Pluriarc
Pluriarc ( French , derived from Latin plures , "several" and arcus , "bow") describes a group of multi-string musical bows , which are also classified as bow lutes and are common in black African music . Two to eight strings for one string at a different pitch are attached to a common resonance body , which consists of a wooden box, a calabash or occasionally a tin canister. The strings are usually plucked with the fingers or with a pick on a finger without shortening them.
The four typologically separated distribution areas are on the African Atlantic coast and extend from Ghana in the northwest (group NW) via Nigeria , Cameroon (group N), Gabon , Republic of the Congo (group C) to Angola in the south (group S). Pluriarcs brought by African slaves were also used in Brazil until the end of the 19th century .
Design
A musical bow consists of a curved and flexible string carrier with a string stretched between the two ends. A variant of this basic form of a stringed instrument is the musical stick, also known as the zither stick , over whose straight, rigid string support one or more strings run at a certain distance. In rare cases there are musical bows with multiple strings on a strongly curved string carrier. One example is the three-string ekidongo , which in Uganda is only played solo by men. It differs from the simplest form of a bow harp only in that the string carrier is not organically connected to a resonance box . Instead, all musical bows and stick zithers have a separate, detachable resonance body, which is firmly tied to the string carrier at one point or which is only brought into contact while playing.
Pluriarcs are multi-string musical bows in which several strings are firmly connected to a resonance body and which expand like branches in space or like a fork in a plane. The classification as bow lutes within the category of lute instruments in the Hornbostel-Sachs system assumes that the strings run parallel to the top of the sound box, which is not the case with all types of the very diverse group of instruments.
The first illustration of a Pluriarc can be found in the second volume of Syntagma musicum by Michael Praetorius , published in 1619 . The music scholar considered the instrument shown to be of "Indian" origin and subtitled the drawing with "Indian instruments at the sound of the harp". In fact, it probably came from the coast of Gabon. The first Europeans landed there in 1470 and soon established trade contacts. The origin of the Pluriarcs is suspected in the Gabun- Congo area . Today's Batéké still used a form of pluriarc with eight strings at the end of the 19th century, which hardly differed from the one shown by Praetorius.
The term “Pluriarc” was introduced in 1919 by the anthropologist and racial theorist George Montandon from French-speaking Switzerland in his cultural-geographical classification of musical instruments . In it he assigned the musical instruments to certain “civilization cycles”.
At the end of the 1890s, Bernhard Ankermann , together with Fritz Graebner, cataloged the Pluriarcs in the Africa Department of the Berlin Ethnographic Museum . In Die African Musikinstrumenten (1901), Ankermann classifies the pluriarcs into three groups according to the way in which the strings are attached to the sound box: In the first and most numerous group (VIa), the strings are clamped and run at the end on a strip under the body floor first along the floor and then up the opposite side in an arc. It occurs from the Ogooué River in Gabon southwards across the Congo Basin to northern Angola. Ankermann further subdivides this group according to the shape of the resonance box , which is (1) tapering on the side of the string carrier ( lukonde of Bakuba ), (2) rectangular with a flat top , straight back wall and inwardly curved side parts opposite or (3) long rectangular with protruding , nailed ceiling can be. The second group (VIb) has a box open at the bottom made of boards tied together in the shape of a truncated pyramid. Two instruments from Lower Niger in Nigeria have eight strings, another instrument from southern Cameroon has five strings. In the third group (VIc), the string carriers are inserted into the box through an end face. This includes a shape with a triangular box, which consists of two wooden panels on the side and a glued or attached ceiling. These five or seven string instruments are open at the back. In the other form, the rectangular resonance box made of six boards is nailed together with wooden pins. Ankermann assigns three examples to this type: without a sound hole, a sound hole in the lid, and one in the bottom. This group occurs south of the Kunene River in northern Namibia and southern Angola.
These three groups were later designated as the northern (N), central (C, central ) and southern (S) groups, according to their distribution areas . In terms of the main ethnic groups, this roughly corresponds to the Edo and Fang (N), Bantu (C) and Khoisan (S). Åke Norberg (1989), on the basis of Ankermann, undertook a further differentiation into five groups:
- The string supports are inserted into holes on one end of the resonance box.
