study of Epic Fantasy|date=2004|publisher=MonkeyBrain|location=Austin, Tex.|isbn=1-932265-07-4|page=80-81|edition=rev.}}</ref> Haggard's works included many fantastic elements.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Clute|first1=John|last2=Grant|first2=John|last3=Ashley|first3=Mike|last4=Hartwell|first4=David G.|last5=Westfahl|first5=Gary|title=The Encyclopedia of Fantasy|date=1999|publisher=St. Martin's Griffin|location=New York|isbn=0-312-19869-8|pages=444-445|edition=1st St. Martin's Griffin}}</ref>
@@ Line 27: / Line 27: @@
 However, sword and sorcery's immediate progenitors are the [[swashbuckling]] tales of [[Alexandre Dumas, père]] (''[[The Three Musketeers]]'' (1844), etc.), [[Rafael Sabatini]] (''[[Scaramouche (novel)|Scaramouche]]'' (1921), etc.) and their [[pulp magazine]] imitators, such as [[Talbot Mundy]], [[Harold Lamb]], and [[H. Bedford-Jones]], who all influenced [[Robert E. Howard]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Pringle|first1=David|last2=Pratchett|first2=Terry|title=The Ultimate Encyclopedia of Fantasy|date=2007|publisher=Random House Australia|location=North Sydney, N.S.W.|isbn=9781741665826|page=34}}</ref> However, these historical "swashbucklers" lack the truly supernatural element (even though Dumas' fiction contained many [[fantasy tropes]]).<ref>{{cite book|last1=Clute|first1=John|last2=Grant|first2=John|last3=Ashley|first3=Mike|last4=Hartwell|first4=David G.|last5=Westfahl|first5=Gary|title=The Encyclopedia of Fantasy|date=1999|publisher=St. Martin's Griffin|location=New York|isbn=0-312-19869-8|page=300|edition=1st St. Martin's Griffin}}</ref> Another influence was early fantasy fiction such as [[Edward Plunkett, 18th Baron of Dunsany|Lord Dunsany]]'s "[[The Fortress Unvanquishable, Save for Sacnoth]]" (1910) and [[A. Merritt]]'s ''[[The Ship of Ishtar]]'' (1924).<ref>[http://www.swordandsorcery.org/Timeline.asp ]{{Dead link|date=November 2015}}</ref> All of these authors influenced sword and sorcery for the plots, characters, and landscapes used.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Moorcock|first1=Michael|title=Wizardry & Wild Romance: A Study of Epic Fantasy|date=2004|publisher=MonkeyBrain|location=Austin, Tex.|isbn=1-932265-07-4|page=82|edition=rev.}}</ref>
-In addition, many early sword and sorcery writers, such as [[Robert E. Howard]] and [[Clark Ashton Smith]], were heavily influenced by the Middle Eastern tales of the [[Arabian Nights]], whose stories of magical monsters and evil [[Magician (fantasy)|sorcerers]] were a major influence on the genre-to-be.{{Citation needed}}
+In addition, many early sword and sorcery writers, such as [[Robert E. Howard]] and [[Clark Ashton Smith]], were heavily influenced by the Middle Eastern tales of the [[Arabian Nights]], whose stories of magical monsters and evil [[Magician (fantasy)|sorcerers]] were a major influence on the genre-to-be.{{Citation needed|date=November 2015}}
-It can also be noted that in its frequent depictions of smoky taverns and smelly back alleys, sword and sorcery draws upon the [[picaresque]] genre;{{Or}} for example, [[Fritz Leiber]]'s city of [[Lankhmar]] bears considerable similarity to 16th century [[Seville]] as depicted in [[Cervantes]]' tale ''[[Rinconete y Cortadillo]]''.
+It can also be noted that in its frequent depictions of smoky taverns and smelly back alleys, sword and sorcery draws upon the [[picaresque]] genre;{{Or|date=November 2015}} for example, [[Fritz Leiber]]'s city of [[Lankhmar]] bears considerable similarity to 16th century [[Seville]] as depicted in [[Cervantes]]' tale ''[[Rinconete y Cortadillo]]''.
