Principality of Samos

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Flag of the Principality of Samos
Coat of arms of the Principality of Samos
Standard of the prince
Postage stamp with the coat of arms of the principality

The Principality of Samos ( Greek ῾Ηγεμονία Σάμου , Turkish Sisam İmâreti ) was an autonomous district in the Ottoman Empire ruled by Greeks for almost a century in the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century, that of the island of Samos (Turkish Susam , in Ottoman spelling Sisām ) duration. The capital of the principality was Vathy, now called Samos . The island was divided into four districts with the main towns of Vathy , Chora , Karlovasi and Marathokambos , which are still largely the basis of the administrative structure of Samos .

history

The Greek population of the island already enjoyed certain privileges under Ottoman rule before the Greek War of Independence (1821-1829), which went back to Sultan Suleyman I , who transferred the island to the later Kapudan Pascha Kılıç Ali Pascha in the 1560s . During the late Middle Ages, the island was depopulated in the turbulent clashes between Latin rulers and crusaders, the Italian maritime republics of Venice and Genoa, the Byzantines, Turkish ghazis and the Ottomans. In the years that had become more peaceful after the establishment of Ottoman rule in the 16th century, the Ottomans strove to repopulate the island with new Greek settlers from neighboring islands. Muslims were forbidden to settle on the island, the Samiots had their own rights and enjoyed customs exemption for their goods in Istanbul. A Greek prefect was in charge of internal affairs and the collection of taxes for the sultan, assisted by four advisers chosen by the island's notables. These freedoms, although formally confirmed again and again in the following period, were subsequently restricted, so that at the beginning of the 19th century an Ottoman governor and a kadi officiated on the island, but the residents were largely able to regulate their internal affairs themselves. The island also had a merchant marine, with which it participated in the Greek War of Independence under Lykurgos Logothetis . Unlike the neighboring islands of Chios and Psara , Samos was able to effectively defend itself against retaliatory measures by the Ottomans, also with the help of the rebel Greek fleet.

After the end of the war, however, Samos should lie outside the borders of the newly independent kingdom of Greece , as it was constituted in the London Protocols 1829-1832. But because the Samiots did not want to return under Ottoman rule, they were forced to accept Ottoman rule through military intervention with the help of the three major European powers Great Britain, France and Russia. Because the Samiots had submitted to the protection of the three powers, a statute of autonomy was provided for the island. According to the political ideas and circumstances of the time, this autonomy was designed as a tributary principality under the suzerainty (later called suzerainty ) of the sultan. The prince of Samos was supposed to be an Orthodox Christian appointed by the sultan. He was assisted by an elected assembly, which he was to chair and to administer the island. At that time only Greeks lived on the island.

The prince of Samos was called hegemon (῾Ηγεμὼν) in Greek , Prince and Wālī (governor) in Ottoman usage . The first prince became a Phanariot of Bulgarian origin in 1834, Stefanos Vogoridis (Στέφανος Βογορίδης), a confidante of the sultans Mahmud II. And Abdülmecid I. Vogoridis treated Samos almost like his private property and visited the island once during his almost 20-year reign and ruled once otherwise by deputies ( kaymakam ), eleven consecutive in total during his reign. Dissatisfaction with the resulting mismanagement and corruption led to a revolt by the Samiots against the rule of Vogoridis in 1849, which in turn led to a Turkish military intervention on the island and in 1850 to the recall of Vogoridis as prince. The Ottoman intervention led to a reform and clarification of the internal constitution of the island and to the permanent stationing of an Ottoman garrison of 150 men.

