ʿAin ʿArafāt

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Remnants of the ʿAin-ʿArafāt line, here the ʿĀbidīya bridge between the ʿArafāt level and Muzdalifa
Reconstructed course of the two water pipes ʿAin ʿArafāt and ʿAin Hunain
The course of the ʿAin-ʿArafāt line, here referred to as ʿAin Zubaida , from the ʿArafāt plain to Mecca in a map by Eldon Rutter from 1928

The ʿAin ʿArafāt ( Arabic عين عرفات) Or Ayn'Arafa was a pipe that from the 11th century to the Hajj -Pilger in the plane of 'Arafāt supplied with water and in the 1560s years Mecca has been extended. Their starting point was a watercourse in Naʿmān, a wadi between Mecca and at-Tā'if . The extension to Mecca by the Ottoman state took place in the 1560s in order to put the Meccan water supply, which until then was almost entirely dependent on the ʿAin Hunain , on a broader basis. From this time until the early 20th century, the ʿAin ʿArafāt formed the most important basis of the water supply in Mecca. Since the end of the 17th century the ʿAin ʿArafāt has also been called ʿAin Zubaida , on the assumption that this pipe was originally built by Zubaida bint Jaʿfar , but this name also serves as a generic term for the two historical water pipes of Mecca - ʿAin ʿArafāt and ʿAin Hunain - together. Another name that is occasionally used for the ʿAin- ʿArafāt pipe is ʿAin Naʿmān , because its water came from the Wādī Naʿmān.

History of the line up to its extension to Mecca

The Zubaida potions in the ʿArafāt plane

It has been generally assumed since the middle of the 16th century that the pipe that carried the water from the spring in the Wādī Naʿmān to the ʿArafāt plain was built by Zubaida bint Jaʿfar , the wife of Hārūn ar-Rashīd , but it is by Such a building project by Zubaida is not mentioned in any of the older Arab works. Neither Al-Masudi (d. 957), nor the Meccan local historian Al-Azraqi (d. 837) and al-Fākihī (late 9th century.), All detail on the scale of Zubaida water pipe Ayn al-Muschāsch report mention that they had laid a second pipe leading to ʿArafāt. Al-Azraqī, however, mentions an Zubaida potion ( siqāyat Zubaida ) that was located between Muzdalifa and the ʿArafāt level. However, there is no mention of whether the water in these drinking troughs was brought in through a water pipe. The potion seems to have existed until the late 15th century. During this time, ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz Ibn Fahd referred to the Muzlima fountain between ʿArafa plain and Muzdalifa as the "Composition of Zubaida" ( ʿamal Zubaida ).

First news about a water pipe to ʿArafāt

The first author to mention an aqueduct leading into the ʿArafāt plain is the Persian traveler Nāsir-i Chusrau (died between 1072 and 1076). He writes in his Safarnāma that a prince of Aden , who was called the son of Shād-dil, had an underground water pipe built and spent a lot of money on it. The water that was brought in from a distant mountain was dammed in ʿArafāt, where seed fields and vegetable gardens were planted, which were irrigated with it. In addition, a basin had been created in which the water collected. Water carriers brought it from here to Mecca and sold it there. In the days of Hajj , additional basins were filled in the ʿArafāt plain so that the pilgrims had enough water.

The Iraqi historian Muhammad Karīm Ibrāhīm asch-Shamrī suspects that the son of Shād-dil mentioned by Nāsir-i Chusrau is the Nubian emir al-Husain ibn Salāma, who ruled Yemen from 983 to 1011 in the service of the Ziyādids . He is known to have laid out a pilgrimage route from Yemen to Mecca at the end of the 10th century, which he had equipped with numerous wells. As the Yemeni author ʿUmāra al-Yamanī (d. 1174) reports, a branch of this pilgrimage led from at-Tā'if via Naʿmān to ʿArafāt.

Ibn Hilāl as-Sābi 'and the alleged construction of a pipeline from ʿArafāt to Mecca

The Syrian historian Sibt Ibn al-Jschauzī (d. 1256) mentions in his world chronicle Mirʾāt az-zamān fī tawārīḫ al-aʿyān that in the year 466 the Hijra (= 1073/74 AD) a Persian with the name Abū n -Nadīr al-Istarābādhī appeared in Mecca, who distributed money and carried out various construction works on behalf of the Kerman-Seljuk Sultān-Shāh. This also included that he conducted the water from ʿArafāt to Mecca, namely in qanāten which Zubaida had already created, but which had disappeared and lay in ruins. Sibt Ibn al-Jschauzīs source for this information was the Iraqi historian Muhammad Ibn Hilāl as-Sābi '(d. 1087), who wrote a supplement to the history of at-Tabarīs covering the years 448 to 479 of the Hijra.

The two Meccan historians al-Fāsī and ʿUmar Ibn Fahd later adopted this information from Sibt Ibn al-Jschauzī, but corrected the name of the man who carried out the construction work. According to an inscription they found in the vicinity of Mecca, his name was Abū n-Nasr Ibrāhīm ibn Muhammad al-Istarābādhī. In view of the later unsuccessful attempts (see below) to find the line of Zubaida, the modern Saudi scientist Ghubāschī considers it out of the question that al-Istarābādhī actually laid a water pipe from ʿArafāt to Mecca. He says that al-Istarābādhī only tried to do this, but the attempt failed. Another possibility is that al-Istarābādhī was actually re-establishing the leadership of ʿAyn al-Mushāsh , which contemporary reports testify to have been established by Zubaida.

The rebuilding of the leadership of Naʿmān by Jamāl ad-Dīn al-Isfahānī

Obviously the old line after ʿArafāt was soon forgotten again, because Ibn al-Athīr (d. 1233), who reports that around the middle of the 12th century a line from Naʿmān to ʿArafāt describes this line as a completely new building. The builder of this new line was Jamāl ad-Dīn al-Isfahānī (d. 1164), the vizier of ʿImād ad-Dīn Zengi , the founder of the Zengid dynasty. For this purpose, he first installed water systems ( maṣāniʿ li-l-māʾ ) in the ʿArafāt plain and then brought the water through an underground water pipe made of lime ( kils ) from Naʿmān. He spent a lot of money on it and also paid the people of Naʿmān money to have the water run through the pipe during the pilgrims' stay in ʿArafāt. For the people, Ibn al-Athīr concluded, this was a great relief ( rāḥa ʿaẓīma ). According to the report, the aqueduct was only in operation during the days of Hajj . The Meccan historian ʿUmar Ibn Fahd, who also mentions the construction of the line by al-Isfahānī, dates the event to the years 551/52 of the Hijra (= 1156/57 AD) and adds that the Arabs who took up the Pay for withdrawal of the water, to the Banū Saʿīya belonged.

