Water supply and sanitation in China and 1976–77 Nemzeti Bajnokság I: Difference between pages

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Statistics of [[Hungarian National Championship I|Nemzeti Bajnokság I]] in the 1976/1977 season.
{| style="width: 25em; font-size: 90%; text-align: left;" class="infobox"

|-
==Overview==
!align="center" bgcolor="lightblue" colspan="2"|<big>[[People's Republic of China]]: Water and Sanitation</big>
It was contested by 18 teams, and [[Vasas SC]] won the championship.
|-
{{#if:{{{Image:Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg|300px}}}|<tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;">[[Image:Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg|150px]]
{{#if:{{{caption|}}}|</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center">''{{{caption}}}''|}}
</td></tr>}}
|-
!align="center" bgcolor="lightblue" colspan="3"|Data
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Water coverage (broad definition)
|valign="top"| 77%
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Sanitation coverage (broad definition)
|valign="top"| 44%
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Continuity of supply (%)
|valign="top"| Generally continuous, but seasonal shortages in some areas <ref> World Bank 2007, p. xx </ref>
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Average urban water use (liter/capita/day)
|valign="top"| 204 (2005) <ref> China Development Gateway: Ensuring the Safety of Urban Water Supply, Facilitating the Frugal and Appropriate Consumption of Urban Water, Ministry of Construction, August 22, 2006 [http://en.chinagate.com.cn/reports/2006-09/18/content_2448764_2.htm MOC] </ref>


==League standings==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|Pos||Club||P||W||D||L||GF||GA||Pts
|-
|-
||1||[[Vasas SC]]||34||25||3||6||100||45||53
!align="left" valign="top"|Average urban water and sewer bill for 20m3
|valign="top"| US$ 3.5/month for water only <ref> Calculated based on an average water use of 204 liter/captia/day, an average water tariff of US$ 0.20/m3 and an average family size of 3 </ref>
|-
|-
||2||[[Újpest FC|Újpesti Dózsa]]||34||22||6||6||88||47||50
!align="left" valign="top"|Share of household [[water metering|metering]]
|valign="top"| 90% <ref> Chinese Waterworks Association Yearbook, 2005 </ref>
|-
|-
||3||[[Ferencvárosi TC]]||34||18||11||5||78||42||47
!align="left" valign="top"|Share of collected wastewater treated
|valign="top"| 52%
|-
|-
||4||[[Budapest Honvéd FC]]||34||19||8||7||62||43||46
!align="left" valign="top"|Annual investment in WSS
|valign="top"| about US$ 10 / capita (2006) in urban areas <ref> calculated based on World Bank 2007, see quote in text </ref>.
|-
|-
||5||[[Szombathelyi Haladás]]||34||14||8||12||53||49||36
!align="left" valign="top"|Share of self-financing by utilities
|valign="top"| close to zero
|-
|-
||6||[[FC Fehérvár|Videoton]]||34||14||7||13||60||46||35
!align="left" valign="top"|Share of tax-financing
|valign="top"| about 35% (from city budgets)
|-
|-
||7||[[Győri ETO FC]]||34||15||5||14||51||46||35
!align="left" valign="top"|Share of internal debt financing
|valign="top"| 55-60%
|-
|-
||8||[[MTK Hungária FC]]||34||15||5||14||56||53||35
!align="left" valign="top"|Share of foreign financing
|valign="top"| 5-10%
|-
|-
||9||[[FC Tatabánya]]||34||15||3||16||58||56||33
!align="center" bgcolor="lightblue" colspan="3"|Institutions
|-
|-
||10||[[Diósgyőri VTK]]||34||13||6||15||40||52||32
!align="left" valign="top"|Decentralization to municipalities
|valign="top"| Full
|-
|-
||11||[[Zalaegerszegi TE]]||34||12||7||15||47||47||31
!align="left" valign="top"|National water and sanitation company
|valign="top"| No
|-
|-
||12||[[Szegedi EOL]]||34||11||8||15||39||64||30
!align="left" valign="top"|Water and sanitation regulator
|valign="top"| No
|-
|-
||13||[[Békéscsaba 1912 Elöre SE]]||34||9||10||15||40||57||28
!align="left" valign="top"|Responsibility for policy setting
|valign="top"| Ministry of Construction
|-
|-
||14||[[Kaposvári Rákóczi FC]]||34||9||9||16||39||45||27
!align="left" valign="top"|Sector law
|valign="top"| No
|-
|-
||15||[[Dunaújváros FC]]||34||9||9||16||37||60||27
!align="left" valign="top"|Number of urban service providers
|valign="top"| 41,663 (including small towns)
|-
|-
||16||[[Csepel SC]]||34||8||10||16||45||59||26
!align="left" valign="top"|Number of rural service providers
|valign="top"| n/a
|-
|-
||17||[[Salgótarjáni BTC]]||34||10||5||19||42||77||25
|}