Swearing in of Prince Stephanos Mousouros

The other princes, who often only ruled for a short time, were chosen and appointed from the circle of the Phanariotes of Istanbul. These are the following people:

  • Alexandros Kallimachis (Αλέξανδρος Καλλιμάχης) (1850–1854)
  • Ioannis Gikas (Ιωάννης Γκίκας) (1854–1858)
  • Miltiadis Aristarchis (Μιλτιάδης Αριστάρχης) (1859–1866)
  • Pavlos Mousouros (Παύλος Μουσούρος) (1867–1873)
  • Konstantinos Adosidis (Κωνσταντίνος Αδοσίδης) (1873–1874), (first term of office)
  • Konstantinos Photiadis (Κωνσταντίνος Φωτιάδης) (1874–1879)
  • Konstantinos Adosidis (1879–1885), (second term)
  • Alexandros Karatheodoris (Αλέξανδρος Καραθεοδωρής) (1885-1893)
  • Georgios Berovitz (Γεώργιος Βέροβιτς) (1894–1895)
  • Stephanos Mousouros (Στέφανος Μουσούρος) (1896–1897)
  • Konstantinos Vaianis (Κωνσταντίνος Βάγιαννης) (1898–1900)
  • Mikhail Grigoriadis (Μιχαήλ Γρηγοριαδής) (1900-1902)
  • Alexandros Mavrogenis (Αλέξανδρος Μαυρογένης) (1902–1904)
  • Ioannis Vithynos (Ιωάννης Βιθυνός) (1904–1906)
  • Konstantinos Karatheodoris (Κωνσταντίνος Καραθεοδωρής) (1906-July 1907)
  • Georgios Ph. Georgiadis (Γεωργίος Φιλιπ. Γεωργιάδης) (July – December 1907)
  • Andreas Kopasis (Ανδρέας Κοπάσης) (1908–1912)
  • Gregorios Vegleris (Γρηγόριος Βεγλερής) (March – September 1912)

The island still did not come to rest. The reason was, on the one hand, that the compromise of 1832 did not lead to a satisfactory balance between the different points of view of the Samiots and the Ottoman government, and on the other hand, in the bitter struggle of the Samiot parties against each other. The following regulation by Ferman of 1850 about elections is significant: “The election of the members of the assembly should not be handled with noise and shouting.” The princes tried to fill a role as constitutional monarchs on Samos, but were not legitimized by inheritance law or the right to vote but dependent on the appointment of the Sultan. Regardless of their affiliation to the Orthodox denomination, they were foreign to the land and were Ottoman subjects and mostly saw themselves as administrators of the Ottoman government. On the other hand, they were increasingly dependent on the majority in the assembly to conduct their office. The assembly and the population, however, repeatedly flared up in favor of unification with Greece. There were further revolts in which the princes also called the Ottoman military for help.

Notwithstanding this, the princes promoted the island's development through various measures. Ioannis Gikas fought the robbers and pirates on the island and founded a higher educational institution, the Pythagorion. The island's road network was expanded and the island's capital got a European face through various construction measures.

When the Ottoman government complied with the will of the Sami assembly to replace Prince Photiadis with his predecessor Adosidis, this ultimately led to the princes changing in quick succession.

Prince Alexandros Karatheodoris allowed the assembly to influence the allocation of official posts, so that as a result the public service became a benefice of deserving partisans. Measures against phylloxera , which threatened Sami wine production, led to the increasing unpopularity of his government, to unrest and finally to his resignation.

The penultimate prince, Kopasis, drove the Sami opposition under Themistoklis Sofoulis into exile in Greece with a massive Ottoman military operation, in which the Sami capital was bombarded by the Ottoman navy . This then had him murdered by a hired assassin.

In economic terms, Samos experienced a boom in the 19th century, which was based on the traffic situation on a busy shipping route and the export of olive oil and wine. The infestation of wine cultures by phylloxera in the late 19th century led to increased cultivation of tobacco as a substitute culture. At the time of the principality, the tanning industry continued to flourish in the Karlovassi area , which then disappeared with the exception of small remnants in the wake of the global economic crisis , the Second World War and the subsequent Italian occupation. The economic situation led to a population growth, which in turn meant that many Samiots acquired land on the opposite Anatolian mainland and settled there.

After the last prince was driven from his official residence in the first Balkan War in 1912 and forced to resign and the assembly of the island had proclaimed unification with Greece, Samos fell to Greece in the 1913 Treaty of London . Until 1914, the island was still administered by a provisional government that was formed after the overthrow of the last prince, then Samos was also administratively incorporated into the Kingdom of Greece. As a result, especially after the Turkish Liberation War and the population exchange between Greece and Turkey , the Sami colonists had to leave the Anatolian mainland.

