English romance
The section of English literary history known as English Romanticism ( romanticism or romantic age ) spans a relatively short period essentially between the years 1798 and 1832-1837, the boundaries and transitions of which, however, are fluid and cannot be clearly established.
As a literary-historical epoch, English Romanticism primarily describes the minority and high culture in these years, which were shaped by the poetic works of the so-called six great poets ( great six ) Blake , Wordsworth , Coleridge , Keats , Shelley and Byron , which - largely isolated from the contemporary reading public or hardly noticed - the regular literature of classicism is rejected and at the same time sees itself as a countermovement to the prevailing rational and science-oriented worldview and bourgeois world. The forerunners include the folklore- loving Celtomaniac James Macpherson , the author of the melancholy "Night Thoughts" Edward Young and the representative of sensitivity Thomas Gray .
In contrast to German Romanticism , in which the concept of Romanticism was linked to a complete program, particularly through the writings of the brothers August Wilhelm and Friedrich Schlegel , Romanticism in England did not encompass a similarly closed, programmatically emphasized, homogeneous movement that covered all areas mastered the arts and culture including music and painting.
If the adjective romantic was used at all in contemporary criticism or literary historiography, it was primarily related to poetry that was characterized by an increased interest in nature, especially in the wild, untouched, sublime naturalness or in the peaceful, remote landscape .
In addition to the romantic lyric poetry by Wordsworth, Coleridge, Keats or Shelley, which dominated the later understanding of poetry in the 19th century and continues to have an impact today, the literary scene at the same time as these poems were created through enlightenment works or novels, for example by Jane Austen, with a modern one realistic narrative style. Contemporary criticism also mocked the Cockney School ( Hazlitt and Hunt ), the Lake Poets (Wordsworth, Coleridge) and the Satanic School (Byron, Shelley).
The romantic literature that appeared in the period between the publication of the programmatic Lyrical Ballads edited by Wordsworth and Coleridge (1798) and the death of Walter Scott (1832) was only assigned to the common epoch-making term romanticism much later in English literary historiography .
In view of the extraordinarily intense history of the impact of these romantic poets in England, despite the considerable mutual criticism and differences such as exist between Byron and Wordsworth, an unmistakable new literary current with equally revolutionary and anti-revolutionary elements can be discerned, which allows, with good reason, To summarize this poetry as a unified literary-cultural current.
Social and cultural history background
The period around 1800 was characterized by rapid, accelerating change which, after the French and industrial revolutions at the end of the 18th century, led to the dissolution of the traditional static feudal orders . The change processes in England at the beginning of the 19th century were aimed at liberating the individual from political and religious tutelage through an increase in knowledge and its technical and economic use as well as through an improvement in educational institutions, such as the establishment of the University of London in 1836, in order to create the conditions for the establishment of a modern, efficient nation-state . This change has been described in historiography with relevant formulations such as age of revolution , age of science , age of improvement or industry and empire , although the basic feeling of great uncertainty in view of the rapid pace of change and the discarding of traditional norms and values is not may be overlooked.
New modes of transport such as the railroad and new means of communication such as telegraph brought about rapid changes in the experience of time and space; the entire understanding of reality was increasingly temporalized and the future took on the character of an open space of possibility. The associated future orientation and belief in progress went hand in hand with a new form of past orientation, the discovery of history in the sense of a unique, irreversible process that was closely related to the experience of acceleration in time. Correspondingly, diagnoses of the time such as Thomas Carlyle's Signs of the Times (1829) and historical research and theories of change such as Marx's dialectical materialism or Darwin's theory of evolution became significant elements of this new world orientation.
The French Revolution and, above all, the industrial revolution also provided decisive impulses for the democratization and rationalization of English society. So, for example, the former showed dissenter William Godwin in his work Inquiry Concerning Political Justice (1793) in line with the philosophy of the Enlightenment convinced of the innate goodness of man, the only one reprehensible system of tyrannical dictators it prevents or institutions to forge his luck and the Translating the voice of reason into charitable action. The Quaker Thomas Paine ( The Rights of Man , 1791), who not only campaigned for the American independence movement , but also called for the emancipation of women and the abolition of slavery , agitated in a similar way .