Repairs in the 12th and 13th centuries

The aqueduct from Naʿmān to ʿArafāt dried up again and again over time and was in need of repair, whereby it was various foreign rulers who had the repair work carried out. The Egyptian scholar Ibrāhīm Rifʿat Pasha gives in his book Mirʾāt al-ḥaramain the text of an Arabic inscription in which it is mentioned that the caliph an-Nāsir li-Dīn Allah in the year 584 (= 1188/89 AD) the ʿAin ʿArafa had his Amīr al-Hajj Mujīr al-Dīn Tashtigin repaired. Unfortunately, he does not mention the place where he saw this inscription.

In 594 (= 1197/98 AD) or 595 (1198/99), the ruler of Erbil , Muzaffar ad-Dīn Gökbüri from the Begteginid dynasty , had the ʿArafa line together with the basin in the ʿArafa- Repairing the plane, where he was represented by a sheikh named Abū l-ʿAbbās al-Hadramī ibn ʿAlī al-Irbilī. According to Ibn Challikān (d. 1282), Muzaffar ad-Dīn was the first to let the water flow to the mountain of ʿArafāt on the night before Wuqūf, which cost him a lot of money. He also had water systems and a Türbe built for himself on the mountain . The repair of the line from 594 is also documented by an inscription, the wording of which Ibrāhīm Rifʿat Pasha quotes in his book Mirʾāt al-ḥaramain . According to Qutb ad-Dīn an-Nahrawālī , Muzaffar ad-Dīn had the pipe repaired again in 605 (= 1208/09 AD).

A further repair of the rafArafa pipe and its basins took place around the mid-1230s, after they had been disintegrating and out of order for 20 years, by the Emir Iqbāl ibn ʿAbdallāh al-Sharābī (d. 1255), a Mameluk of the Abbasid caliph al -Mustansir (r. 1226-1242). The completion of the repair and the first water flow took place at the end of Rabīʿ II 633 (= beginning of January 1236). The Meccan historian Taqī ad-Dīn al-Fāsī (d. 1429) reports that he took this information from a building inscription that he himself saw in the ʿArafa plain on Jabal ar-Rahma. Qutb ad-Dīn an-Nahrawālī states that al-Mustansir had the pipe repaired a total of three times, the first time in 625 (= 1228 AD), then in 633 (= 1235/36) and 634 (= 1236/37). He, too, claims to have taken this information from a construction site near the Jebel al-Rahma.

Likewise, al-Mustansir's successor al-Mustaʿsim (r. 1242–1258) seems to have turned his attention to the ʿArafa leadership. He had it repaired in 641 (= 1243/44) by his servant Ash Shihāb Raihān, who was in Mecca.

Repairs in the 15th century

In the year 813 (= 1410/11 AD) the Sultan of Bengal Ghiyāth ad-Dīn Aʿzam Shāh and his envoy Yāqūt al-Ghiyāthī sent money to repair the ʿArafa line to Mecca. The envoy gave this money to the Sharif of Mecca al-Hasan ibn ʿAdschlān so that he could carry out the necessary repairs. According to Qutb al-Dīn an-Nahrawālī, the amount involved was 30,000 Mithqāl gold, and the Sherif actually used this amount to repair the pipe. In the period after that, the Ethiopian trader Barkūt ibn ʿAbdallāh al-Makīn (d. 1427) spent a lot of money on repairing the line. At the same time, the scholar al-Fīrūzābādī (d. 817/1415) who worked in Yemen wrote a work with the title Taʿyīn al-ġurufāt li-l-muʿīn ʿalā ʿAin ʿArafāt (“Determining the amount of water for those who take part in the ʿAraf” helped").

In the year 841 (= 1437/38) the Mamluk Sultan Barsbay and the trader Ibn al-Muzalliq sent 5000 Ashrafī to Mecca to repair the ʿArafa line. During the rule of the Mamluk Sultan Jaqmaq (r. 1438-1453) the ʿArafa line was repaired again. In particular, Bairam Chadschā, who worked between 1446 and 1450 as Muhtasib of Mecca and inspector of the Holy Mosque , made an outstanding contribution . In 853 (1449/50) he repaired a large part of the line and a number of the basins in the EbeneArafāt plain, which the wind had filled with dust. He removed this dust, plastered the basins with lime mortar and made sure that water from the springs came back to them.

When Mustafā, the son of the ruler of Tripoli who had settled in Mecca, died on Safar 27, 875 (= August 25, 1470) , he left no heirs, but a large fortune of over 20,000 dinars , which he has in his will had that it should be used for pious acts. The Mamluk Sultan al-Ashraf Kait-Bay had, among other things, repaired the zugehörigenArafa line and the associated basins in the ʿArafāt plain.

The emir Sunqur al-Jamālī was entrusted with the work in question. He began the work shortly after Mustafā's death in the ʿArafa plain itself and then went up to an-Naʿmān, where he found water. He did not get to the spring itself, but due to his intervention, the water reached the ʿArafa area again on Saturday, 12th Rajab (= 4th January 1471). The emir also repaired the basins that were visible and dug others hidden under the sand. The Meccan historian ʿUmar Ibn Fahd (d. 1480) praises the measure in his Mecca chronicle as “one of the greatest benefits that the Sultan ordered”, on the grounds that the lack of water previously addressed many poor people on ʿArafa day led to the brink of death. The Meccan historiographer ʿAbdallāh al-Ghāzī (d. 1945/46) gives in his Mecca story the text of a stone inscription, which reports on the repair of the line by Sunqur al-Jamālī on behalf of the Sultan Kait-Bay. He saw this stone inscription during the Hajj in 1901 on the Jabal al-Rahma in the ʿArafāt plain and copied it with pencil. The Medinan historian as-Samhūdī (d. 1533) mentions that Kait-Bay also led the water from the pipe to the Nimra Mosque and had a cistern built there to collect the water.

The attempt to extend the line to Mecca through Kait-Bay (1484)

Already in the late Mamluk period there were attempts to extend the ʿAin ʿArafa to Mecca. In 1484 Sultan Kait-Bay made an amount of 11,000 dinars available for this. On 4th Jumādā II 889 (= 29 June 1484) a messenger from Egypt arrived in Mecca, who conveyed the order to carry out the construction project and said that the money for it would be borrowed from al-Chwādscha Jamāl ad-Dīn at-Tāhir could. He could then pick up the said amount from the Chief Qādī Abū l-Baqā Ibn Jīʿān, with whom the Sultan had deposited the money.