Constitution and political system

The constitution of the Principality of Samos was based on a Ferman of Sultan Mahmud II , which was written in French and was issued on the 17th Recep 1248/10. A letter dated December 1832 was sent to the ambassadors of Great Britain, France and Russia. In the preamble he emphasizes that the island belongs to the Ottoman Empire, regulates the future organization of the island in eight articles with a prince of Samos called "chief" and an assembly made up of selected notables "according to custom" (in the French text of Fermans " Conseil ”, called“ Γενικὴ Συνέλευσις ”in Greek in the political life of the island). This body was given overall administration of the island ("l'administration génerale de l'île"), as well as some specific sovereign powers to the prince. While the text does not contain any information on elections, legislation and jurisprudence, in general on the separation of powers and only contains the proclamation of an amnesty instead of basic rights , questions of cult, trade and church construction are mentioned as tasks of the future administration.

Additions followed in another Ferman from 1835 on the flag of the principality and the customs treatment of Sami ships in Istanbul. There the customs equality of the Samiots with the other "European" (Christian) subjects of the Sultan was decreed.

Outside of this Fermane, the principality's fiscal endowment was regulated by the fact that the prince became the island's tax leaseholder.

After the unrest that led to the recall of Prince Vogoridis in 1850, a profound reform brought about another Ferman, declared as an explanatory letter, which was re-edited in 1852 and published again in 1861. It contains regulations on the election to the assembly, its term of office and session, the right to vote and stand for election, the position and powers of the prince, the police, the financial administration and the judiciary and is in the text significantly longer than the original Ferman from 1832 .

The prince was expressly given some new powers in the area of ​​security law, including the authority over the newly established gendarmerie , as well as expressly the right to appoint officials. Relations with the assembly, previously referred to simply as having the présidence chaired the assembly, were formalized in such a way that he was responsible for the annual convening of the assembly and had to open and close the one-month session. The assembly elected its own chairman for the meetings themselves.

The deputies ("Πληρεξούσιοι") were elected for three years in indirect election by electors from the landowners, traders and shipowners, two deputies each from the urban communities and one each from the other communities, in addition to which the Metropolitan of Samos is entitled to vote by virtue of his office Took a seat. The assembly was expressly given control of the finances of the principality and the development of the country.

A four-member Senate ("Βουλὴ") was mentioned as a further organ, but this had already existed before this Ferman and is also assumed to have existed. Even the prefects of Samos from before the War of Independence were surrounded by a circle of four advisors who were appointed from the island's districts. Now the "Βουλευταὶ" named members were appointed by the prince from a list of two candidates from each of the four districts of the island that the assembly had set up for a period of one year. The Senate was given the supervision of finance, the collection of taxes and the payment of tribute. Appointment and dismissal of tax officials was only permitted with the approval of the Senate. In addition, he also exercised the powers of the congregation during the non-session period.

In particular, the requirement of a case law was dealt with and the establishment of a court consisting of a chairman, two assessors, a clerk and, for criminal matters, a public prosecutor, whereby the latter was expressly given no right to vote in court decisions. Personal judicial independence was expressly not intended for the members of the court. The prince's personal income was separated from public income by placing the tax system under the supervision of the senate and the control of the assembly, and the prince should only receive a salary. The legislation was only mentioned indirectly, stipulating that the court had to rule according to “the local laws”.

As a result of the Ottoman intervention, Turkish soldiers were stationed on Samos from 1850 , which contradicted the express text of the Fermans of 1832.

All of these constitutional instruments are essentially organizational statutes, combined with assignments of tasks. They can hardly be compared with the structure and content of modern or contemporary constitutions.