The revolutionary enforcement of natural law , however, reasoned principles of freedom and equality met with bitter resistance of the leaders and thinkers in the aristocratic dominated parliamentary system of England. The politician and writer Edmund Burke published his extremely influential work Reflections on the Revolution in France as early as 1790 , in which he sharply criticized the abstract systematic thinking of fanatical intellectuals, which prepares the ground for the establishment of new tyrannies , since it is not through an experience and tradition-conscious reason being reined in. In his story of the French Revolution, Carlyle, too, painted with satirical displeasure the chilling picture of a poorly governed, confused nation headed by the monster Robespierre .
The beginning democratization process could only be delayed by such activities and writings, but not completely prevented. The pressure of the industrial bourgeoisie and the working class for political participation was granted in England, unlike in Germany, with moderate reforms. Other social groups also benefited from this willingness to reform, such as the Catholics, who received the right to vote and access to offices from 1829. Likewise, slavery was abolished throughout the British Empire in 1833 and the electoral system was adapted to the new conditions with the Reform Bill in 1832 .
Behind these changes in the political system were therefore not only ideal, but above all social forces and movements that had emerged with industrialization, primarily in the textile industry and in coal and steel production.
However, these fundamental changes in the social life of England as a result of the productivity increases also demanded a high social toll: food was overpriced and the working and living conditions in the early capitalist production facilities in the north of England proved to be so inhumane that they led to new social conflicts. The attempts of the Chartists to create the prerequisites for a political solution to the problems of the newly emerging class of industrial workers by introducing a free, secret and universal suffrage, failed several times in 1839 and 1842 due to resistance from parliament. Liberalism, which believes in progress, as the prevailing worldview and economic system , had reached its limits by the end of the 19th century at the latest for intellectuals who could be counted among the spokesmen for cultural modernity . Many intellectuals now hoped for solutions from socialist or social reform programs.
The far-reaching social, political and intellectual change as a result of modernization triggered a variety of tensions and contradictions in English society and culture. The experience of the rapid changes that broke through the familiar continuum of time and space led everywhere in sociocultural thinking and in contemporary literature to a juxtaposition of the old against the new, as well as the warmth of traditional culture against the cold and turmoil of the new age. A spatial awareness arose, especially among writers, which the metropolis of London no longer saw as the glamorous center of the English monarchy and English industry and trade, but rather as a threatening, unmanageable labyrinth opposed to peaceful rural life. In numerous regional novels or melodramas of this time, childhood, rural life or the oases of traditional culture often represent a shelter or refuge that allows one to escape the demands of the unleashed, urbanized society. This often corresponds to a compensatory, transfigured image of the Middle Ages .
Through the scientification, the division of labor and the individual options for decision-making, as well as through the commercial competition, the society and culture of the 19th century are divided and disintegrated into characteristic opposites, some of which are newly emerging, but which in some cases exacerbate existing conflicts. So, as it were, the landlord and the worker face each other in two nations; Citizens and artists are also increasingly forming their own groups and mentalities, which make understanding more and more difficult. Likewise, the tensions between science and religion lead to identity crises for a large number of believers, as found for example in Samuel Butler's novel The Way of All Flesh (published posthumously in 1903).
Another formative contrast can be found between morality and art, which were closely related until the 18th century, after individual attempts to reunite them, for example with Charles Dickens or George Eliot , then after auditions in romantic literature with Keats and Poe in the pure Aestheticism, however, will be completely torn apart at the end of the century.
While art was already delimited as an independent space of perception and design in the philosophical aesthetics of the 18th century, the artists and theorists of the 19th century increasingly differentiated between art and bourgeois culture and mass-produced goods. This can also be traced back to the emergence of a fully developed literary market around 1800, which forced the hitherto free artist or writer, who was sponsored by a patron , to adapt to the wishes of the public or the publishers or to reject them radically.
The triumphant advance of liberalism in politics and economy is increasingly seen in the English bourgeoisie as a combination of Protestant ethics or morals, utilitarianism and laissez-faire , whereas in the emerging workers' movement more utopian-socialist outlooks are emerging. As a result, this leads to the emergence of two different cultures, in which the breakup of natural and human sciences on the one hand and scientific and literary culture on the other hand has far-reaching consequences for the self-image of the writers of this time.
In Culture and Anarchy (1869), Matthew Arnolds tries again to offer the encounter with creative literature and literary criticism as a way out of this orientation crisis, whereby he seeks to place inner education in place of material usefulness.