- The string supports run on the underside through the interior of the resonance box.
- The string supports are attached to the outside of the underside of the resonance box.
- The string carriers are inserted into the resonance box.
- The string supports are attached to the front end of the resonance box.
Gerhard Kubik (2001) summarizes the Pluriarcs in two main groups: (1) The strings run parallel to the ceiling and the string supports are inserted into holes on the top of the resonance box (Ankermann VIc, Norberg 1 and 4). (2) The strings run at an angle to the ceiling and the string supports are attached to the underside of the resonance box or partially protrude into it (Ankermann VIa and VIb, Norberg 1 and 3). This results in different methods of string tuning. Since the Second World War, the pluriarcs have been studied most thoroughly in the central distribution region (C). There is a form that cannot be assigned to the groups mentioned and occurs on the coast of Upper Guinea . It is known as the Northwest Group (NW) and consists of bamboo sticks as strings that are inserted into a large calabash . In addition, other regional forms are mentioned.
The sound box often consists of a hollowed-out piece of wood with a wooden board as a ceiling, which is attached with wooden pins or nails or glued on with tree resin. In some Central African Pluriarcs, the edges between the ceiling and the body were sealed with plant material and resin. The Ovambo people in southern Angola tie the blanket onto the body with plant fibers or strips of skin. The arches are either pointed at the bottom and inserted into the front wall of the box or pushed through lengthways. In a five-string version of the Kenyang in western Cameroon, which was archived in Berlin in 1908, the bow sticks run along the outside of the underside. In many Pluriarcs, the bow sticks are brought into a parallel direction and stabilized by a cross piece of wood fastened with plant fibers.
In the past, the strings consisted mainly of plant fibers, which are now increasingly being replaced by wire. For tuning, the strings are rewound at the end of the bow with less or more tension. In southern Angola, the player turns the bows to the side or pulls them out of the body to achieve a higher pitch. The Sira speakers in Gabon, for example, tighten their nsambi with tuning loops that they wrap around the strings and the tips of the bows. If the tuning loop is moved, not only does the length change, but also the position of the string.
Some playing techniques of the Pluriarc also occur with single-stringed musical bows. The player usually positions the Pluriarc horizontally with the strings away from the body. If the resonator consists of a calabash half, this is held with the open side against the chest or stomach and rhythmically brought closer or occasionally put on. This changes the volume of the vibrating air in the calabash, which can influence volume, sound and pitch. Such a sound modulation is also practiced in Africa with the mvet bridge harp and with some lamellophones , but very rarely outside the continent. Exceptions to this style of playing are the Yemeni stem drum sahfa , as well as the stick zithers tuila and kse diev, which are marginalized in the Indian culture . In some regions, the strings are shortened with the finger in order to produce several pitches per string. The sound of many Pluriarcs includes a rattle noise, which is produced by hanging metal plates on the tips of the arches or by rattling small vessels filled with grains along the arches .
Pluriarcs can be clearly distinguished from stringed instruments of a simple design in which several strings are attached to a string carrier. The classification of some forms within this rare group becomes more difficult. The three-string music bow ekidongo consists of a semicircular curved wooden stick, between the arms of which the three strings lie in one plane. When playing, the ekidongo is placed on a separate resonator (turned metal pot). A stringed instrument called juru der Baule in Ivory Coast has basically the same string arrangement . The instrument has six parallel strings that are stretched between a similarly rounded rod, which, however, was made from a branch fork, which is why it is mentioned in the literature as a forked harp . A calabash half tied in the middle (at the stem end of the fork) serves as a sound amplifier, which the musician holds with the opening against his upper body. For the Lobi in Burkina Faso , this type of harp, known as kulõjo ( IPA inscription), has five nylon strings, and for the Kaansa speakers in the Poni province in southwest Burkina Faso, the koniɲã has six nylon strings. According to the Hornbostel-Sachs system, a frame zither is defined as an instrument whose strings are stretched between two sides of a (three) angular wooden frame ( bagida der Kru ). The “forked harp” made from a branch fork with a calabash resonator becomes a frame zither with an additional cross bar between the upper ends. In the frame zither do der Weh in the Ivory Coast, the two frames protrude at an acute angle from a spherical calabash. When the frames protrude from a halved calabash with a flat ceiling, the result is a lyre . The strings of a lyre are usually not stretched transversely, as is the case with the frame zither, but lengthways between the resonance body at the pointed end and the upper crossbar. This is also the case with the five-string kipokandet of the Nandi in Tanzania, which consists of a fork with a crossbar and is one of the frame zithers.