'''[[Water supply]] and [[sanitation]] in [[People's Republic of China|China]]''' is undergoing a massive transition while facing numerous challenges such as rapid urbanization, a widening gap between rich and poor as well as urban and rural areas. Water scarcity, contamination and pollution also pose great challenges.<ref name="Chinatocleanuppollutedlake">BBC News. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/7065095.stm China to clean up polluted lake]. 27 October 2007.</ref>

Much has been achieved during the past decades in terms of increased access to services, increased municipal wastewater treatment, the creation of water and wastewater utilities that are legally and financially separated from local governments, and increasing cost recovery as part of the transformation of the [[Economy of the People's Republic of China|Chinese economy]] to a more market-oriented system. The government has quadrupled investments in the sector during the current 2006–10 [[Five-Year Plans of China|Five-Year Plan]].

Nevertheless, much remains to be achieved. A staggering 300 million Chinese still do not have access to an improved source of water supply, and about 750 million do not have access to improved sanitation. Progress in rural areas appears to lag behind what has been achieved in urban areas. There are also operational problems. For example, many wastewater treatment plants do not operate properly, thus limiting the positive environmental impact of the major investments made.

== Access ==

Access to improved [[water supply]] and [[sanitation]] has increased significantly in [[People's Republic of China|China]] over the past two decades in parallel with economic growth. The Joint Monitoring Program of the [[WHO]] and [[UNICEF]] estimated based on household survey data that in 2004, access to an improved source of water supply was 77% and access to improved sanitation was 44%. Nevertheless, this means that a staggering 300 million Chinese did not have access to an improved source of water supply, and about 750 million did not have access to improved sanitation. The share of population with access to water and sanitation remains significantly lower than, for example, in [[Water supply and sanitation in India|India]].

{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
||18||[[Dorogi Bányász]]||34||5||6||23||28||75||16
!
!
! Urban (40% of the population)
! Rural (60% of the population)
! Total
|-
| Water
| Broad definition
| 93%
| 67%
| 77%
|-
|
| House connections
| 87%
| 57%
| 69%
|-
| Sanitation
| Broad definition
| 69%
| 28%
| 44%
|-
|
|Sewerage
| 50%
| 4%
| 22%
|}
|}


==References==
Source: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water and Sanitation [http://www.wssinfo.org JMP]
*[http://www.rsssf.com/tablesh/honghist.html Hungary - List of final tables (RSSSF)]

Moreover, as in many other developing countries, there is a significant gap between urban and rural areas. For example, according to the [[WHO]] in urban areas of China 93% have access to improved water supply, while the share in rural areas is only 67%. Concerning improved sanitation, access in urban areas is 69%, but only 28% in rural areas.<ref> [[WHO]]/[[UNICEF]] [http://www.wssinfo.org JMP], specifically [http://www.wssinfo.org/pdf/country/CHN_wat.pdf Water] [http://www.wssinfo.org/pdf/country/CHN_san.pdf Sanitation] </ref> The magazine [[The Economist]] described the urban-rural gap in the following stark terms: "The reforms that [[Deng Xiaoping]] first launched in China's countryside 30 years ago have now left its peasants in the ditch." It also observed that "the income disparity between China's richtest few and poorest many would make many a modern capitalist blush." <ref> "China, beware", The Economist, October 13–19 2007, p. 15 </ref>

== Service quality ==

According to the World Bank about 13% of urban water users receive water at inadequate pressure. Furthermore, 60% of China's 661 cities face seasonal water shortage, and over 100 cities have severe water constraints. <ref> World Bank 2007, p. xx </ref>

Contamination of drinking water from [[feces]] is a critical health problem in China, as in other developing countries, that causes serious illnesses such as [[diarrhea]] and viral [[hepatitis]]. A recent survey by [[UNICEF]] in 11 provinces found that over half of all drinking water samples contained unacceptably high levels of bacteria.
<ref> [http://www.unicef.org/china/environment_sanitation.html UNICEF] </ref>