The idea that the ʿAin ʿArafa line could be extended to Mecca without great difficulty was based on a confusion between the two lines ʿAin ʿArafāt and ʿAin Bāzān . It goes back to the report on the construction of the ʿAin-Bāzān pipe at al-Maqrīzī. This report says that Amīr Tschūpān was led by people to an old aqueduct in ʿArafāt that no longer worked. During the pilgrimage in 725 (= November 1325) he commissioned one of his confidants to restore this water pipe. From this information, the Meccan historian ʿUmar Ibn Fahd in the late 15th century derived that the line built by Amīr Tschūpān was not the ʿAin Bāzān, but the ʿAin ʿArafāt.

Construction work on the project began that same month (Jumādā II 889). Hundreds of workers were assigned, each of whom received a wage of 3 Ashrafī dinars. Work on the project came to a halt after a few months, however, because the expectation of spilled pipelines was expected, but these did not show up. Therefore, on 23rd Rabīʿ II 890 (= 9 May 1485), a decorated bull was led through Mecca and then to the Muzlima fountain between the ʿArafa plain and Muzdalifa and slaughtered there. Then their meat was distributed among the men who worked on the line there. This was an old custom that was likely to have an effect similar to that of the exposure of the ʿAin-Bāzān conduit in the early 14th century. At least it was possible to extend the line to Muzdalifa .

The repair work of Qā'id Miftāh al-Buqairī (1505-08)

At the beginning of the 16th century, the ʿAin ʿArafāt again stopped supplying water. A certain Chwādscha Shams ad-Dīn paid a troop of workers in 1506 who worked on the line for twenty days, but they were unable to complete the repairs until the beginning of the Hajj, so the governor of Jeddah called for the pilgrims because of the lack of water, Dhū l-Hijjah should not go to the ʿArafāt plain on the 8th, but rather on the 9th , which most of them did.

On 12 Shawal 912 (February 25, 1507) the governor of Jeddah instructed the Qā'id Miftāh al-Buqairī to resume work on the line with the workers. He paid the group an advance for this. Miftāh al-Buqairī went himself with the workers to the pipe, which was buried under rubble. Although they worked hard and in the meantime the governor came by personally to supervise the workers, work on the line continued until ʿArafa Day and even beyond. On 25 Safar 913 (6 July 1507), an official arrived in Jeddah on the ship from Egypt, who was carrying an edict of the Sultan in which the governor of Jeddah praised the initiation and continuation of the repair work on the ʿArafa- Line was pronounced.

On 15 Rabīʿ II 914 (= 13 August 1508) Sultan Qansauh al-Ghūrī sent a decree to the two sherifs of Mecca Qaitbāy ibn Muhammad and Barakāt ibn Muhammad, in which he asked them to have the ʿArafa pipe repaired endeavor whatever it may cost. On 20 Rabīʿ (= 18 August) the Sherif Qaitbāy, the three Qādīs and the Pasha went to ʿArafa to inspect the ʿArafa leadership and to join Miftāh al-Buqairī, who had been in charge of the work there for two years speak. He asked the Sherif to charge a certain amount every month for the work. The group then returned to Mecca to consult with the Sherif Barakāt.

Repairs under the Ottoman Sultan Suleyman I.

At the beginning of the Ottoman rule over Mecca, the ʿAin-ʿArafāt line again ran dry and its pipes had fallen into disrepair. The pilgrims had to bring the water to ʿArafāt from distant places. Some powerful people made a business out of bringing water to ʿArafāt on Arafāt and selling it at a high price. Qutb ad-Dīn an-Nahrawālī reports in his Mecca chronicle from personal memory that in the year 930 (= 1523/24 AD) the wells further away were also dried up and the water price on ʿArafa day, which is on October 8, 1524 fell so high that a tiny tube that could be carried with a finger cost a whole gold dinar. Qutb al-Dīn, who was still a boy at the time, heard the poor cry out in thirst at this incident. In response to this grievance, the Ottoman Sultan Suleyman I gave the order to repair the ʿAin-ʿArafāt line and appointed a man named Muslih ad-Dīn Mustafā from Mecca to oversee the necessary work. He took great pains to repair it and got the water in the pipe flowing again, so that the basins of the ʿArafāt plain were well filled again during the Hajj of the year 931 (September 1525).

Even on ʿArafa day in 938, which fell on July 7, 1532, the basins in the ʿArafa plain were still well filled with fresh water, because the ʿArafa pipeline was working perfectly. The people were very satisfied and said supplications for the Ottoman Sultan. Qutb ad-Dīn reports that the flowing water of the ʿArafāt conduit created grassland and gardens in which plants were grown in the ʿArafāt plain.

Course of the line before its extension

The Karā mountain with the road from Mecca to at-Tā'if. At its foot is the spring that supplied the ʿAin-ʿArafāt line with water.

Qutb ad-Dīn an-Nahrawālī also provides a first description of the course of the ʿArafāt leadership in his Mecca chronicle. He explains that this pipe was fed by the watercourse ( dabl ) of the Karā'-mountain. This, he explains, is a very high mountain, the upper part of which belongs to the area of ​​at-Tā'if and can only be climbed within half a day. Anyone who has climbed it or descended from it does not do this again, because the terrain is very impassable and the path is very difficult. From the watercourse of the Karā'-mountain the water pours through a qanāt to a place which is called al-Audschar and is in Wādī an-Naʿmān. From there the water flows on to a place between two towering mountains above the area of ​​ʿArafāt, where there are various plantations ( mazāriʿ ). According to Qutb ad-Dīn's description, the water in Qanāten continued to flow into the ʿArafa area, where it was diverted around the Jabal ar-Rahma and flowed into various basins from which the pilgrims drank on ʿArafa day. From the ʿArafa area the water then flowed behind the mountain of Ma'zimain through the Dābb way, which was also called Muzlima by the Meccans, to Muzdalifa.

The Ottoman construction project to extend the line to Mecca

The planned reconstruction of the "Zubaida plant"

As in the late Mamluk period, it was assumed in the early Ottoman period that the pipe exposed by Amīr Tschūpān, which supplied Mecca with water, was not the ʿAin Bāzān, but the ʿAin ʿArafāt. However, during the Ottoman period, the idea that the ʿAin-ʿArafāt pipeline that reached as far as Mecca had already been laid by Zubaida became more important. When in Ramadan 960 (= August 1553) there was once again a sharp decrease in the water of the einerAin-Hunain pipeline, the Ottoman governor of Jeddah suggested Emir Iskandar to petition the Ottoman sultan about the lack of water and to change it to ask for the extension of the ʿAin-ʿArafāt line to Mecca, which should take place “on the way of the facility of Zubaida” ( min ṭarīq ʿamal Zubaida ). During this time, many Meccans used to go to ʿArafāt to water their horses with the tap water.