distribution
The distribution area of the Pluriarcs is Africa south of the Sahara . The transatlantic slave trade brought elements of black African music culture to South and Central America, where the kissanga in Cuba and the agwado in Suriname have been preserved. In Africa, Pluriarcs occur in three separate regions: in southern Africa ( Angola ), in western central Africa ( Congo Basin ) and in West Africa. The latter region includes some ethnic groups that live on the borders between Guinea , Sierra Leone , Liberia and the Ivory Coast. In central Africa, the distribution area lies south of the arch that the Congo forms and extends over the river in the east. Pluriarcs also know some ethnic groups in Cameroon and the Fang in Gabon ; they used to be common in the south-western part of Nigeria .
Central Africa
Bolima is a pluriarc of the Ngando and Yasayama in the Democratic Republic of the Congo ; among the Ngando in central Congo the names bompete and esandju (or esanjo ) are also known, whereby esanjo in Congo also means a lamellophone . The Ekonde and a number of other ethnic groups in the Congo know a pluriarc called lokombe or lokombi , with the Teke speakers lukombe . A lokombi served as an instrument that was supposed to cheer warriors on during battles and as an instrument that hunters used in magical incantations to attract hunting animals. The Congolese eso also call a lamellophone with wooden lamellas lokombe . Basically, Pluriarcs occur in the central basin of the Congo, but not in the north and east. There, bow harps, trough zithers and xylophones are played instead , which in turn are absent in the distribution area of the Pluriarcs.
Teke spokesman in Congo and Gabon have the great five-string Pluriarc ngwomi (plural magwomi ), which at the Hum in Congo ngwim and the Yans in Congo ngwen is called. Small metal plates hang from its rectangular box resonator with a nailed-on ceiling, making a creaking noise. With some instruments of the Teke the massive body is hollowed out from behind. A teke kneels while playing and places his ngwomi diagonally in front of him on the floor. With his right hand he strokes the strings with a clump of plants, while with the fingers of his left hand he mutes the strings that are not supposed to sound on the other side. This way of playing is known from ancient lyres and is still used today for lyres on the Red Sea ( simsimiyya , kisir, tambūra ) and in Ethiopia ( krar ). With ngwomi , depending on the finger position of the left hand, four combinations can be played. The eight-string bow harp ngombi in Gabon is related to the name .
A five-string pluriarc is known as nsambi among the Lumbu and Punu in Gabon and in western Angola as far as the Kalahari desert in Botswana . The Capuchin missionary Girolamo Merolla da Sorrento († 1697) arrived in Luanda (in Angola) in 1683 . A little later he traveled up the Congo to the mission station in Sogno, where he stayed for about five years. In 1692 he reported in Breue, e succinta relatione del viaggio nel regno di Congo nell Africa meridionale, about a stringed instrument called nsambi with five iron arches that more or less sank into the resonance body when the strings were stretched. The strings consisted of palm leaf fibers that were plucked with both thumbs. Of the twelve illustrations in this work, one shows a number of musicians with their named instruments. The nsambi player pictured holds the deep-sounding instrument pressed against his stomach while sitting with the string bows directed against his left shoulder. The other instruments on this picture are two large floats, a single-headed wooden tubular drum ngaba , the iron double bell longa , which acted as a clock like a gankogui , the natural trumpet epugu and a marimba with 16 calabash resonators.
The Punu pluriarc has strings made of plant fibers and is used together with the obaka percussion sticks to accompany male voices. A in the Indiana University Art Museum of Bloomington befindliches instrument from the south Gabon has an elegant, semicircular at the bottom of the body of a soft wood with a flat ceiling, parallel to the bottom five lean carrier unequal length strings are attached. The strings made of plant fibers run to a bridge in the lower area of the top. On the top, between the strings and strings, there is a fully sculpted woman's head.