It has been estimated that in 2006 there was sufficient capacity to treat 52% of municipal residential wastewater. <ref> World Bank 2007, p. xvii </ref> However, it was estimated in 2002 that many wastewater treatment plants did not function properly. <ref> [http://lnweb18.worldbank.org/ESSD/ardext.nsf/18ByDocName/China-CountryWaterResourcesAssistanceStrategy103KB/$FILE/ChinaCountryWaterResourcesAssistanceStrategy.pdf World Bank Country Water Assistance Strategy 2002, p. 20] </ref> A more recent analysis by the Ministry of Construction in 2004 showed that, according to treatment plant records, most plants operated in compliance with discharge standards.<ref> World Bank 2007, p. 20 </ref>

== Linkage to water resources ==

Man-made pollution, natural contamination and water scarcity all affect the provision of drinking water.<ref name="Chinatocleanuppollutedlake"/> For more details see: [[Water resources of China]] and [[China water crisis]]

== Responsibility for water supply and sanitation ==
=== Policy ===

The national government does not have a single policy document for water supply and sanitation. Policy thus is enshrined in a variety of policy papers by different ministries and, in the case of water resources management, in the Water Law of 2002.

==== Water supply and sanitation ====

It is the government’s policy to fully recover costs for water supply and sanitation through user fees, and that water tariffs should be volumetric. <ref> [http://lnweb18.worldbank.org/ESSD/ardext.nsf/18ByDocName/China-CountryWaterResourcesAssistanceStrategy103KB/$FILE/ChinaCountryWaterResourcesAssistanceStrategy.pdf World Bank Country Water Resources Assistance Strategy 2002, p. 13] </ref> The Ministry of Construction oversees financing for ''urban'' water and sanitation infrastructure as well as policies concerning the regulation of water and sanitation utilities. Some important policy papers it has issued are “Accelerating the Marketization of Public Utilities” (No.272 Policy Paper of the MOC, 2002), the “Measure on Public Utilities Concession Management” (No.126 Policy Paper of the MOC, 2004), and the “Opinions on Strengthening Regulation of Public Utilities” (No.154 Policy Paper of the MOC, 2005). However, there is no law concerning the regulation of public utilities or private sector participation in the sector. <ref> [http://www.adb.org/water/actions/prc/private-funds.asp Asian Development Bank] </ref> The Ministry of Health has attributions related to the promotion of rural sanitation.

==== Water resources management ====

The responsibility for water resources management is split between a number of entities at the national and local level. At the national level
* the [[Ministry of Water Resources]] is responsible for surface water management, with a focus on quantitative aspects,
* the State Environmental Protection Agency (SEPA) has the responsibility to manage the quality of water resources, and
* groundwater falls within the realm of the Ministry of Land and Resources.<ref> [http://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/789-China-s-environmental-governance China Dialogue 2007] </ref>
Nevertheless, the Ministry of Water Resources and its affiliated river basin commissions in all major river basins are key players in water resources management. The Water Law of 2002 emphasizes demand management and water quality protection and thus paves the way for a transition from a development phase focused almost exclusively on infrastructure development to a phase where more appropriate attention is being devoted to the management and protection of water resources. <ref> [http://www.lboro.ac.uk/well/resources/Publications/China%20Briefing%20Notes/No%201%20-%20Briefing%20Note%20Series.pdf China Briefing p. 1.3.] The law is posted at: [http://www.mwr.gov.cn/english1/laws/water_law.pdf Water Law] </ref>

In addition to water resources management, the Ministry of Water Resources is also in charge of the construction of some major water infrastructure such as dams, embankments, irrigation infrastructure and bulk conveyors for municipal and industrial water supply. According to its website it is also responsible for the “provision of recommendations on economic regulation of water pricing, taxation, credit and financial affairs” as well as “coordination of capital construction of (…) water supply for townships and villages”, although in practice these functions seem to be carried out by other entities. <ref> [http://www.mwr.gov.cn/english1/about.asp Ministry of Water Resources] </ref>

=== Service provision ===

In order to understand the institutional responsibilities for water supply and sanitation in China, it may be helpful to provide a brief overview of the administrative divisions of China.