The idea of ​​the "Composition of Zubaida" ( ʿamal Zubaida ) that could be restored became increasingly widespread in the years that followed. It was also decisive that there was a well behind Minā, which was named after Zubaida. Qutb ad-Dīn describes this Zubaida well ( biʾr Zubaida ) as a large well closed with stones, which was so huge that one could believe that the jinn had built it. This fountain was probably relatively new as it is not mentioned in Arabic sources before the 16th century. Ghubāschī locates the fountain in the modern Meccan district of al-ʿAzīzīya at the point where the Sheikh Ibn Bāz Mosque is today.

When in the years after 965 (= 1557 AD) the ʿAin Hunain and the wells of Mecca dried up again and the ʿAin ʿArafāt was the only pipe that still supplied water, the problem of the Meccan water supply was brought back to the Sublime Porte. Sultan Suleyman I then tried to find a more sustainable solution for the Meccan water supply and set up a commission of inquiry on site for this purpose. This commission included ʿAbd al-Bāqī ibn ʿAlī al-ʿArabī, the Qādī of Mecca, Chair ad-Dīn Chidr, the emir of the Sanjak of Jeddah , and various notables from Mecca. The deliberations came to the conclusion that the strongest source was that of the ʿArafāt pipeline and that it would therefore have to form the basis of the water supply for Mecca in the future. With regard to this line, the assumption was made that it originally comprised two parts, namely in addition to the still visible above-ground part, which led from the source to the Zubaida well behind Minā, a second underground, but buried part, that of this Well led to Mecca. The idea was that Zubaida had built the canal from ʿArafa to her well behind Minā above ground, but the canal from there to Mecca underground. Only the ʿAin Hunain line made this line superfluous, so that it was neglected and forgotten. In order to repair and restore the line from al-Audschar to Mecca, the above-ground part had to be repaired and the underground part excavated and repaired, a work that was estimated to cost 30,000 new gold dinars . The commission also had the route of the planned line from al-Audschar via ʿArafāt, Muzdalifa and Minā to Mecca measured and came to the conclusion that it was a total of 45,000 carpenters' positions (= 28.12 kilometers).

Mihrimah Sultan , who commissioned the extension of the ʿAin ʿArafāt to Mecca in 1561

At the beginning of 969 (= autumn 1561 AD) the commission sent a report on this to the Hohe Pforte. According to Qutb ad-Dīn's report, Suleyman's daughter was now active. On the grounds that a woman, namely Zubaida, had also built the water channels, she asked to be allowed to commission the necessary repair work, which her father also allowed her. The Defterdar of Egypt, Ibrāhīm Pascha ibn Taghriverdi al-Mihmandār, was commissioned with the necessary construction work . The princess gave him 50,000 gold dinars to carry out the work, 20,000 more than the commission in Mecca had estimated. It was a few months before he reached Mecca. From the Ottoman Chronicle of Selānikī (d. 1600) it is known that the daughter of Suleyman, who commissioned the extension of the ʿAin-ʿArafāt line to Mecca, was Mihrimah Sultan .

Meanwhile, a man named ʿAbd an-Nabī ibn ʿIwad ar-Rūmī al-Mīqātī, who was staying in the haram for religious reasons, found himself in the hay market ( sūq al-qišāš ) around the middle of 969 (= spring 1562 AD) ) from Mecca a book with signs and border markings, which he said indicated the course of the Zubaida facility for the ʿArafa line to the so-called Birkat as-Sullam. The Birkat as-Sullām was a 14th century basin in Minā , which was probably fed with rainwater from the area. As the Egyptian scholar al-Jazīrī (d. 1570) reports, ʿAbd an-Nabī bought the book for ten half dirhams and referred the matter to the Qādī ʿAbd al-Bāqī ibn ʿAlī al-ʿArabi. If he would send him workers and builders, he promised him he could show them the traces he had found in the book. The Qādī provided him with a sum of money and allowed him to use the slaves of the ʿAin-Bāzān leadership for the work.

Before the men began digging, they sacrificed the jinn because they had been told they were claiming their rights. For this purpose, three cows were led through the streets of Mecca in a festive procession and then slaughtered at the site of the excavations. The Qādī also bought three virgin camels with the Sultan's money. These were decorated, brought by as-Safā in a solemn procession to the site of the excavations and also slaughtered there. This was based on the procedure in the 14th century when the ʿAin Bāzān were exposed.

Al-Jazīrī reports that the men found signs and boundary markings eleven to twelve cubits apart , which they dug up. They exactly matched the drawings in the book. At the end of the month of Shabān (= end of April 1562) a sergeant ( çavuş ) from the Sublime Porte arrived to inspect the affairs of the administration. He was accompanied by builders and engineers. Although the builders could still go beyond Muzdalifa, work on the management came to a standstill at the end of the month of Schauwāl (= end of June 1562) when the Egyptian pilgrim caravan arrived. This had in part to do with the fact that Qādī ʿAbd al-Bāqī, who had supported the project, was fired.

Arrival of the Ottoman builders and development of a new spring

The builder Ibrāhīm Pascha ibn Taghriverdi commissioned by Mihirmah Sultan traveled with a number of implements such as earth baskets, picks and shovels, as well as iron, steel, copper, lead and the like in the Hejaz and met Dhū l-Qaʿda on the 22nd . July 1562) entered Jeddah. From there he traveled to Mecca, where the Sherif Hasan ibn Abī Numaiy prepared a solemn reception for him.

After Qutb ad-Dīn, Ibrāhīm came to Mecca with the expectation that he would be able to complete the work on the leadership within a year, and then return to the Sublime Porte and gain high offices there. Upon his arrival in Mecca, he immediately went to work. First he had some wells, from which people used to fetch water, cleaned and digged deeper so that they would supply more water. Then he went to the area above ʿArafāt to examine the channels of the ʿAin ʿArafāt in detail. In Dhu l-Hijah he interrupted these investigations to take part in the Hajj . After the end of the pilgrimage, he continued work on the ʿAin ʿArafāt, uncovered its pipes and then pitched his tent at al-Oudshar in Wādī an-Naʿmān. There he also exposed the tubes and cleaned them. Then he went to the starting point of the spring on Karā'-mountain and exposed it. Ibrāhīm found a second spring in an-Naʿmān, which carried a lot of water. With it he supplemented the water of the ʿArafa pipe. Then he began cleaning and repairing the pipe.