At the end of the 17th century, the Portuguese military historian Antonio Cadornega (1623–1690), when he described the oil palm ( Elaeis guineensis ), described the pluriarc nsambi among the Ambundu as viola ambunda ("Ambundu guitar"). The strings were made from the leaf fibers of the oil palm, which according to the watercolors and descriptions of the Capuchin missionary Giovanni Antonio Cavazzi da Montecuccolo (1621–1678) were plucked with the fingers.
Nsambi kizonzolo is a pluriarc with five strings and a rectangular wooden case from the Lari in the Republic of the Congo . The strings of raffia protrude from a rectangular wooden box. The musician plays with both hands and accompanies his own singing.
For the Sundi in the Congo, an instrument with a related name is called ntsambi and for some other ethnic groups sambi . A small pluriarc of the Lumbu , Vili and Sira speakers in southwest Gabon and the Loango on the Atlantic coast of the Congo is called tsambi and possibly corresponds to the five-string nsambi of the Punu.
The Bembe are an ethnic group in eastern Congo and western Tanzania on both sides of Lake Tanganyika . They play the Pluriarc ngomfi with five curved strings and a neck lute, also called ngomfi , with five strings. Her music bow called lungunga is no longer in use. The pluriarc accompanies entertainment dances and songs. It is probably not very old and was introduced by peoples from the central Congo, possibly by the Batéké , Bagangala or Babembe.
Southern Africa
In southwest Angola , the Humbi and Handa, small Bantu- speaking ethnic groups in the Huíla province , practice singing styles and dance forms that differ from those of neighboring language groups. Polyphonic chants, which are accompanied by the eight-string pluriarc chihumba (Ankermann, VIc), are based, as in other parts of Angola, on a hexatonic scale and melody lines running in parallel thirds. By contrast, dance songs rhythmized by drums or clapping of hands use a pentatonic scale. The chihumba , which goes back to the musical tradition of the Khoisan , is worn with a cord around the neck in a horizontal position. The bottom of the massive wooden body is open. If it is closed, the top leaves part of the body uncovered so that the strings at the lower end can be attached and replaced. According to Gerhard Kubik's observations in 1965, other stringed instruments included a musical bow with a calabash resonator ( mbulumbumba ) and the differently played mouth bows ohonji and sagaya . A similar five-string pluriarc in eastern Namibia and Botswana is played only by women. The Pluriarc kahumba (okaxumba) among the Ovambo in Namibia has between five and eight strings.
The ǃKung in Botswana call / / gwashi a Pluriarc, also known as goroshi or zhoma in the Ghanzi District . One example that John Brearley found in 1982 consisted of a five-liter tin canister from which four curved rods about six inches long protruded. The wire strings were attached to the canister with small pegs inserted that served as tuning pegs. Originally, the sound box of this instrument was hollowed out of the soft and easy-to-work trunk wood of a Manketti tree ( Ricinodendron rautanenii ). Since tin canisters have become abundantly available, they have been a more convenient starting point for instrument making . The player places the / / gwashi on the floor, with the strings pointing away from the body and plucks with the thumb and forefinger of both hands. The strings are only plucked empty. It's not about developing harmonies, but about rhythmic vocal accompaniment.
West Africa
Kondingi is the name of a three-stringed pluriarc of the Susu and Temne in Sierra Leone, which consists of three slightly curved strings that protrude at approximately right angles from a concave curved wooden board. The player holds the board with his left hand while his right hand plucks the strings stretched to a point on the opposite end of the board.
The Malinke in Guinea know a pluriarc called ko voro (also koworo ) with six strings and a calabash resonator. Young men use it to accompany their songs.