The actual constitutional and administrative structure of the island has been modified and expanded by the Sámi legislation and custom. In 1899 the Sami legislation made fundamental changes. General, direct and secret suffrage was introduced for the assembly and the members of the Senate were elected by the assembly. The prince was left with the task of appointing the elected. In 1908 there was a revision by reintroducing the indirect election of deputies, which is dependent on income and assets.

The Principality's Relationship to the Ottoman Empire

The ties of the principality to the Ottoman Empire and the extent of the Sami autonomy were not expressly regulated in the Fermans, but arose from the powers and tasks assigned to the institutions established by the Fermans. The principality's ties to the Ottoman Empire resulted from:

  • the appointment of the prince by the Sultan
  • the performance of the tribute
  • the prohibition of foreign policy activities without the consent of the sultan
  • the binding of the organs of the principality to the treaties that the Sultan had concluded with foreign states
  • the stationing of a Turkish garrison on Samos (contrary to the wording of Fermans from 1832, according to which there should be no military presence on Samos)
  • the Sami MPs' oath of allegiance to the Sultan
  • the affiliation of Samos to the Ottoman currency area
  • the appointment of the Metropolitan of Samos by the Patriarch of Constantinople

The annual tribute the principality had to pay the Ottoman Sultan was originally 400,000 piastres , but was later reduced to half in two steps. This tribute was referred to in the text of Ferman from 1832 with the word " Haraç " ("ḫaraǧ", in the French text: "Kharadj"). This term denoted the taxes that the non-Muslim subjects of the Ottoman Empire had to pay and that were collected collectively by the respective local religious community. They were paid for from the island's tax revenue.

After the dissolution of the Eyâlet of the Aegean Islands, Samos was no longer listed in the Ottoman yearbooks ( Salname ) as part of its successor, the Vilâyet Cezâyir-i Bahr-i Sefîd , but as Sisam İmâreti ( Emirate of Samos ) and to the Eyalât-ı Mümtâze counted, in which the sovereignty of the Sultan was subject to restrictions.

Within the Ottoman Empire, the Samiots were on an equal footing with the Christian subjects of the Sultan according to the Ferman of 1835. This Ferman allowed the Sami ships to fly their own red and blue flag with a white cross. The same Ferman allows the Samiots to hoist a flag “with the blue color alone” in one place on the island.

The Samiots were still considered subjects of the sultan.

The constitutional organs of the principality

According to the Ferman of 1832, the prince of Samos had to be of the (Greek) Orthodox faith and was appointed by the sultan. The constitutional documents did not contain any provisions on the removal of the prince, but the sultan regularly made use of this right of removal. In many cases this recall was based on an interpellation by the assembly. There was no right of inheritance or voting rights; none of the princes were Samiots. It was provided in the Ferman of 1832 that the prince left the exercise of his powers to a kaymakam as his deputy, which the first two princes made good use of. Should he be personally on the island, the prince should be accompanied by an "Efendi", an Ottoman civil servant, who had to report to the sultan about the Samiot situation.

The prince, together with the senate, managed the island. He had to carry out the resolutions of the meeting. In addition, the following tasks and rights had been assigned to the prince in his own responsibility without being bound by the assembly:

  • the Aliens Police, in the exercise of which the prince had to observe the privileges which the sultan had contractually granted to foreign nationals
  • the issuance of shipping documents for the Sami ships. The fees for this flowed into the prince's treasury.
  • a right of veto against all decisions of the Assembly on foreign affairs
  • the medical police, with which he was subordinate to the medical council in Istanbul (Ferman from 1850)
  • the passport system (Ferman from 1850)
  • authority over the police force (gendarmerie) of the island (Ferman from 1850)
  • the right not to carry out and to object to unlawful resolutions of the assembly (which violated the obligations of the subjects and the oath of allegiance sworn to the sultan) (Ferman von 1850)
  • the appointment and dismissal of judges and all officials and officials who were not appointed on the basis of an election or a proposal (Ferman of 1850)
  • the supervision of the court (Ferman of 1850)
  • Developing the arts and sciences, spreading morality and fighting corruption (Ferman of 1850)
  • the right to pardon (by Sami customary law)
  • the power to issue statutory ordinances that were subject to confirmation by the assembly (regulated by Sami state law in 1874, previously disputed)