-Sword and sorcery proper only truly began in the [[pulp magazines|pulp]] fantasy magazines, where it emerged from "[[weird fiction]]."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://broaduniverse.org/broadsheet-archive/tales-from-the-brass-bikini-feminist-sword-and-sorcery-november-2011-bs-r |last=Stiles |first=Paula R. |title=Tales From the Brass Bikini: Feminist Sword and Sorcery |work=Broad Universe |date=November 2011 |accessdate=20 June 2012}}</ref> Particularly important was the magazine ''[[Weird Tales]]'', which published Howard's [[Conan the Barbarian|Conan]] stories and [[C. L. Moore]]'s [[Jirel of Joiry]] tales, as well as such important S&S influences as Lovecraft and Clark Ashton Smith.{{Citation needed}}
+Sword and sorcery proper only truly began in the [[pulp magazines|pulp]] fantasy magazines, where it emerged from "[[weird fiction]]."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://broaduniverse.org/broadsheet-archive/tales-from-the-brass-bikini-feminist-sword-and-sorcery-november-2011-bs-r |last=Stiles |first=Paula R. |title=Tales From the Brass Bikini: Feminist Sword and Sorcery |work=Broad Universe |date=November 2011 |accessdate=20 June 2012}}</ref> Particularly important was the magazine ''[[Weird Tales]]'', which published Howard's [[Conan the Barbarian|Conan]] stories and [[C. L. Moore]]'s [[Jirel of Joiry]] tales, as well as such important S&S influences as Lovecraft and Clark Ashton Smith.{{Citation needed|date=November 2015}}
 ==Seminal works==
@@ Line 50: / Line 50: @@
 ==Revival==
-{{Refimprove|section}}
+{{Refimprove|section|date=November 2015}}
 From the 1960s up till the 1980s, under the guiding force of [[Lin Carter]], a select group of writers formed the [[Swordsmen and Sorcerers' Guild of America (SAGA)]] to promote and enlarge the sword and sorcery genre. From 1973 to 1981 five anthologies featuring short works by SAGA members were published: edited by Carter, these were collectively known as ''[[Flashing Swords!]]''. Because of these and other anthologies (such as the [[Ballantine Adult Fantasy]] series), his own fiction, and his criticism, Carter is considered one of the most important popularizers of genre fantasy in general, and S&S in particular.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Clute|first1=John|last2=Grant|first2=John|last3=Ashley|first3=Mike|last4=Hartwell|first4=David G.|last5=Westfahl|first5=Gary|title=The Encyclopedia of Fantasy|date=1999|publisher=St. Martin's Griffin|location=New York|isbn=0-312-19869-8|page=171|edition=1st St. Martin's Griffin}}</ref>
 Another notable sword and sorcery anthology series that ran from 1977 through 1979 was called "[[Swords Against Darkness]]" ([[Zebra Books]]), and was edited by [[Andrew J. Offutt]]. This series ran to five volumes and featured stories by such authors as [[Poul Anderson]], [[David Drake]], [[Ramsey Campbell]], [[Andre Norton]], and [[Manly Wade Wellman]].
-Despite such authors' best efforts, sword and sorcery has more colloquially come to be known as a catch-all phrase for low grade, derivative fantasy as well as fiction written in such universes.{{Citation needed}} During the 1980s, influenced by the success of the 1982 feature film ''[[Conan the Barbarian (1982 film)|Conan the Barbarian]]'' many cheaply made fantasy films were released that came to be derisively known as "Sword & Sorcery". The term is sometimes used in a derogatory manner by writers and readers of the fantasy genre.
+Despite such authors' best efforts, sword and sorcery has more colloquially come to be known as a catch-all phrase for low grade, derivative fantasy as well as fiction written in such universes.{{Citation needed|date=November 2015}} During the 1980s, influenced by the success of the 1982 feature film ''[[Conan the Barbarian (1982 film)|Conan the Barbarian]]'' many cheaply made fantasy films were released that came to be derisively known as "Sword & Sorcery". The term is sometimes used in a derogatory manner by writers and readers of the fantasy genre.