The ubo Akwara the Igbo in Nigeria is a rectangular wooden box, is in its flat ceiling at the bottom of a sound hole. On the upper narrow side, six string carriers with different degrees of curvature protrude from a flexible tube. Ubo akwara can also denote a lute. String instruments and lamellophones classify the Igbo generally as ubo aka , as can also be specifically called an Igbo lamellophone with a half-shell resonator . More common string instruments in Nigeria are the bow harps and, especially in the north, the single-stringed spit violin goge . In the area of the ancient kingdom of Benin in southwest Nigeria and in Benin , professional Edo storytellers accompany each other on the seven-string bow lute akpata ( anchor man VIb) or the lamellophone asologun . In Cameroon , six-string pluriarcs are called komè and paata .
Banga is a six to nine-string pluriarc played by the Kissi in southern Guinea . The first two strings are tuned in the interval of a minor third to the next string, the third to the sixth string are each followed by a major second . The seventh string is an octave above the first, the eighth and ninth are again a large second higher.
The catch in Gabon at the beginning of the 20th century was a three-stringed pluriarc with a rectangular box made of strips of Raphiamark . The bow sticks consist of the stem of raphia leaves that are drilled into the body. Mabi speakers in Cameroon used these soft raffia plates to nail the body of their Pluriarc together with wooden or bamboo pegs. In the similar instruments, the catch and the mabi, the strings are stretched between the upper end of the bow and its lower exit from the body.
The 895 rectangular Benin bronzes preserved from the former Kingdom of Benin are dated between the mid-16th to the mid-17th century , of which the groups of figures hold musical instruments in their hands in a third. Only three of the bronze casts - the only string instruments shown - show a form of a pluriarc.
South America
The agwado (also agbado ) from Suriname has three strings attached to thin, curved branches, which are passed lengthways through a large bottle gourd. The Aluku, an ethnic group belonging to the Maroons , who lived politically autonomous and culturally isolated during the Dutch colonial era , have preserved many of their African origins. The agwado is used to accompany solo chants, and the songs often address possessive deities.
The slave trade from Africa to Brazil began at the end of the 16th century and - promoted by the movement of abolitionism - came to an end with the Aberdeen Act 1845. Most of the African slaves who came to Brazil in these three centuries came from the Congo Basin and the Angolan province of Benguela , and in the 19th century large numbers of slaves were abducted from the Gold Coast to the Brazilian states of Bahia and Maranhão . The pluriarcs in Brazil are only known from literary sources that prove their existence from the end of the 18th century to the end of the 19th century. According to the distribution of African slaves, pluriarcs of the central African type (C) were common in Rio de Janeiro and of the southern type (S) in northern Brazil.
The naturalist Alexandre Rodriques Ferreira (1756-1815), who came from Bahia , traveled in the 1780s through the north and the center of the Portuguese colony of Brazil, where he described the flora, agriculture and the culture of the population and recorded them in drawings. One drawing shows a horizontally held, seven-stringed pluriarc, which Ferreira called the "guitar of the blacks" ( viola q. Tocaõ os Pretos ). The instrument, which is complex to manufacture and resembling today's chichumba , has long been replaced by the guitar.
Joaquim Candido Guillobel (1787–1859) and Henry Chamberlain, 2nd Baronet (1796–1844), made a number of watercolors in Brazil of pluriarcs, musical bows, lamellophones and single-stringed fiddles imported from Africa . A picture by Guillobel shows a black African in Rio de Janeiro, who carries a huge basket with vegetables and fish on his head, while he plays a pluriarc with both hands to accompany the singing. Chamberlain copied the Pluriarc type depicted by Guillobel in one illustration. He calls the person portrayed a black man from the Congo, and accordingly the instrument shown belongs to the Ankermann VIc type. The French painter Jean-Baptiste Debret (1768–1848) painted a watercolor of a Pluriarc in Rio de Janeiro in the 1820s, which he named Viola d'Angola, Musica dos Pretos ("Guitar from Angola, music of the blacks") . The instrument, shown from three sides, comes from the Batéké , who settled on a highland that stretches from the Malebo Pool in the Congo to southeast Gabun. The former kingdom of Anziku (or Teke) was located here.