Disillusionment: The search for the "Zubaida complex" has proven in vain

Al-Jazīrī reports on a conversation with the Sherif Hasan ibn Abī Numaiy , during which he expressed doubts about the possibility of continuing the line to Mecca based on the border markings. Al-Jazīrī quotes him as saying:

“If this had been possible, it would have been accomplished by Zubaida because of her great desire to do good to the inhabitants of the two holy places in their time. But it prevented them from having a lot of rocks and an enormous drop. If you lead the line on a different route than these boundary markings, you may be successful. "

As al-Jazīrī reports, it was said in his day that Zubaida was only able to bring the leadership up to this point because, when the matter was brought to her, she said: “We will definitely finish it”. Since she had not used the formula In shā 'Allaah when speaking about her plan , it had not been fulfilled and work on the line had come to a standstill.

At the beginning of Rabīʿ I 970 (= end of October 1562) Ibrāhīm went with the two Qādīs Husain al-Mālikī and Fudail Schalabī ibn ʿAlī Jamālī and Chair ad-Dīn, the commander of the Ottoman garrison in Jeddah, to the district of Bathā 'Quraish for one to work out a new plan that did without the Zubaida facility. They decided not to lead the new line via Mafjir, but via Bathā 'Quraish to Mecca and to build bridges for it. In developing the new plan, Ibrāhīm also consulted the Arabic Mecca chronicle of al-Fākihī from the late 9th century. On the basis of this chronicle, Ibrāhīm finally established that the assumption of ʿAbd an-Nabī al-Mīqātīs was wrong and that what was reported about the uncovering of "the complex of Zubaida" did not refer to the ʿArafa leadership, but to the Hunain leadership, whose tubes could easily be exposed in the Mughammas Plain.

Repair and extension of the line to Minā

In his Mecca chronicle, Qutb ad-Dīn writes that Ibrāhīm carried out the work with a total of 400 Mamluks and additionally employed 1000 workers, builders, engineers, well experts, blacksmiths, stone cutters and carpenters. In a letter from Qutb ad-Dīn from the beginning of Shābān 970 (= end of March 1563), quoted by al-Jazīrī, even higher numbers are mentioned: a total of 600 stone masons from all over the Hejaz and 4,000 masons, carpenters and blacksmiths were gathered at Ibrāhīm. Qutb ad-Dīn reports that whole groups of craftsmen were brought in from Upper and Lower Egypt, Damascus, Aleppo, Istanbul and Yemen. Each of these groups assigned Ibrāhīm a specific section of the pipe in which to expose and clean the tubes. The builders and engineers showed great effort in digging, building and smashing obstructive boulders. In this way, the men could quickly expose the old pipe as far as Muzdalifa, with the water immediately following them. The cost of feeding the men was ten gold pieces for every cubit.

A Mamluke which extent the flow of water in the channel, noted that he is a cubit was deep and three yards wide. According to Qutb ad-Dīn, a measurement showed that the flow of water was about 150 lule the thickness of a thumb. The water rushed in the canal. People came to admire the sight and pitched their tents by the line to stroll. The Sherif Hasan ibn Abī Numaiy also came to the ʿArafāt plain for a week with his son Abū l-Qāsim and the Qādī Husain al-Mālikī. On the way back to Mecca, however, Abū l-Qāsim had an accident when he fell into one of the holes newly dug for the line while riding his horse at high speed.

By the spring of 1563, Ibrāhīm repaired and renewed the channels of the ʿArafāt line from the source to the Zubaida well. In total, it was a distance of 40,000 practical cubits (= 27 kilometers). The builders went to great lengths to cut the stones from al-Mafjir, which was located behind Minā between the Zubaida well and the Sullam pond. When the repair work had reached the Zubaida well, the commander Ibrāhīm gave there on the 28th Shaʿbān 970 (= 22 April 1563) to celebrate a large banquet, to which he invited the notables, legal scholars and traders from Mecca. Tents and umbrellas were put up. The solemn highlight of the event, which was similar to the crowd on ʿArafa Day due to the large number of people, was the introduction of the water into the Zubaida well. A little later, a messenger from Egypt brought Ibrāhīm the good news of an increase in his salary to 50,000 Akçe .

Continuation of the work by cutting out the rocks

High hopes were connected with the project to extend the ʿAin ʿArafa to Mecca. Qutb ad-Dīn expressed the expectation that with the strong water flow through the pipeline, Mecca could become a fertile, cultivated land, similar to that in Syria. However, the work on the route from the Zubaida well to Mecca turned out to be considerably more difficult than expected because no trace of the presumed underground canal of the Zubaida could be found.

Despite the difficulties he encountered, Ibrāhīm showed great ambitions to extend the ʿArafa leadership from as far as Mecca. To achieve this goal, he had to have the hard rock cut five cubits wide and 40 cubits deep for a distance of 2000 cubits. The rocks on the route were made of granite that could not be cut with iron. In order to be able to chop off the rocks, one had to soften them beforehand by setting fire . Ibrāhīm proceeded by exposing five by six cubits at a time until the granite rock was hit, and then burning a hundred camel loads of firewood there, which lasted a night. Then you could remove the surface of the rock at the point. This procedure was repeated until the desired depth was reached. In this way, 200,000 camel loads of firewood were burned within a short time, until the firewood in the wadis and valleys around Mecca was completely used up, which caused the inhabitants of Mecca to suffer greatly.

Had Qutb ad-Dīn on the 5th Ramadan 970 (= 28 April 1563) made the assumption that only four months would be necessary for the completion of this work, if Ibrāhīm received reinforcements from stone cutters from Egypt, this time calculation soon had to be revised, because the workers were very slow in cutting the rocks. The builder Ibrāhīm estimated in the meantime that the extension of the line to Mecca would take another eight years. Qutb al-Dīn notes that it took as much time as Noah's age , as much money as Korach's fortune, and as much patience as Job's patience to complete the work. The elderly residents of Mecca even found it quite impossible to continue this work from there to Mecca. However, once the company had begun, giving up was out of the question because the “honor of the sublime Sultanate” ( nāmūs as-salṭana aš-šarīfa ) was at stake, as Qutb ad-Dīn notes.

Ottoman archival documents show that those who worked on the construction of the line were given 1,500 Irdabb wheat and 1,000 Irdabb broad beans , lentils, chickpeas and rice annually . The workers' wages were paid from the Jeddah customs revenue . In between there were always additional difficulties that delayed the work. For example, on 5th Jumādā I 971 (December 21, 1563), after eight hours of heavy rain, a violent flood occurred in the area of ​​Mecca, which forced Ibrāhīm and his people to flee to Mount Thabīr. The trench they dug was meanwhile blocked with earth and stones.

As more and more of Ibrāhīms Mamluks died, he went over in 971 (1563/64 AD) to forcing the slaves of the traders and the inhabitants of Mecca to work on the line. To do this, his people visited all the houses in the city. Wherever they saw slaves or young men who could work, they seized them. Those who refused were beaten. A lot of money for the construction of the pipeline was also brought to Mecca by pilgrim caravan from the citadel in Cairo . As al-Jazīrī reports, Ibrāhīm informed him at the Hajj in 971 (= in July 1564 AD) that two thirds of the work for the completion of the line had already been done and that he estimated a time of one year for the rest .