==== Administrative divisions of China ====

For details: [[Political divisions of China]]

China is administratively divided into:

*33 province-level (省级 shěngjí) divisions, including 22 [[Province of China|provinces]], five [[Autonomous region of China|autonomous regions]], four [[Municipality of China|municipalities]]([[Beijing]], [[Shanghai]], [[Tianjin]] and [[Chongqing]]), and two [[Special administrative regions of China|special administrative regions]].
*333 [[Prefecture-level city|prefecture-level divisions]] (地级 dìjí)
*2872 [[County-level city|county-level divisions]] (县级 xiànjí) (sometimes called “districts”)
*41,636 township-level (乡级 xiāngjí) divisions

China also has 661 designated cities, which do not constitute separate administrative units. Each municipality, prefecture and county includes urban and rural areas. 4 cities are capitals of [[Municipality of China|municipalities]], 283 cities are capitals of [[Prefecture-level city|prefectures]], and 374 are capitals of [[County-level city|counties]]. In 2005 340 million people, or about 25% of China's population, lived in designated cities, each of which had a population of at least 200,000. The remaining urban population of about 200 million, or about 15% of the total population, lives in smaller towns that are either among the smaller prefecture-level capitals (96 million) or townships (100 million).

In an article on rural China the magazine [[The Economist]] wrote that many Chinese experts believe that basic infrastructure should be funded by provinces or the central government: "That done, prefecture and township governments could be massively trimmed or eliminated altogether." <ref> "Missing the barefoot doctors", The Economist, October 13th 2007, p. 30. Counties are not specifically mentioned. </ref>

==== Urban areas ====
[[Image:Portsashish100.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Shanghai, like many other Chinese cities, depends on surface water that is heavily polluted, such as the [[Huangpu River]] shown here whose water comes through [[Suzhou Creek]] from the heavily polluted [[Tai Lake]].]]

'''Overview''' Urban water supply in China is the responsibility of "cities" under complex arrangements that differ substantially from one city to the other. The term "City" has a dual and confusing meaning in China. It is used here to refer to the main urban area of a municipality, prefecture or county. Cities are governed by a "leading group" under the leadership of a mayor, who is assisted by various "bureaus", or departments. Services are usually provided by municipally-owned water companies and wastewater companies (sometimes referred to as [[Public utility|utilities]] despite the relatively limited autonomy that these companies enjoy). Water and wastewater companies are typically separate from each other. In larger cities, services are further unbundled: There may be a separate raw water company that transports water from far-away sources and sell it to the municipal water company for distribution. Likewise on the wastewater side, larger cities may have several district drainage companies in charge of parts of the city, a wastewater company in charge of the main collectors, and a third company in charge of wastewater treatment.<ref> World Bank 2007, p. 70-71 </ref>

In some cities the various companies are under the same "parent bureau", which may be the construction bureau or a water bureau, while in other cities the water company and the wastewater company report to different bureaus.<ref> World Bank 2007, p. 72 </ref> In 2006 88% of the urban population was served by "utilities", up from 50% in 1990.<ref> World Bank 2007, p. xvii and p. 46-48 </ref> Especially in smaller cities the county administration provides services directly. Private sector participation in financing infrastructure and managing services is widespread, but it is usually limited to [[BOT]] contracts where the private sector is in charge of large upstream or downstream infrastructure without being directly involved in serving users. Currently there are over 50 water projects and well over 100 wastewater projects in China with private sector participation.<ref> World Bank 2007, p. xxxi </ref>

'''Examples''' To take an example of a very large city, in [[Shanghai]] the Water Division of the Shanghai Urban Construction Investment Development Corporation provides services. The Water Division includes a raw water company, five water companies, one sewage management company, three engineering companies and two construction companies. It serves 12 million people. In [[Tianjin]] the Tianjin Water Supply Group provides services. It recently divested itself from numerous side businesses to focus on its core business. Since 1997 it has cooperated with international companies such as [[Vivendi]] in a bulk water supply [[Build-Operate-Transfer]](BOT) contract.

==== Rural areas ====

In rural areas village committees, which are community-based organizations, provide services. Its members operate the systems without remuneration. In terms of rural sanitation, human excreta are systematically used as manure for fertilising crops and vegetables. In many houses, the excreta of all family members are collected in buckets over the course of five to seven days, and then taken to the field and applied raw in the crops. The practice is an age old tradition and of enormous economic value in terms of agricultural production. <ref> [http://www.livelihoods.org/hot_topics/CLTS/China.html Institute of Development Studies: Livelihoods] </ref> Compared to the government’s major focus on urban wastewater treatment, rural sanitation is not very high on the government’s agenda despite the well-known negative health impacts of inadequate hygiene and sanitation practices.