Peculiarities of the English romanticism
Just like the literary era of Victorianism , that of English Romanticism strives to develop a closely related but independent form of symbolic confrontation with the areas of tension that were triggered by the modernization process described above.
The aesthetic modernity in a broader sense that is now emerging is primarily defined by the clash of individually designed cultural or literary creations and prevailing social reality. Literary culture no longer sees itself as an expression of the dominant social class and worldview, but primarily as its decided adversary or as its fundamental alternative.
Thus, in romantic English poetry, individuality and equality do become poetic objects or principles of expression, with the difference that poetic individualism is expressly understood as a poetic form or theme, but not as an abstract economic worldview. Nature and landscape are so closely connected with the English romantics, because they experience London, the metropolis, as the epitome of alienation and the destruction of perception. There is a similarly sharp demarcation to the principle of rationalization: If the mechanical explanation of the world by Isaac Newton is still celebrated in the poetry of the 18th century, for example in James Thomson's The Seasons , mechanics and causality are only insufficient sources of knowledge for the English romantics, which do not allow access to the hidden inner spiritual life. From their point of view, this rather requires creative imagination and symbolic vision, which alone enables the imaginative penetration and knowledge of the individual and thus of the particular and contrast.
In the turn to both the past and the future, the lack of programmatic unity of the English romantics is shown at the same time. In addition to the sentimental preference for the past, exotic and primitive, this openness is characterized by the simultaneous interest in the landscape and the attitudes and areas of experience of the lonely meditating subject. Characteristic of the romantic poetry of England is above all the endeavor to counter the painful experiences of separation of a rapidly accelerating industrialized and urbanized world with imaginative counter-designs in which the relationship between man and nature is harmoniously designed in order to resolve such identity crises.
Despite all the tensions, the extraordinarily intense history of the impact of English Romanticism, with its main actors such as Wordsworth, Coleridge, Keats, Shelley or Byron, proves the emergence of an unmistakably new literature that has both a revolutionary and an anti-revolutionary orientation.
With the exception of Scott, all English Romantics had at least at times strong sympathies for the French Revolution and the activities of the radical political forces in England. However, the disappointment over the horrific course of the French Revolution caused, above all, Wordsworth and Coleridge to turn back to conservative and patriotic attitudes, which were expressed in a retreat into the wholesome nature, but not in a turning away from individualism. Accordingly, the lasting great achievement in romantic English lyric poetry lies above all in the unleashing of poetic individualism, the exploration of one's own lyrical self and in the cultivation of the subjective and irrational, combined with a release of one's own creative imagination.
With the power of his imagination, the individual in the romantic world of ideas is able to reconcile nature and God with man in order to create a new paradise. With regard to the experiences of separation and differentiation triggered by the modernization processes, this conception of the individual imagination and the associated understanding of the work of art as an autonomous, independent organic unit play a contradicting or ambiguous role.
As a synthesis and reintegration of modern fragmentation, the imagination evoked by the Romantics certainly provides opportunities for compensation and sometimes even utopian horizons of meaning; in emphasizing the aesthetic autonomy and otherness of the poetic, however, it also reflects the logic of the differentiation process typical of modernization.
In more recent debates in literary studies, the old question of the appropriateness or usefulness of a specific epoch designation for English Romanticism is partly taken up again. For a cultural studies or discourse-oriented approach that is not limited to high literature or even lyric poetry, terms such as romanticism or romantic age are hardly applicable, insofar as they cover topics or discourses, for example, on the question of women, slavery, capitalism, political economy or hide the development of science.
For some time now , poems by women such as Felicia Hemans , Charlotte Turner Smith , Anna Lætitia Barbauld and Joanna Baillie have been included in representative anthologies of English Romanticism . At the same time, however, English literary historiography predominantly adheres to the canon of works of English Romanticism that has been valid until now . With regard to the decisive criterion of the history of style and structure, a number of the poems written by authors of this time, such as B. the political long poem Eighteen Hundred and Eleven (1812) by Anna Lætitia Barbauld, not to be attributed to romanticism, but rather to classicism with its heroic couplets and allegories in standardized poetic language , according to the principle of simultaneity in the non-simultaneous .