Completion of the new line

Contrary to what was expected, Ibrāhīm had to continue working on the line with great difficulty for two and a half years, during which time he was only able to cut the rock over a distance of 1500 cubits. Problems also arose from the fact that in between workers repeatedly fled the construction site and moved to Egypt. They were sent back to Mecca by the Wālī of Egypt on the orders of the Sultan . Ibrāhīm spent a total of 150,000 gold dinars from the Ottoman state treasury for work on the line. On the 2nd Radschab 974 (= January 13th 1567) he died of diarrhea after being emaciated for a long time . After his death, two other Ottoman commanders took over the continuation of the work one after the other, but both died of illnesses and thus became "martyrs of the leadership" ( šuhadāʾ al-ʿain ).

The aqueduct was only completed five years later, during the reign of Suleyman's son Sultan Selim II (ruled 1566–74). In the meantime, material supplies were brought in from Istanbul via Egypt again and again, for example in 975 (1567/68) pig iron and 500 qintār of oil, which were needed for lighting inside the canal. The day on which the water first flowed in the canals to Mecca, the 20th Dhū l-Qaʿda 979 (= April 4, 1572), was celebrated with a great festival. The Meccan Oberqādī Husain al-Husainī, who had last supervised the work, gave a large feast in his garden in the lower town, to which he invited all the city's notables and for which he set up marquees and numerous camels, cattle and sheep slaughtered. On the occasion, he gave the leading builders and engineers magnificent robes of honor, distributed generous gifts to the others present and donated alms to the poor. When the news of the completion of the aqueduct reached the Ottoman client, she gave generous gifts to those officials who had participated in the work and made sure that they were promoted. This also applied to Husain al-Husainī, whose salary as a professor at the Sulaimānīya Madrasa in Mecca was raised to 100 Akçe per day. An Ottoman document dated August 29, 1572 informs that Husain al-Husainī was also appointed Sheikh al- Haram on the same occasion .

Thanks to the new pipeline, all of Mecca could be supplied with water from the inAin ʿArafāt. In the same year 979 (= 1572/73 AD) the Amīr Ahmad Beg was commissioned to extend the aqueduct to the lower part of Mecca. Because an order from the Sultan said that this water should not flow in the ʿAin-Hunain pipe, but that a separate pipe should be built for it. The supervision of the work was again transferred to Husain al-Husainī. A skilled builder, Muhammad, the Chāwish of the high Dīwān, was put at their side. The three agreed to first tear down everything necessary. The line then passed alongside al-Muddaʿā and the Chān of Kaitbay to al-Marwa and Suwaiqa, from where it turned to the small market. In al-Abtah, in the upper part of Mecca, a domed structure with copper outflow pipes on its rear wall was built to distribute the water from ʿArafāt. In addition, in other places in Mecca, Ahmad Beg built two water distribution points ( subul ) and a water basin to water the animals. As a reward for this he received 70,000 Akçe from the sultan's treasure .

History of the line after its renewal

Repairs in the 16th and 17th centuries

The extension of the ʿAin ʿArafāt to Mecca put the water supply of the Holy City on a new basis, but the maintenance of the new building required further great commitment from the Ottoman side. After a short time, the water pipe had to be repaired for the first time because it was partially damaged in a flood in 1576. To repair the damage, 27,000 florins were spent. In 1580 the Qādī of Mecca sent ʿAbd al-Bāqī a letter to Sultan Murad III. , in which he pointed out that in the upper part of the pipe the canal did not have enough gradient in some places so that a large part of the water flowed back to the source. He estimated the cost of the necessary repairs to be 1,000 florins . Murad III thereupon ordered the governor of Egypt to take care of the rectification of the deficiencies in the line and to allocate 5,000 florins from the state treasury of Egypt. Ottoman archival documents show that the governor of Egypt then commissioned Amīr Ahmad Beg to carry out the project.

In 1025 (= 1616) the ʿAin ʿArafāt was repaired again, this time Sultan Ahmed I (r. 1603-1617) was the client. The repair, which was carried out by a certain Hasan Pasha, was so successful that afterwards the water flowed back to Mecca, which was received with great joy by the Meccan population. In the year 1060 (= 1650 AD) the water flow was interrupted not only at the ʿAin ʿArafāt, but also at the ʿAin Hunain, so that the people had great inconvenience. The single hose of water cost 40 muhallaq. The governor of Jeddah, a certain Muhammad Beg, finally took care of the repair of the line and spent a lot of money on it. He went to Mecca, cleaned the pipes and repaired the parts that had disintegrated until the water flowed back to Mecca, which again made Mecca very happy. As-Sinjari dated the repair to the year 1066 (= 1655/56 AD). According to the description of the Meccan scholar ʿAlī ibn ʿAbd al-Qādir at-Tabarī (d. 1660), who wrote a historical work on Mecca in the 17th century, the two lines were no longer completely separate at that time, as originally intended, but united was in a place called al-Miqsam ("Distributor") in the area of ​​al-Maʿābida.

Another repair in 1084 (= 1673/74) on behalf of the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed IV is documented by a marble inscription, the text of which Ibrāhīm Rifʿat Pasha reproduces in his book Mirʾāt al-ḥaramain . He saw this inscription at the beginning of the 20th century on Jabal ar-Rahma in the ʿArafāt plain. After Ibrāhīm Rifʿat Pascha, Mehmed IV ordered further important repairs in 1093 (= 1682). A huge dam was built in the Wādī Naʿmān, which was supposed to prevent the floodwater from entering the pipes and clogging them. 20 barriers ( ḫarazāt ) were installed over the access shafts of the canals . When on 13th Rabī auf al-auwal 1099 (= 17th January 1688) the line broke in a distance of 30 cubits, the Sherif immediately sent engineers to repair the damage.

The repairs made by Mehmed Beg and Ebubekir Pasha

On 10th Dhū l-Qaʿda 1103 (= July 24, 1692) the Ottoman builder Mehmed Beg ibn Hüseyn Pasha came to Mecca to repair the line on behalf of Sultan Ahmed I after a petition had been submitted to him in who had been informed of the lack of water and the deterioration of the pipe. He went with the ruling Sherif Saʿīd ibn Saʿd to Naʿmān and inspected the damage at the source. Then he renewed three barriers ( ḫarazāt ) on inspection shafts and cleaned the canals so that the water could flow back to the Mājin basin in the lower part of Mecca. He also repaired various pools in ʿArafāt and Mecca.