==== NGOs ====

There is little information on activities by [[NGO]]s in water supply and sanitation in China. An Association for Rural Water Supply and Sanitation provides training, information exchange, technical assistance and undertakes research. In terms of foreign NGOs, the NGO [[Plan (aid organisation)|Plan]], for example, works in China. It is known for having introduced for the first time the concept of [[Community Led Total Sanitation]] in China in Puchang County in [[Shaanxi]] in 2005. <ref> [http://www.livelihoods.org/hot_topics/CLTS/China.html Institute of Development Studies: Livelihoods] </ref>

== History and current developments ==
=== Massive investment program for wastewater treatment ===

Over the past 20 years China has engaged in what is possibly the largest program to build [[wastewater treatment]] plants in history. Despite the substantial achievements of this program, many challenges remain.

'''Achievements''' Until the early 1980s there was no single municipal wastewater treatment plant in China. Only then the country’s first municipal wastewater treatment plant was built in the city of [[Nanjing]]. <ref> [http://www.adb.org/water/actions/prc/private-funds.asp Asian Development Bank] </ref> Subsequently China engaged in what possibly is the largest [[wastewater treatment]] investment program in history. It has been estimated that in 2006 there was sufficient capacity to treat 52% of municipal residential wastewater. <ref> World Bank 2007, p. xvii </ref> According to the State Environmental Protection Agency the rate of urban wastewater treatment even reached 57% in the same year.<ref> "China pays water price for progress", Water 21, Magazine of the International Water Association, August 2007, p. 6 </ref> In any case, the government's goal to achieve a level of 60% for treatment of municipal wastewater by 2010 will probably be reached even earlier. Between 2001 and 2004 the number of cities that charge wastewater tariffs has increased from 300 to 475 out of 661 cities.<ref> [http://www.cdm.com/NR/rdonlyres/586600E8-3539-4B40-9EE4-AB3C282F7230/0/DevelopmentofNationalWastewaterTariffGuidelinesforChina.pdf CDM, p. 1-2] </ref>

'''Remaining challenges''' However, in the rush to construct planning mistakes were made. Demand was overestimated, the construction of [[sewerage]] lagged behind the construction of treatment plants, designs were sometimes inappropriate, there was no requirement for pre-treatment of industrial effluents thus affecting the effectiveness of treatment processes, and the sites chosen for the first priority investments within a [[river basin]] were not always those where the highest impact could have been achieved in terms of improving river water quality.<ref> [http://lnweb18.worldbank.org/ESSD/ardext.nsf/18ByDocName/China-CountryWaterResourcesAssistanceStrategy103KB/$FILE/ChinaCountryWaterResourcesAssistanceStrategy.pdf World Bank Country Water Resources Assistance Strategy 2002, p. 20] </ref> As a result, many plants are underutilized or poorly functioning. According to the Ministry of Construction, more than 50 wastewater treatment plants in more than 30 cities operated at only 30 percent of their capacity or did not even come into operation.<ref> China Development Gateway: Ensuring the Safety of Urban Water Supply, Facilitating the Frugal and Appropriate Consumption of Urban Water, Ministry of Construction, August 22, 2006 [http://en.chinagate.com.cn/reports/2006-09/18/content_2448764_2.htm Ministry of Construction] </ref> Consequently, the impact of the investment program on the water quality in rivers and coastal waters has been limited.

During the 1990s municipal and industrial water use actually declined because of low increases of connection rates to utilities because of underestimation of the importance of small-scale water providers,<ref> [http://www.adb.org/Water/Indicators/Profiles/Chengdu_city.pdf ADB Chengdu Profile 2001] </ref> increased tariffs, increased metering, industrial restructuring, measures to increase the efficiency of water use in industries, as well as due to water scarcity and drought. Many Chinese water and wastewater companies have overcapacities and are in financial difficulties because the revenues are insufficient to cover the servicing of the debt contracted to build the oversized infrastructure.<ref> [http://lnweb18.worldbank.org/ESSD/ardext.nsf/18ByDocName/China-CountryWaterResourcesAssistanceStrategy103KB/$FILE/ChinaCountryWaterResourcesAssistanceStrategy.pdf World Bank Country Water Resources Assistance Strategy 2002, p. 13] </ref>