The assembly consisted of 36, later 39 elected deputies, next to whom the Metropolitan of Samos had a right to vote. Eligible to vote were male Samiots of legal age who owned property worth at least 3,000 piasters, were tenants of monastic property if the lease was five years or more and the annual rent was at least 200 piasters, who paid at least an annual direct tax of 50 piasters or Owners of ships with a tonnage of more than 5 t. Excluded from the right to vote were people who had been deprived of their civil rights, the incapacitated, convicted criminals, people who were in arrears with public taxes, lepers and clergy. The right to stand as an elector or member of parliament was tied to a minimum age of 25 years, in addition, the person concerned had to prove real estate worth at least 10,000 piasters or a tax of at least 100 piasters per year or the owner of a ship with a tonnage of at least 15 t be. In addition, the right to stand for election was held by academics and persons who had held public office. There were further restrictive qualifications for shipowners for the right to stand as a member of parliament.

The tasks and powers of the assembly were only generally described in the Ferman of 1832 by the fact that the entire administration of the island was entrusted to it under the leadership of the prince, with the construction work for the churches being highlighted separately. In the Ferman of 1850, the following powers were enumerated:

  • Control of income and expenses
  • Preparation of the budget
  • Determination of financial needs and regulation of the collection of public taxes
  • Increase in local trade
  • Construction of public buildings with public funds
  • Consultations on improving management
  • Determination of civil servants' salaries

In general, the assembly had the legislative right not specifically mentioned in the constitutional documents.

Outside the session of the assembly, its tasks were carried out by the four-member Senate. Another requirement for the senators was a certain minimum standard of education. The Ferman of 1850 required that senators be literate.

Laws and Jurisprudence

Gendarmerie of Samos 1902
Gendarmerie 1899
Sami gendarmerie officer
Sami Gendarmerie on a postcard

The beginnings of the Sami judiciary during the reign of Prince Vogoridis were still quite primitive. If necessary, the prince or his kaymakam acted as a court of justice with the senators. The respective municipal councils were also acted legally under the chairmanship of the mayor. In 1840 the prince issued a handbook with 67 articles on civil and criminal law and in 1841 a court constitution law with 51 articles.

The Ferman of 1850 then set up the aforementioned court in Vathy, the then capital of Samos, with three judges, a clerk and a public prosecutor. The Senate, chaired by the Prince, continued to function as the court of appeal. In addition, the mayors retained their judicial function in minor matters. In the 20th century the judicial organization had developed further: In addition to the court in Vathy, now called Protodikeion (Πρωτοδικεῖον: Court of First Instance), but only responsible for the districts of Vathy and Chora, there was another, identically named and equally staffed for the Karlovassi and Marathokampos districts, responsible for civil litigation with higher value in dispute and as a criminal court for offenses. The Epheteion (᾿Εφετεῖον) acted as the court of appeal in civil matters with a president, two assessors and a clerk, which also acted as a criminal court for crimes in the first instance in a form expanded by two additional assessors with the assistance of a public prosecutor. Ten courts with a judge named Eirenodikeion (Εἰρηνοδικεῖον: Peace Court) were responsible for civil disputes with a lower value in dispute and petty crime. In minor cases under civil law, the mayors acted as judges in arbitrary proceedings.

After the recall of the first Prince Vogoridis, the Kaymakam Konemenos of Prince Callimachos reorganized the judiciary. He introduced Greek civil and criminal law to Samos, as well as other laws from the Hexabiblos des Harmenopoulos, a late medieval compilation of Byzantine law, and the French commercial code. In 1898 the Sami civil code was introduced, which initially retained its validity even after Samos was annexed to Greece.

Police and local administration

The municipalities were originally administered by a mayor and an elected two-person municipal council. The mayors were appointed by the Senate from a nomination by the electors. Later mayors and municipal councils were elected like the members of the assembly, the number of members of the municipal councils was graduated according to the number of inhabitants with 7, 5 or 3 members.