Mehmed Beg came again on 23 Schauwāl 1123 (= 24 November 1711) to Mecca to repair the pipe a second time on behalf of the Sultan. This time, accompanied by the ruling Sherif ʿAbd al-Karīm, the Qādī , the Muftis of Mecca and various scholars and engineers, he went to ʿArafa, Naʿmān and Mafdschar and examined the damage to the line with them. The engineers came to the conclusion that five inspection shafts had to be repaired and ten more new ones had to be built, and the line from Naʿmān to Mecca also had to be repaired. Mehmed Beg announced that a petition had to be filed with the Sublime Porte , and the engineers estimated the cost of the entire construction at 100,240 Ahmar. A letter was drawn up about it and underneath it put the signatures of all those who had participated in the inspection of the leadership. Mehmed Beg himself undertook the repair of the line according to these specifications in the following period; the work was completed in 1125 (= 1713 AD).

In the years 1137 (= 1724) and 1140 (= 1727) the Ottoman statesman Ebubekir Pasha, who is known for his aqueduct in Cyprus , made repairs to the line. When ʿAin ʿArafa and ʿAin Hunain dried up again in Safar in 1144 (= August 1731) and people had great grief because of it, the Qādī Hanīf, known as al-Qādī ʿĪd, wrote the Qādī Hanīf ad-Dīn ibn al-Qādī Muhammad (d. 1730) for Ebubekir Pasha a treatise on the history of the two lines. In it, he asked him to rescue him from an emergency and referred to his previous commitment as a builder of aqueducts. The line was then repaired again by the Sublime Porte.

Repairs in the late 18th and early 19th centuries

Course of the ʿAin ʿArafāt in the ʿArafāt plain in the travel report of Jean Louis Burckhardt (1814)

Further repairs from the Ottoman side took place in 1767 and 1777. The repair, which was completed in 1767, is reported in the Ottoman history by Mustafā Reschīd Tscheschmīzāde (died 1770). It was under the direction of the Ottoman hydraulic engineer Feyzullāh Efendi, lasted three years and cost 68,000 piasters , some of which were paid for from the jizya payments from Cairo . The repair work, which also included the ʿAin Hunain, could be completed in Dhū l-Qaʿda 1180 (= April 1767) and resulted in the water from the two pipes flowing back to Mecca.

During the siege of Mecca by the Wahhabis in 1219 (= 1804/05) the water supply to Mecca via the ʿAin ʿArafāt was interrupted. In 1814, when Jean Louis Burckhardt visited Mecca, it was in rather poor shape. As Burckhardt writes in his travelogue, the government neglected necessary repairs and cleaning work, with the result that most of the water on the way to the city flowed out through openings or seeped into the ground.

Mahmud II had the line repaired again in 1235 (= 1819/20). When the pipeline was damaged in a flood in 1242 (= 1827/28) and no more water was supplied, the Egyptian governor Muhammad Ali Pascha sent someone to repair the pipeline. Ottoman archival documents show that in 1857 Sultan Abdülmecid I made great efforts to repair the line. A letter of thanks referring to this has also been preserved, signed by the 167 residents of Mecca.

Already in the 18th century people started to call the ʿAin-ʿArafāt line ʿAin Zubaida . The Ottoman scholar Eyüp Sabrī Paşa (d. 1890), who wrote a comprehensive work on the history of Mecca in 1884, gives the following explanation of this name change: Although the actual name of the pipe, the water is as tasty as the water from Taksim in Istanbul be, ʿAin ʿArafāt, but it was called ʿAin Zubaida because it was the exquisite work ( es̱er-i bergüzīde ) of Zubaida’s efforts.

After the establishment of the ZubAin-Zubaida Commission

There is new news about repairs to the ʿAin ʿArafa again from the 1870s. It is reported that after a drought in 1874, when the pipeline dried up, a group of Meccan scholars came together under the leadership of the Sherif ʿAbdallāh (r. 1858–1877) who decided to raise money for the ʿAin ʿ Repair the Arafa line. This group, later called the ʿAin-Zubaida Commission, included the Mufti of Mecca ʿAbd ar-Rahmān Sirādsch, the doorkeeper of the Kaaba ʿAbdallāh asch-Shaibī and the Sheikhs ʿAbd ar-Rahmān Jamāl and ʿAbd al-Qrādir Chādir Chādir. They received financial support from other personalities and were thus able to temporarily repair the line.

In 1908, the Ottoman official Hāschim ibn Sultān ad-Dāghistānī made a map of the ʿAin-ʿArafāt line showing its route from the source to Mecca. It remained with the ʿAin-Zubaida Commission, but ad-Dāghistānī took a copy of it to Istanbul. After the first ʿAin Zubaida commission was dissolved due to financial irregularities, a new ʿAin Zubaida commission was founded in 1909. One of their first tasks was to repair the damage caused by a flash flood caused by heavy rainfall in January 1910: the canals of the ʿAin ʿArafāt had become clogged with debris and 35 inspection shafts had collapsed. The ʿAin Zubaida commission also had water reservoirs built at several points along the line that were connected to it and were called Bāzān. In the 1920s there were seven such water reservoirs in Mecca and one each in ʿArafāt , Muzdalifa and Minā . As Eldon Rutter describes, the line in ʿArafāt encompassed the Jabal ar-Rahma on all sides except the eastern one. Parts of the top of the wall, within which the line ran, partially functioned as a footpath, to which one could climb stairs in four places.

Current condition

Remnants of the ʿAin-ʿArafāt line in the ʿArafāt level

Remnants of the ʿAin-ʿArafāt leadership are still visible today in the ʿArafāt plain, in Muzdalifa and in the Meccan district of al-ʿAzīzīya. Some parts of the pipeline run above ground, others underground. The width of the canal from the inside is about 50 to 60 centimeters, the depth varies from 70 to 170 centimeters. The parts of the pipe running above ground are enclosed in a solid stone wall, on the top of which there are openings at intervals of four to ten meters for the extraction of water and for cleaning. In many places you can climb ladders to these openings. In most places, the wall leading the line runs along mountain slopes. In order to allow the rainwater to drain off during heavy rains, which are common in the Mecca area, this masonry is provided with openings in some places. At individual points where the line crosses valleys, it is led over bridges. The best known example is the bridge of al-ʿĀbidīya (see picture above).