=== Transition to commercial utilities ===

In 2002 the Ministry of Construction issued a policy paper on the commercialization of public utilities. Subsequently, in October 2003 the central government decided that state-owned enterprises had to separated from Ministries and/or provincial governments and had to be commercialized. <ref> [http://www.iwahq.org/uploads/conference_graphics/beijing2006/workshops/water%20sanitation%20in%20china/Chen%20Yuheng.pdf Ministry of Construction Presentation at Internal Water Association Conference in Beijing in 2006] </ref>

Competitive bidding for contracts, private sector participation and commercial financing are important element in the transition to a market economy.

In the 1990s the first [[Build-Operate-Transfer|BOT]] contracts were signed for wastewater treatment plants. More than 200 wastewater treatment plants were built with some form of private sector participation in their financing and/or management, usually using the BOT formula. Early BOTs saw governments implementing the process without the benefit of financial, legal, and technical advisers, finding to their chagrin that the process becomes more complex in the absence of expert knowledge. Learning from the experience of past BOTs in the sector, local governments sought expert advice on bidding and public tender. <ref> [http://www.adb.org/water/actions/prc/private-funds.asp Asian Development Bank] </ref>

In about 2000 for the first time a BOT water project ([[Chengdu]] No. 6 Water Supply Plant) was awarded on the basis of transparent international competitive bidding, with support from the [[Asian Development Bank|ADB]]. <ref> [http://www.adb.org/documents/speeches/2003/ms2003013.asp Asian Development Bank] For a profile of water and sanitation in Chengdu see [http://www.adb.org/Water/Indicators/Profiles/Chengdu_city.pdf Asian Development Bank Chengdu Profile 2001] </ref>

== Efficiency ==

There are many different indicators for utility efficiency. In the case of China some indicators, such as labor productivity, suggest a low level of operational efficiency, while other indicators - such as non-revenue water - suggest a high level of operational efficiency.

=== Labor productivity ===

Most water and sanitation utilities in China have a low labor productivity and are overstaffed. For example, many utilities in small towns in Henan province have more than 20 employees per 1000 connections, while international good practice is less than 4 employees per 1000 connections. In [[Chengdu]] the utility employed 34 employees per 1000 connections, while in Shanghai the ratio was less than 6 employees per 1000 connections.<ref> World Bank and ADB </ref>

=== Non-revenue water ===

[[Non-revenue water]] - consisting mainly leakage losses in the distribution network - are estimated by the Chinese Waterworks Association to be only 20% on average and less than 10% for the best utilities, which is very low by international standards. One explanation may be that most Chinese live in dense apartment complexes, which results in compact distribution systems. Another explanation may be that the definition and measurement of non-revenue water in China is not comparable to other countries.

In some smaller cities non-revenue water remains relatively high. For example, average non revenue water in small towns in [[Henan province]] is 38%. <ref> [http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2006/06/08/000090341_20060608095406/Rendered/PDF/33668.pdf Henan World Bank, Annex 1] </ref>

== Tariffs and cost recovery ==

Cost recovery for water and sanitation services paradoxically is lower in urban areas, while it is higher in rural areas, despite the lower incomes of rural residents.

=== Urban areas ===

'''Overview''' Many urban water and wastewater utilities in China experience financial stress, because user fees are set well below cost recovery levels and government subsidies are insufficient to cover the resulting gap. In 2004 60% of urban water utilities reported negative net incomes. The financial situation of wastewater utilities is expected to be even more precarious. Tariffs have increased by 50% since 1998 and now stand at 1.5 RMB/m3 or US$ 0.20/m3. These rates are insufficient to cover costs.<ref> World Bank 2007, p. xix-xx </ref>