In literary history, English Romanticism is in many ways the result of a development that began at the beginning of the 18th century. Unlike in France, where neoclassicism based on an absolutist or authoritarian political order formed a very rigid, dogmatic set of rules that finally collapsed suddenly, beautiful literature in England was much more versatile or more open and flexible.
In Enlightenment English neoclassicism, literary forms can be found relatively early, which strive to give expression to emotions and sentiments and which set the natural, spontaneous and primitive against the “boring” and “superficial” elegance of court culture. These literary innovations, which ultimately merge with English Romanticism, include, in particular, the sentimental epistolary novel by Samuel Richardson and his epigones, the horror novel , the night and death poetry by Edward Young ( The Complaint, or, Night Thoughts on Life, Death and Immortality , 1742–45) as well as nature poetry and the folk ballad . Throughout, these literary works seek a language of feeling that should overcome rhetorical schemes, classic empty phrases or stereotypical language patterns in order to give people and situations authentic expression.
The soulful self-portrayals and observations of nature of the lyric self in pre-romantic poetry cannot, however, completely break free of stereotypes and general phrases or ways of seeing: the actual subjective delimitation of language only takes place in Romanticism, in which the poets adopted the classic concept of solid Completely abandon order and the integration of the individual into the hierarchical culture generally recognized as valid.
Instead, romantic self-centeredness seeks to find the source of order and happiness in one's own imagination and feeling. The romantic poetic individuality does not aim at the individual fighting for civil liberties and does not strive for the realization of a right to vote guaranteed by natural law. Liberation from feudal ties remains too abstract and mechanical for the majority of the English romantics; they see what is special and what is human about the individual in his very own human soul. According to the romantic view, it is therefore the sense of natural existence to follow one's individuality and one's soul. Characteristically, this poetic individuality is primarily realized for the English romantics in a meditative, harmonious relationship with nature that is not shaped by the constraints of the everyday world of action or the specifications of reason, especially in a situation of solitary encounter with nature. In accordance with this self-image, romantic literature or art is the natural expression of the artist's soul, who indulges in his self-centeredness without taking action.
The great model of this romantic individualism is Jean-Jacques Rousseau , whose work breaks with the tradition of rule poetics with extraordinary self-confidence . In Wordsworth's self-portrayal, The Prelude (1805/1850) or Byron's Childe Herold's Pilgrimage (1812/1816/1818), the poet's ego takes center stage as the authentic source of truth. Accordingly, the romantic theorists hardly distinguish between the person of the poet and his poetry as a work. The focus of poetic interest shifts from imitating ancient patterns to imaginative self-expression; the shift in focus from the rhetorically calculated formal structure of the work to the person of the poet is intended to connect people in order to counter the emerging professionalization and fragmentation of culture.
In the poetic individualism of Rousseau's provenance, however, an obvious narcissism is revealed , which leads to a paradox : the ego, which falls back into a timeless state of peace and the unconscious at the sight of nature, loses its own full human identity precisely in this process so emphatically opposes it to society. Therefore, the regression up to the death wish is a common motif in romantic literature, for example in Keats.
In Wordsworth's poems, too, the lyric self finds its perfect happiness in the harmony of self and nature in solitude remote from society; In the banal everydayness of natural beauty, the poet's soul or imagination discovers a realm of eternity and infinity. The perception of nature in the creative imagination of the poet serves for self-healing and points to how the individual only attains his true humanity as a poetic one. The lyrical ego finds itself only in a language that avoids conventional language formulas and brings everyday expressions or facts into a poetically effective context through metaphorical transfers, rhyme connections, repetitions and rhythmic flow.
Religious ideas and feelings are also transferred to the world of nature and literature by the romantic poets. In the mystical and salvation-historical scheme of unity with God and nature, the separation of God and nature and the restoration of the original unity, the poet's imagination creates reconciliation; in romantic thought the poet therefore plays a prominent role as bard and prophet. Scientific naturalism and nature reified through mathematics and mechanistic thinking are thus opposed to a remythed naturalism or naturalized myth . Coleridge, for example, plays creative vitality against mechanistic philosophy and emphasizes the harmony of man and nature against a metaphysical background.