literature

Arabic sources (in chronological order)
  • Taqī ad-Dīn Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad al-Fāsī: al-ʿIqd aṯ-ṯamīn fī tārīḫ al-balad al-amīn. 7 vols. Dār al-kutub al-ʿilmīya, Beirut, 1998. Digitized
  • Naǧm ad-Dīn ʿUmar ibn Muḥammad bin Fahd (d. 1480): ad-Durr al-kamīn bi-ḏail al-ʿIqd aṯ-ṯamīn. Ed. ʿAbd al-Malik Ibn Duhaiš. Dār Ḫiḍr, Beirut, 2000. Digitized
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  • ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz ibn ʿUmar Ibn Fahd (d. 1517): Bulūġ al-qirā fī ḏail Itḥāf al-warā bi-aḫbār Umm al-Qurā . Ed. Ṣalāḥ ad-Dīn b. Ḫalīl Ibrāhīm u. a. 4 Vols. Dār al-Qāhira, Cairo, 1425/2005. Digitized
  • ʿAbd al-Qādir ibn Muḥammad al-Ǧazīrī (d. 1570): Durar al-fawāʾid al-munaẓẓama fī aḫbār al-ḥāǧǧ wa-ṭarīq Makka al-muʿaẓẓama . 2 vols. Dār al-kutub al-ʿilmīya, Beirut, 2002. Digitized
  • Quṭb ad-Dīn an-Nahrawālī : Kitāb al- Iʿlām bi-aʿlām bait Allāh al-ḥarām . Ed. Ferdinand Wüstenfeld . Brockhaus, Leipzig, 1857. pp. 334-350. Digitized
  • ʿAlī ibn ʿAbd al-Qādir aṭ-Ṭabarī (d. 1660): al-Araǧ al-miskī fī t-tārīḫ al-Makkī. Ed. Asraf Aḥmad al-Ǧammāl. Al-Maktaba at-Tiǧārīya, Mecca, 1416/1996. Pp. 83-85. Digitized
  • ʿAlī ibn Tāǧ ad-Dīn as-Sinǧārī (d. 1713): Manāʾiḥ al-karam fī aḫbār Makka wa-l-bait wa-wulāt al-ḥaram. Ed. Ǧamīl ʿAbdallāh Muḥammad al-Miṣrī. 6 vols. Ǧāmiʿat Umm al-Qurā, Mecca, 1419/1998. Digitized
  • Ḥanīf ad-Dīn ibn al-Qāḍī Muḥammad (d. 1730): Risāla fī ʿImārat al-ʿainain: ʿAin Nuʿmān wa-ʿAin Ḥunain . Laǧnat al-Maṭbūʿāt fī t-Tanšīṭ as-Siyāḥī bi-Muḥāfaẓat aṭ-Ṭāʾif, aṭ-Ṭāʾif, 1423h (= 2002 AD).
  • Muḥammad ibn ʿAlī aṭ-Ṭabarī (d. 1759/60): Itḥāf fuḍalāʾ az-zamān bi-tārīḫ wilāyat Banī l-Ḥasan . Dār al-Kitāb al-ǧamiʿī, Cairo, 1996.
  • Ibrāhīm Rifʿat Bāšā: Mirʾāt al-ḥaramain: au ar-riḥlāt al-Ḥigāzīya wa-l-ḥaǧǧ wa-mašāʿiruhū ad-dīnīya . Dār al-kutub al-Miṣrīya, Cairo, 1925. Vol. I, pp. 209-224. Digitized
  • ʿAbdallāh ibn Muḥammad al-Ġāzī: Ifādat al-anām bi-aḫbār balad Allāh al-ḥarām . Ed. ʿAbd al-Malik ibn Duhaiš. Maktabat al-Asadī, Mecca, 2009. Vol. II, pp. 281–355. Digitized
Secondary literature
  • Eldon Rutter: The holy cities of Arabia . Putnam, London, New York, 1928. Digitized
  • ʿĀdil Muḥammad Nūr ʿAbdallāh Ġubāšī: al-Munšaʾāt al-māʾīya li-ḫidmat Makka al-Mukarrama wa-l-mašāʾir al-muqaddasa: min al-qarn al-ʿāšir ḥattā awāsya . Markaz Tārīḫ Makka al-Mukarrama, Mekka, 2016. pp. 79–81, 88–90, 119–122, 124–126, 253–281, 303–305, etc.
  • Mustafa Güler: Osmanlı Devlet'inde Haremeyn Vakıfları (XVI. – XVII. Yüzyılları) . TATAV, Istanbul, 2002. pp. 64-68.
  • Ömer Faruk Yılmaz: Belgelerle Osmanlı Devrinde Hicaz. I. Mekke-i Mükerreme . Çamlıca, Istanbul, 2008.

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Muḥammad Ṭāhir al-Kurdī al-Makkī: at-Tārīḫ al-qawīm li-Makka wa-bait Allāh al-karīm . Dār Ḫiḍr, Beirut, 2000. Vol. V, p. 406 digitized
  2. ↑ So z. B. Already in Quṭb ad-Dīn an-Nahrawālī : Kitāb al-Iʿlām bi-aʿlām bait Allāh al-ḥarām . 1857, p. 336.
  3. ↑ a b Ġubāšī: al-Munšaʾāt al-māʾīya li-ḫidmat Makka al-Mukarrama . 2016, p. 76f.
  4. ↑ al-Azraqī: Aḫbār Makka wa-mā ǧāʾ a fī-hā min al-āṯār. Ed. ʿAbd al-Malik Ibn Duhaiš. Maktabat al-Asadī, Mekka, 2003. p. 796. Digitized
  5. ↑ a b ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz Ibn Fahd: Bulūġ al-qirā . 2005, p. 392f.
  6. ↑ Safarnāme: the travel diary of the Persian poet Nāṣir-i Ḫusrau . Translated by Uto von Melzer. Leykam, Graz, 1993. pp. 80, 90.
  7. ↑ Muḥammad Karīm Ibrāhīm aš-Šamrī: "Al-Ḥusain ibn Salāma an-Nūbī wa-dauru-hū fī tārīḫ al-Yaman al-islāmī" in Maǧallāt al-Qādisīya li-l-ʿulūm al-insānīya 13/2 15-35. Here p. 22f.
  8. ↑ ʿUmāra al-Yamanī: Taʾrīḫ al-Yaman . Edited and translated by Henry Cassels Kay in Yaman, its early medieval history . Edward Arnold, London, 1892. Arab. Text p. 9, engl. 12. trans. S. Digitalisat
  9. ↑ Sibṭ Ibn al-Ǧauzī: Mirʾāt az-zamān fī tawārīḫ al-aʿyān . Dār ar-Risāla al-ʿĀlamīya, Beirut, 2013. Vol. XIX, p. 280 digitized
  10. ↑ al-Fāsī: al-ʿIqd aṯ-ṯamīn fī tārīḫ al-balad al-amīn. 1998, Vol. III, p. 164.
  11. ↑ ʿUmar Ibn Fahd: Itḥāf al-warā bi-aḫbār Umm al-Qurā . Vol. II, p. 276.
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