Until the 1980s urban water tariffs in China were very low and sewer tariffs were practically unknown. This has changed substantially since the adoption of National Guidelines on Urban Water Tariffs in 1988, which called for increased cost recovery and for the introduction of sewer tariffs. Subsequently water tariffs have been increased substantially in many Chinese cities, particularly in the north where water is scarcest.<ref> [http://lnweb18.worldbank.org/ESSD/ardext.nsf/18ByDocName/China-CountryWaterResourcesAssistanceStrategy103KB/$FILE/ChinaCountryWaterResourcesAssistanceStrategy.pdf World Bank Country Water Resourcese Assistance Strategy 2002, p. 13] </ref> However, according to the Ministry of Construction, water tariff reforms have not been effective enough to offer the necessary incentives to save water. While many cities now have sewer tariffs, in 2005 there were more than 150 cities across the country where no wastewater treatment fee was collected.<ref> China Development Gateway: Ensuring the Safety of Urban Water Supply, Facilitating the Frugal and Appropriate Consumption of Urban Water, Ministry of Construction, August 22, 2006 [http://en.chinagate.com.cn/reports/2006-09/18/content_2448764_2.htm Ministry of Construction] </ref>

China has a policy of universal metering, including metering of individual households in apartment complexes, where most urban residents live. Metering in urban areas is now relatively widespread with an average of 90% connections being metered. Some cities are experimenting with pre-paid debit cards that residents must put into their meters in order to receive service.

Tariff structure are complex, with different tariffs for different categories of users and higher tariffs charged to industrial and commercial users than to residential users. Most water tariffs are linear, i.e. there is a single price per unit of water, although there are some increasing-block tariffs where the unit price increases with consumption. Urban tariffs are approved by Price Bureaus of cities, after considerable prior negotiation. Tariffs do not require approval from a higher level of government.

'''Examples''' In [[Tianjin]], where the water tariffs had not been raised once between 1949 and 1985, it has been raised eight times until 2006. As a result, cost recovery has improved significantly. For example, in the province of Henan most small town utilities recover operation and maintenance costs and report modest operating profits. <ref> [http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2006/06/08/000090341_20060608095406/Rendered/PDF/33668.pdf Henan World Bank, Annex 1] </ref>

In [[Chengdu]] the average water tariff was US$ 0.14/m3 in 2001. Despite the relatively low water tariff the utility's revenues were twice as high as recurrent costs, allowing for a significant share of self-financing.<ref> This [[working ratio]] was 0.5[http://www.adb.org/Water/Indicators/Profiles/Chengdu_city.pdf Chengdu ADB 2001] </ref> In Shanghai the average water tariff was only US$ 0.10/m2 in 2001 and production costs are higher, so that the utility did not fully recover its recurrent cost and had an operating loss.<ref>[http://www.adb.org/Water/Indicators/Profiles/Shanghai_city.pdf Shanghai ADB 2001]</ref>

=== Rural areas ===

In rural areas, according to the World Bank users pay about 75% of investment costs and 100% of operation and maintenance costs. <ref> [http://lnweb18.worldbank.org/ESSD/ardext.nsf/18ByDocName/China-CountryWaterResourcesAssistanceStrategy103KB/$FILE/ChinaCountryWaterResourcesAssistanceStrategy.pdf World Bank World Bank Country Water Resourcese Assistance Strategy 2002, p. 20] </ref> Rural tariffs do not need to be approved.

== Investment and financing ==
=== Investment level and breakdown ===

Investments in the sector have than tripled over the past years. Accodring to the World Bank, in 1991–2005 a total of US$ 54bn was invested in urban water supply and sanitation, equivalent to only US$ 3.7bn per year. During the 11th Five Year Plan in 2006–10 almost almost US$ 11bn per year are expected to be invested in the sector, thus investing in five years as much as had been invested in the previous fifteen years. More than 60% of these investments are targeted at sanitation, reflecting the backlog in that sector. <ref> World Bank 2007, p. 33 </ref> Figures for rural areas are not available.

=== Financing ===
==== Urban areas ====

The World Bank estimates that urban water and wastewater infrastructure in China has been financed from the following sources in 1991–2005:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!
! Water
! Wastewater
|-
| Municipal government
| 20-30%
| 40-50%
|-
| Domestic banks
| 20-30%
| 10-20%
|-
| State bond program
| 10-20%
| 20-30%
|-
| Private sector
| 10-20%
| 10-20%
|-
| China Development Bank
| 10%
| 5%
|-
| International Financial Institutions
| 5%
| 10%
|}

Source: World Bank 2007, p. 108

It should be noted that implicitly, according to this estimate, the level of self-financing by water and wastewater utilities is zero. Nevertheless there clearly will be an upward pressure on tariffs, since 70-80% of water infrastructure and 50-60% of wastewater infrastructure is financed either through debt or private equity that requires a remuneration. The remainder is financed through municipal equity, which typically requires no remuneration and thus helps to keep tariffs low.
The major international financial institutions engaged in the sector are the [[World Bank]], the [[Asian Development Bank]] and the [[Japanese Bank for International Cooperation]] (JBIC). Their total share in sector financing is only 5-10%.