This romantic religion of nature is based on various sources: In addition to Montaigne's considerations about the savages, a primitivist current of thought comes into play, which intensified in the 18th century through the experience of permissive South Sea cultures and led to the idea of the superiority of nature of the primitive over the civilized culture led. Accordingly, the vast, limitless nature, the seething sea or the Alps to be romantic topoi par excellence, which, however, only with the aesthetics of the sublime ( the sublime are) presentation and enjoyment capable.
The power of the imagination, which is essential alongside poetic individualism and the cult of nature, provides the basis of the romantic counter-movement to the rationalization processes of modernization. In the hierarchy of human abilities, imagination supersedes the reason of the Enlightenment: it does not simply reproduce the world mimetically , but means a mode of perception that transforms or redesigns the image of the external world into an inner vision in the process of perception and creative imagination. This visionary element is so pronounced in Blake in particular that the imagination brings about a mythologically designed spiritualization of nature in which God is now omnipresent in the human imagination after the fall of man .
Expressions of English Romanticism
The basic experience of the authors of the English romantic age was the experience of intellectual, if not social, outsiders. This isolated cultural or social position explains the kaleidoscopic abundance of works of English Romanticism, which are so different in their type or intention that at first glance they hardly seem to have anything in common.
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Regardless of the lack of programmatic coherence and open borders, the predominant part of the works of English Romanticism is characterized by an escape from reality, which is also based on this basic experience of being an outsider. This is also where the characteristic endeavors of the English Romantics are rooted to influence social conditions through literature in order to change and renew them. Against this background, the attempt to open up new subject areas for literature as well as the simultaneous recourse to literary tradition and turning to history becomes understandable.
The revival of the historical was not a new discovery of Romanticism; the historicizing elements that were already pronounced in the intellectual life of the late 18th century were, however, significantly strengthened and expanded. For the English Romantics, the spectrum of the historical was not only the subject of mere study, but above all a refuge for their retrospective longing for perfection, in which history represented both a reassurance for the present and a promise for the future.
This historical orientation is evident in the works of the older Romantics, particularly in Robert Southey and Sir Walter Scott . Southey tried, however, with little commercial success as the first to introduce the historicizing verse narration typical of this epoch. Sun is about Thalaba the destroyer (1801), which by contemporary critics panned was exemplary of the exotic oriental variants of this kind, which the romantic age as highly in many different forms escapist brought forth literary works of Walter Savage Landor Mountain Dog (1798) on Thomas Moore's Lalla Rookh (1817) to Keats's Gothic-mythical Eve of St. Agnes (1820).
More popular were the versromances of Scott, in which he tried to poetically revive the Scottish past. Lord Byron subsequently developed a new variety of this genre: in his verse tales he linked the mystical history of the present with the experience of nature and his own travel impressions. So he celebrated with Childe Harold's pilgrimage (1812-1818) a triumphant success; The Histrionic "Byronic" hero , with his mood between revolt and resignation, corresponded to the world of feelings of the beginning post-Napoleonic era. Byron subsequently created a sequence of similar works.
In the romantic epoch, the historical novel with the modeling works of Scott was created as a new genre . The revolutionary pathos shared by the representatives of Romanticism called for a poetic implementation in grandiose forms, so that there were numerous attempts to bring the traditional large forms back to life, mostly combined with a mixture of history and the present.
In The revolt of the Islam (1817) , Shelley designed his version of the French Revolution in an Islamic mask as a political epic . Various attempts by the English romantics to redefine historical or contemporary drama, however, as is often the case with the epic, mostly fell short of the actual intentions and artistic claims due to a lack of creative power. In addition, the genre of drama was difficult to reconcile with the romantic poets' focus on the inwardness of experience or the inner world of the poetic self. Byron's Faustian Manfred (1817) was also unable to convince literary critics as a dramatic work, regardless of whether the literary critics were interested in the history of the work or biographical.
The interest in the national past, which is characteristic of Romanticism as a whole, also manifested itself among the English Romantics. In particular, Sir Walter Scott continued the efforts for early literary evidence that began in the second half of the 18th century with his collection Minstrelsy of the Scottish border (1802/1803) and worked with Robert Burns on The Scots musical museum . The boundary between collecting and personal poetry was fluid. Due to the political conflicts of this epoch, the romantic historical consciousness in England often took on a strongly patriotic form, which with its romantic transfiguration of national history became one of the essential sources of ideological nationalism in the 19th century.