Cultural meaning
According to a creation myth of the Likuba speakers in the west of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Pluriarc is a gift from heaven and embodies Eba Niambe, the first human. Eba Niambe's second son Esszé spent his life in a village due to a certain handicap, where he played a pluriarc, which in turn was a godsend. Esszé was also able to divine and thus became the first musician and magical healer. Originally, the Likuba Pluriarc had three strings that represented a house, a boat and the mother's belly.
The Vili in the southwest of the Congo and the Yombe also show the magical significance of the Pluriarc. Their pluriarc nsambi is a central element in the religious divination dance liboka because the magic practitioners play pluriarc while communicating with the spirits. The Teke's Pluriarc ngwomi serves as a link to the otherworldly spirit world during mourning ceremonies, when the body of the deceased is displayed. According to another report from the south of Gabon, Pluriarcs accompany healing rituals that are caused by fertility spirits in diseases. The Bakongo near São Salvador in northern Angola which belongs Nsambi to Ndembo -Geheimbund. He accompanies the dances of the initiates and must not be seen by outsiders. If the body of the Pluriarc has a special anthropomorphic shape, then it belongs to an ancestral cult.
In addition to the magical-religious meaning, Pluriarcs served as symbols of a ruler in some places (such as the natural trumpet kakaki in the Islamic north). In these cases, instead of the usually 50 to 70 centimeter large instruments, oversized pluriarcs that are 150 to 170 centimeters long are used. One such pluriarc, which symbolized more power with increasing length, was the five-string ngwomi of the Teke in eastern Gabon. Another great pluriac is the ntembe lokombi of the Konda, which is 150 to 160 centimeters in length. Its sound box is carved out of a trough-shaped block of wood and covered on top with a thick wooden plate. It is held on a cord hung around the left shoulder.
Smaller pluriarcs are carried freely with both hands in front of the torso and are typically played while walking. In the past, pluriarcs were most commonly used for musical entertainment on long walks. The lightweight and portable akpata in southwestern Nigeria has been shown to have been associated with Edo storytellers since the pre-colonial kingdom of Benin. It is played exclusively by men.
literature
- József Brauer-Benke: Pluriarcs in the Sub-Saharan Africa Collection of the Weltmuseum Wien. (PDF) In: Archive 61–62, Weltmuseum Wien . Lit Verlag, Vienna 2013, pp. 151–158
- Rogério Budasz: Central-African Pluriarcs and Their Players in Nineteenth-Century Brazil. In: Music in Art , Volume 39, No. 1–2, spring – autumn 2014, pp. 5–31
- Gerhard Kubik : Pluriarc. In: Laurence Libin (Ed.): The Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments. Volume 4, Oxford University Press, Oxford / New York 2014, pp. 142f
- Ulrich Wegner: African string instruments. (New episode 41. Department of Music Ethnology V.) Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin 1984, pp. 82–92 and 153 f.
Web links
Individual evidence
- ↑ Ekidongo . africamuseum.be
- ^ Gerhard Kubik: Central Africa. An Introduction . In: Ruth M. Stone (Ed.): Garland Encyclopedia of World Music . Volume 1: Africa. Routledge, New York / London 1998, pp. 662f, ISBN 978-0-8240-6035-0
- ↑ George Montandon: La généalogie des instruments de musique et les cycles de civilization. A. Kündig, Geneva 1919
- ^ Sibyl Marcuse : A Survey of Musical Instruments. David & Charles Publishers, Newton Abbot 1975, p. 182