Direct debt financing by local government is not allowed in China. However, local-government owned companies can and do contract debt on a large scale. Another mechanism to use debt finance are BOTs which are a popular financing mechanism for water and wastewater treatment plants and bulk water supply systems in China. Under [[BOT]]s private entities undertake investments and recover their costs through fees for bulk water sale or wastewater treatment charged to the utilities. While the government is formally not indebted, the charges for the services are de facto similar to debt service charges.

==== Rural areas ====

In terms of rural and small town infrastructure, channeling funds to the final users through the various layers of local government remains a challenge. According to the magazine [[The Economist]] "some provinces are now bypassing both the prefectural- and township-level governments in order to get funds more directly to rural areas." <ref> "Missing the barefoot doctors", The Economist, October 13 2007, p. 30 </ref>

== See also==
*[[Water resources of China]]
*[[China water crisis]]
*[[Water supply in Hong Kong]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.mwr.gov.cn/english/ Ministry of Water Resources]
*[http://www.adb.org/Publications/product.asp?sku=0040V&p=mltdoc ADB: China’s Water Challenge]

== Key sources and further reading ==

*[http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2007/09/25/000310607_20070925111156/Rendered/PDF/409640P0704130Public.pdf Stepping up - Improving the performance of China's urban water utilities] by Greg Browder et al., World Bank 2007
* Fu, Tao, Miao Chang and Lijin Zhong: Reform of China's Urban Water Sector, International Water Association and Water Policy Research Center of Tsinghua University 2008, ISBN 1843391430
*[http://lnweb18.worldbank.org/ESSD/ardext.nsf/18ByDocName/China-CountryWaterResourcesAssistanceStrategy103KB/$FILE/ChinaCountryWaterResourcesAssistanceStrategy.pdf World Bank Country Water Resources Assistance Strategy 2002]

== References ==

{{reflist}}


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{{Asia topic|Water supply and sanitation in}}
{{Hungarian Premier League seasons}}
{{Health in the People's Republic of China}}
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{{People's Republic of China topics|state=autocollapse}}


[[Category:Water supply and sanitation by country|China]]
[[Category:Football in Hungary]]
[[Category:Health in the People's Republic of China]]
[[Category:1976-77 domestic football (soccer) leagues]]
[[Category:Science and technology in the People's Republic of China]]
[[Category:1976 in football (soccer)]]
[[Category:Environment of the People's Republic of China]]
[[Category:1977 in football (soccer)]]


[[sr:Прва лига Мађарске у фудбалу 1976/77.]]
[[ja:中国の水供給と衛生状態]]

Revision as of 02:28, 11 October 2008

Statistics of Nemzeti Bajnokság I in the 1976/1977 season.

Overview

It was contested by 18 teams, and Vasas SC won the championship.

League standings

Pos Club P W D L GF GA Pts
1 Vasas SC 34 25 3 6 100 45 53
2 Újpesti Dózsa 34 22 6 6 88 47 50
3 Ferencvárosi TC 34 18 11 5 78 42 47
4 Budapest Honvéd FC 34 19 8 7 62 43 46
5 Szombathelyi Haladás 34 14 8 12 53 49 36
6 Videoton 34 14 7 13 60 46 35
7 Győri ETO FC 34 15 5 14 51 46 35
8 MTK Hungária FC 34 15 5 14 56 53 35
9 FC Tatabánya 34 15 3 16 58 56 33
10 Diósgyőri VTK 34 13 6 15 40 52 32
11 Zalaegerszegi TE 34 12 7 15 47 47 31
12 Szegedi EOL 34 11 8 15 39 64 30
13 Békéscsaba 1912 Elöre SE 34 9 10 15 40 57 28
14 Kaposvári Rákóczi FC 34 9 9 16 39 45 27
15 Dunaújváros FC 34 9 9 16 37 60 27
16 Csepel SC 34 8 10 16 45 59 26
17 Salgótarjáni BTC 34 10 5 19 42 77 25
18 Dorogi Bányász 34 5 6 23 28 75 16

References

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