Even more than the turn to history, the turn to nature opened up new areas of subject and experience for the romantic poets. In contrast to the previous natural poetry, in Romanticism nature became a previously unknown source of poetic inspiration and thus ushered in a new phase in the relationship between man and nature that retained its effect well beyond the 19th century and also in the The present seems to be ongoing.
The discovery of nature for poetry found a parallel in its discovery for painting: in the romantic landscape painting of William Turner and John Constable , the landscape was not only depicted as the epitome of natural beauty, but also as a vision of the perfect and unique.
In England's romantic nature poetry, the nature orientation takes on very specific traits: In addition to more conventional poems such as Blake's early work Poetical sketches , it represents a characteristic component in Wordsworth's lyrical work and includes odes by Keats such as To autumn , but is not exhausted in them. In its most significant forms, romantic natural poetry takes on quasi-philosophical dimensions that sometimes reach into the mystical , especially with Wordsworth. For him, nature that can be experienced sensually means that which confronts people, embraces and carries them. In Wordsworth's Lines composed a few miles above Tintern Abbey , for example, there is the commitment to security in nature, which is typical of the romantic poets, after they have withdrawn from a progressive society that has been alienated from itself: here, nature becomes a symbolic vanishing point on the way to itself.
For the English romantics, the simple, undisguised naturalness of the child with all its spontaneity, which the English romantics, following Rousseau , tried to track down in a variety of different manifestations, was closely interwoven with external nature .
The discovery of nature and naturalness found its correlate in English Romanticism in a new attention to the particular and particular and was expressed above all in the subjective, which was understood as the innermost vitality as well as the ultimate indispensable reality of human existence.
This subjectivist trend, which first broke through in Romanticism, marked a momentous turning point in European intellectual history. The literary or lyrical work was no longer understood as the reproduction of an external reality viewed as independent, but as the production of an individual who understood himself to be autonomous; Art and literature thus lost their predominantly mimetic character and mainly assumed expressive properties.
The short lyrical poem and subjectivist-expressive forms of literature were among the dominant and most successful works of the Romantic era in England from Blake to Wordsworth and Coleridge to Keats. However, the Romantics also used literary forms such as the sonnet , the ode , hymn or elegy, despite the conventions that shaped them, as a form of expression of their immediate subjectivity, even if the lyrical self must or can stylize itself in these forms. Some of the most important poems of English Romanticism are realizations of these forms, such as Wordsworth's Ode: Intimations of immortality or Shelley's Ode to the West wind and Keats Ode on a Grecian urn . In them the crisis situation characteristic of the romantic author finds a medium of expression; Coleridges Dejection. An ode bears a title that is symbolic for English Romanticism.
Adaptations of the traditional large form of the epic were also partly used by the English romantics for the self-portrayal of the individual; Coleridge, for example, in a letter to Wordsworth on May 30, 1815, formally presented the epic draft of a romantic world panorama in analogy to the philosophical epics of John Milton's Paradise Lost or Alexander Pope's Essay on man as the highest poetic goal worth striving for. The programmatic draft of such However, neither Wordsworth nor any other representative of English Romanticism succeeded in creating a worldview and its poetic implementation, regardless of the wishes or needs of this epoch.
Nevertheless, two poems of epic proportions that were significant for the romantic epoch in England were written , which were contrary in nature but complementary in meaning for the epoch: Wordsworths The prelude, or, growth of a poet's mind (begun in 2798/99, published posthumously 1850) and Byron's Don Juan (1819–1824). Both poems, openly in Wordsworth, concealed in Byron, in their autobiographical form are panoramic ideas of individual worlds to a previously unknown extent.
Although the time of the great epic or quasi-epic works was over, the “great” poem was indispensable for the self-esteem of the English romantics as a test for poetic creativity. The model was always Milton; a repetition of his poetic achievement under the premises of the new subjectivist theme was considered one of the essential inspirations for romantic poetry in England.
It is one of the paradoxes of English Romanticism that it did not attempt to express its subjectivism in the literary form that should have appeared particularly suitable for it - in the novel. This blank space in the tableau of the romantic epoch in England shows that despite the democratic confessions of the majority of the English romantics, they ultimately implicitly recognized the traditional hierarchy of genres and thus showed an elitist understanding of high literature.