- ^ Bernhard Ankermann : The African musical instruments . (Inaugural dissertation to obtain a doctorate from the Philosophical Faculty of the University of Leipzig) Haack, Berlin 1901, pp. 17-21 (at archive.org )
- ↑ Åke Norberg: A Handbook of Musical and other Sound-Producing Instruments from Equatorial Guinea and Gabon . (Musikmuseets Skrifter 16) Musikmuseet, Stockholm 1989, p. 286f
- ↑ Rogério Budasz, 2014, p. 7
- ^ Gerhard Kubik: Pluriarc . In: Grove Music Online , 2001
- ↑ Rogério Budasz, 2014, p. 8
- ↑ Ulrich Wegner, 1984, pp. 85, 87
- ↑ Ulrich Wegner, 1984, pp. 88f
- ^ Côte d'Ivoire: Baule Vocal Music. Smithsonian Folkways, LP 1972, re-released on CD 2014. Hugo Zemp: text booklet, title 8 and image on the album cover
- ↑ Burkina Faso. Musique et chants des minorités. VDE-Gallo, Lausanne 1997 (PEO CD-921), Patrick Kersalé: accompanying booklet, pp. 17, 19
- ↑ Ulrich Wegner, 1984, pp. 76, 80
- ↑ Bolima . In: New Grove , Volume 1, pp. 246, 248, 718
- ↑ Ulrich Wegner, 1984, p. 91f
- ^ Alan P. Merriam: The Anthropology of Music . Northwestern University Press, Evanston 1964, p. 291 (4th ed. 2000, ISBN 0-8101-0607-8 )
- ↑ Ulrich Wegner, 1984, p. 90
- ↑ Ngwomi . In: New Grove , Volume 2, p. 766
- ^ A b Peter Fryer: Rhythms of Resistance: African Musical Heritage in Brazil. Pluto Press, London 2000, p. 84, ISBN 978-0-7453-0731-2
- ^ Walter Hirschberg : Early Historical Illustrations of West and Central African Music. In: African Music , Volume 4, No. 3, 196, pp. 6-18, illus. P. 17
- ↑ Alisa LaGamma: Eternal Ancestors: The Art of the Central African Reliquary. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York 2007, p. 53
- ↑ Rogério Budasz, 2014, p. 17
- ↑ Nsambi . In: New Grove , Volume 2, p. 783
- ↑ Tsambi . In: New Grove , Volume 3, p. 658
- ^ Bertil Söderberg: Musical Instruments Used by the Babembe. In: The African Music Society Newsletter , Volume 1, No. 6, September 1953, pp. 46-56, here pp. 52f
- ^ Gerhard Kubik: Musical Bows in South-Western Angola, 1965 . In: African Music , Volume 5, No. 4, 1975/1976, pp. 98-104, here p. 103
- ^ John Brearley: A musical tour of Botswana, 1982. In: Botswana Notes and Records , Volume 16, 1984, pp. 45-57, here p. 56
- ↑ Soso Kondingi playing. Sierra Leone Heritage (picture and audio sample)
- ↑ Kondingi. In: Stanley Sadie (Ed.): The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments. Volume 2. Macmillan Press, London 1984, p. 456
- ↑ Ko voro. In: Stanley Sadie (Ed.): The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments. Volume 2. Macmillan Press, London 1984, p. 473
- ↑ JN Lo-Bamijoko: Classification of Igbo Musical Instruments, Nigeria. In: African Music , Volume 6, No. 4, 1987, pp. 19-41, ill. P. 39
- ^ Roger Blench: A guide to the musical instruments of Cameroon: classification, distribution, history, and vernacular names. (PDF; 4.3 MB) Cambridge, July 31, 2009, p. 26
- ↑ Banga. In: New Grove , Volume 1, p. 149
- ↑ Ulrich Wegner, 1984, pp. 86-88
- ^ Philip JC Dark, Matthew Hill: Musical Instruments on Benin Plaques. In: Klaus P. Wachsmann (Ed.): Essays on Music and History in Africa. Northwestern University Press, Evanstone 1971, p. 77
- ↑ Kenneth Bilby: Music from Aluku: Maroon Sounds of Struggle, Solace, and Survival. (PDF; 7.9 MB) Booklet of CD 50412 from Smithsonian Folkways Recordings, 2010
- ↑ See Lawrence F. Hill: The Abolition of the African Slave Trade to Brazil. (PDF) In: The Hispanic American Historical Review , Volume 11, No. 2, May 1931, pp. 169-197
- ↑ Rogério Budasz, 2014, p. 11
- ↑ Rogério Budasz, 2014, pp. 14-16
- ↑ Rogério Budasz, 2014, p. 22
- ↑ József Brauer-Benke, 2013, p. 151f
- ↑ Ulrich Wegner, 1984, p. 91
- ↑ József Brauer-Benke, 2013, p. 155
- ↑ Rogério Budasz, 2015, p. 11