 After the boom of the early 1980s, sword and sorcery once again dropped out of favor, with epic fantasy largely taking its place in the fantasy genre. However, the end of the 20th century saw another resurgence of S&S. Sometimes called the "new" or "literary" sword and sorcery, this development places emphasis on literary technique, and draws from epic fantasy and other genres to broaden the typical scope of S&S. Stories may feature the wide-ranging struggles national or world-spanning concerns common to high fantasy, but told from the point of view of characters more common to S&S and with the sense of adventure common to the latter. Writers associated with this include [[Steven Erikson]], [[Joe Abercrombie]], and [[Scott Lynch]], and magazines such as [[Black Gate (magazine)|''Black Gate'']] and the ezines [[Flashing Swords ezine|''Flashing Swords'']] (not to be confused with the [[Lin Carter]] anthologies) and ''[[Beneath Ceaseless Skies]]'' publish short fiction in the style.<ref>[http://www.beneath-ceaseless-skies.com/page.php?p=about ]{{Dead link|date=November 2015}}</ref> These authors and editors are attempting to return the genre to the status it enjoyed during the pulp era of the twenties and thirties.{{citation needed|date=May 2012}}
 ==Women creators and characters==
-Despite the importance of C. L. Moore, Leigh Brackett, [[Andre Norton]], and other female authors, as well as Moore's early heroine, sword and sorcery has been characterized as having a strongly masculine bias. Female characters were generally [[Damsel in distress|distressed damsels]] to be rescued or protected, or otherwise served as an inducement or reward for a male hero's adventures. Women who had adventures of their own often did so to counter the threat of rape, or to gain revenge for same.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bradley |first=Marion Zimmer |title=Sword and Sorceress |year= 1984 |publisher=DAW Books |location=New York |isbn=0-87997-928-3 |page=11}}</ref><ref name="stiles1"/> [[Marion Zimmer Bradley]]'s ''[[Sword and Sorceress series|Sword and Sorceress]]'' anthology series (1984 onwards) attempted the reverse. Bradley encouraged female writers and protagonists: the stories feature skillful swordswomen and powerful sorceresses, working from a variety of motives.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Strahan|first1=Jonathan|last2=Anders|first2=Lou|title=Swords & Dark Magic: The New Sword and Sorcery|date=2010|publisher=Eos|location=New York|isbn=978-0-06-172381-0|page=xvii|edition=1st}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Bradley|first1=Marion Zimmer|title=Sword and Sorceress XVII|date=2001|publisher=DAW Books|location=New York, NY|isbn=0886779960|pages=9-13}}</ref> The series was immensely popular and Bradley was editing her final volume at the time of her death (the series continued under other editors). [[Jessica Amanda Salmonson]] similarly sought to broaden the range of roles for female characters in S&S through both her own stories and in editing the [[World Fantasy Award]]-winning<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.worldfantasy.org/awards/1980.html |title=1980 World Fantasy Award Winners and Nominees |work=World Fantasy Convention |publisher=World Fantasy Board |accessdate=18 June 2012}}</ref> ''Amazons'' (1979) and ''Amazons II'' (1982) anthologies; both drew on real and folkloric women warriors, often from areas outside of Europe.<ref>{{cite book |last=Salmonson |first=Jessica Amanda |title=Amazons II |year=1982 |publisher=DAW Books |location=New York |isbn=0-87997-736-1 |pages=7–19}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Clute|first1=John|last2=Grant|first2=John|last3=Ashley|first3=Mike|last4=Hartwell|first4=David G.|last5=Westfahl|first5=Gary|title=The Encyclopedia of Fantasy|date=1999|publisher=St. Martin's Griffin|location=New York|isbn=0-312-19869-8|page=832|edition=1st St. Martin's Griffin}}</ref> Today, active female characters who participate equally with the male heroes in the stories are a regular feature in modern sword and sorcery stories.{{Citation needed}}