The great novels of the epoch are not the works of Scott, but the novels of Jane Austen , which appeared almost at the same time , which, however, cannot be attributed to Romanticism in terms of their subject matter or their intentions .
Web links
- The Romantic Period - Entry in the Encyclopædia Britannica
- Romanticism - Entry in the Encyclopædia Britannica
- Peter Hühn: English Poetry II - Nature and Culture in Romanticism - Lecture by Peter Hühn as a PDF file
Individual evidence
- ↑ See Hans Ulrich Seeber: The literature of romanticism . In: Hans Ulrich Seeber (Ed.): English literary history . 4th ext. Ed. JB Metzler, Stuttgart 2004, ISBN 3-476-02035-5 , pp. 230-262, here pp. 230 f. See also Bernhard Fabian (Ed.): The English literature. Volume 1: Epochs and Forms . Deutscher Taschenbuchverlag, 3rd edition Munich 1997, ISBN 3-423-04494-2 , p. 135 ff.
- ↑ See Hans Ulrich Seeber: The literature of romanticism . In: Hans Ulrich Seeber (Ed.): English literary history . 4th ext. Ed. JB Metzler, Stuttgart 2004, ISBN 3-476-02035-5 , pp. 230-262, here pp. 230 f.
- ↑ On the contexts presented, cf. in detail Hans Ulrich Seeber: Modernization and Literature in the 19th Century . In: Hans Ulrich Seeber (Ed.): English literary history . 4th ext. Ed. JB Metzler, Stuttgart 2004, ISBN 3-476-02035-5 , pp. 224-230. See also Bernhard Fabian (Ed.): The English literature. Volume 1: Epochs and Forms . Deutscher Taschenbuchverlag, 3rd edition Munich 1997, ISBN 3-423-04494-2 , pp. 132-141.
- ↑ On the contexts presented, cf. in detail Hans Ulrich Seeber: Modernization and Literature in the 19th Century . In: Hans Ulrich Seeber (Ed.): English literary history . 4th ext. Ed. JB Metzler, Stuttgart 2004, ISBN 3-476-02035-5 , pp. 224-233, here in particular pp. 231ff. See also Bernhard Fabian (Ed.): The English literature. Volume 1: Epochs and Forms . Deutscher Taschenbuchverlag, 3rd edition Munich 1997, ISBN 3-423-04494-2 , pp. 132-141.
- ↑ See Hans Ulrich Seeber: Modernization and Literature in the 19th Century . In: Hans Ulrich Seeber (Ed.): English literary history . 4th ext. Ed. JB Metzler, Stuttgart 2004, ISBN 3-476-02035-5 , p. 232f.
- ↑ See in detail on the relationships presented Hans Ulrich Seeber: The literature of the romantic . In: Hans Ulrich Seeber (Ed.): English literary history . 4th ext. Ed. JB Metzler, Stuttgart 2004, ISBN 3-476-02035-5 , pp. 230-262, here pp. 233-237.
- ↑ Cf. in detail Hans Ulrich Seeber: The literature of romanticism . In: Hans Ulrich Seeber (Ed.): English literary history . 4th ext. Ed. JB Metzler, Stuttgart 2004, ISBN 3-476-02035-5 , pp. 230-262, here pp. 238-242.
- ↑ See the chapter: Expressions of romantic sensitivity . In: Bernhard Fabian (Ed.): The English literature. Volume 1: Epochs and Forms . Deutscher Taschenbuchverlag, 3rd edition Munich 1997, ISBN 3-423-04494-2 , pp. 141–153, here pp. 141 f.
- ↑ See Bernhard Fabian (Ed.): The English literature. Volume 1: Epochs and Forms . Deutscher Taschenbuchverlag, 3rd edition Munich 1997, ISBN 3-423-04494-2 , p. 142 ff.
- ↑ See in detail Bernhard Fabian (Ed.): The English literature on the contexts presented in this section . Volume 1: Epochs and Forms . Deutscher Taschenbuchverlag, 3rd edition Munich 1997, ISBN 3-423-04494-2 , pp. 141–147.
- ↑ See in detail Bernhard Fabian (Ed.): Die Englische Literatur. Volume 1: Epochs and Forms . Deutscher Taschenbuchverlag, 3rd edition Munich 1997, ISBN 3-423-04494-2 , pp. 147–149.