+Despite the importance of C. L. Moore, Leigh Brackett, [[Andre Norton]], and other female authors, as well as Moore's early heroine, sword and sorcery has been characterized as having a strongly masculine bias. Female characters were generally [[Damsel in distress|distressed damsels]] to be rescued or protected, or otherwise served as an inducement or reward for a male hero's adventures. Women who had adventures of their own often did so to counter the threat of rape, or to gain revenge for same.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bradley |first=Marion Zimmer |title=Sword and Sorceress |year= 1984 |publisher=DAW Books |location=New York |isbn=0-87997-928-3 |page=11}}</ref><ref name="stiles1"/> [[Marion Zimmer Bradley]]'s ''[[Sword and Sorceress series|Sword and Sorceress]]'' anthology series (1984 onwards) attempted the reverse. Bradley encouraged female writers and protagonists: the stories feature skillful swordswomen and powerful sorceresses, working from a variety of motives.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Strahan|first1=Jonathan|last2=Anders|first2=Lou|title=Swords & Dark Magic: The New Sword and Sorcery|date=2010|publisher=Eos|location=New York|isbn=978-0-06-172381-0|page=xvii|edition=1st}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Bradley|first1=Marion Zimmer|title=Sword and Sorceress XVII|date=2001|publisher=DAW Books|location=New York, NY|isbn=0886779960|pages=9-13}}</ref> The series was immensely popular and Bradley was editing her final volume at the time of her death (the series continued under other editors). [[Jessica Amanda Salmonson]] similarly sought to broaden the range of roles for female characters in S&S through both her own stories and in editing the [[World Fantasy Award]]-winning<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.worldfantasy.org/awards/1980.html |title=1980 World Fantasy Award Winners and Nominees |work=World Fantasy Convention |publisher=World Fantasy Board |accessdate=18 June 2012}}</ref> ''Amazons'' (1979) and ''Amazons II'' (1982) anthologies; both drew on real and folkloric women warriors, often from areas outside of Europe.<ref>{{cite book |last=Salmonson |first=Jessica Amanda |title=Amazons II |year=1982 |publisher=DAW Books |location=New York |isbn=0-87997-736-1 |pages=7–19}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Clute|first1=John|last2=Grant|first2=John|last3=Ashley|first3=Mike|last4=Hartwell|first4=David G.|last5=Westfahl|first5=Gary|title=The Encyclopedia of Fantasy|date=1999|publisher=St. Martin's Griffin|location=New York|isbn=0-312-19869-8|page=832|edition=1st St. Martin's Griffin}}</ref> Today, active female characters who participate equally with the male heroes in the stories are a regular feature in modern sword and sorcery stories.{{Citation needed|date=November 2015}}
 Early sword and sorcery writer [[Robert E. Howard]] had feminist views despite his era and location, which he espoused in both personal and professional life. Howard wrote to his friends and associates defending the achievements and capabilities of women.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Finn|first1=Mark|title=[[Blood & Thunder: The Life & Art of Robert E. Howard]]|date=2006|publisher=MonkeyBrain Books|location=Austin, Tex.|isbn=1-932265-21-X|page=141}}</ref><ref>[http://www.rehupa.com/short_bio.htm ]{{dead link|date=November 2015}}</ref> Strong female characters in Howard's works of fiction include the protofeminist [[Dark Agnes de Chastillon]] (first appearing in "Sword Woman", circa 1932–34); the early modern pirate Helen Tavrel ("The Isle of Pirates' Doom", 1928), as well as two pirates and Conan the Barbarian supporting characters, Bêlit ("[[Queen of the Black Coast]]", 1934) and Valeria of the Red Brotherhood ("[[Red Nails]]", 1936).<ref>{{cite book|last1=Finn|first1=Mark|title=[[Blood & Thunder: The Life & Art of Robert E. Howard]]|date=2006|publisher=MonkeyBrain Books|location=Austin, Tex.|isbn=1-932265-21-X|page=186-187}}</ref>