The principality's police force consisted of a 50-man gendarmerie.

Assessment of the status of the principality

The legal status of the principality was disputed in contemporary literature at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. One opinion saw Samos as a semi-sovereign state, the other opinion a province with special rights. The answer to this question is made dependent in the statements on whether or not Ferman's communication of 1832 to the three powers Great Britain, France and Russia represented a guarantee of the autonomy of Samos under international law. The Sultan's legal authority to issue the Fermans of 1850 has also been contested. In fact, the status of the Romanian principalities of Moldova and Wallachia appears as a model for Sami autonomy, regardless of the differences due to the size and the completely different internal social structure . At the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries, these, originally independent states and then vassal states that became tributary to the Ottoman Empire, had in fact become Ottoman provinces, whose princes, who came from the Istanbul Phanariots, were often appointed and deposed at will by the sultan and which differed from the other provinces essentially in that their rulers were not Muslims, there were no Muslims in their territory and no Muslim institutions existed.

These principalities were not only much larger than little Samos, they also took a completely different development due to the interference of Russia and finally the establishment of a hereditary monarchy under a branch of a renowned European dynasty, the Hohenzollern .

From the Greek side, the reason for the failure of the principality is seen in addition to the internal political struggles in the dependence of the princes on the Ottoman government and the whims of the Sami assembly, the lack of an effective police force and the efforts of the Ottoman government, the extensive autonomy of the island to restrict. The Ottomans, on the other hand, saw Sami autonomy as a privilege given by the Sultan, which could be withdrawn if necessary.

In fact, the truth seems to be more complicated. On the one hand, the autonomy of Samos was anchored in the fact that the Samiots were granted self-administration (l'administration générale). These concessions were nothing unusual. The neighboring islands of Ikaria , Patmos , Leros , Kalymnos , Astypalea , Nisyros , Symi , Chalki , Tilos , Karpathos , Kasos and Kastellorizo (Megisti) enjoyed similar freedoms (autonomy and only payment of a sum of 80,000 piasters ). It was only towards the end of the 19th century and especially after the Young Turkish Revolution of 1908 that the Ottomans tried, ultimately unsuccessfully, to integrate these islands more strongly into the Ottoman Empire by removing their privileges. However, the rights of these islands had a different status insofar as the privileges were only contained as instructions in a Ferman addressed to the Ottoman governor of Rhodes. In the case of Samos, on the other hand, the head of the island was given at least part of the civil powers and the tax lease that the Ottoman provincial governors had. In addition, the Sultan reserved his appointment. The principality originally represented a hybrid structure of a local autonomous community, an Ottoman province and a semi-feudal structure, but after the overthrow of 1850 it increasingly developed state attributes and structures. The Samians began to increasingly fill the space they had been given in 1832. The Ottomans, on the other hand, had to accept that the rights, which they had regarded as decisive for their rule over the island in 1832, increasingly lost importance.

swell

  • S. Soucek: "Sisām." Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, CE Bosworth , E. van Donzel, WP Heinrichs. Brill Online, 2015. Reference. Bavarian State Library Munich, September 6, 2015
  • Evangelia Balta: Sisam. In: Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı İslâm Araştırmaları Merkezi (ed.). İslâm Ansiklopedisi. , Volume 37, pp. 272-274 Online (pdf) or via http://www.tdvia.org , Article Sisam
  • Edward Herbert Bunbury, Maximilian Otto Bismarck Caspari, Ernest Arthur Gardner: Samos In: Hugh Chisholm (Ed.): Encyclopædia Britannica , 11th ed., Vol. 24, Cambridge University Press , 1911, pp. 116-117 online
  • William Miller: The Ottoman Empire 1801-1913. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1913, Online , esp. Pp. 470-473.
  • Philipp Georgiades: The legal situation of the island of Samos. Dissertation, Erlangen 1912.
  • W. Albrecht: Basic features of the constitutional law of the island of Samos. In: Journal of International and Federal Law. 1, No. 1 1906, pp. 56-70.
  • Paul Lindau : Samos. In: Paul Lindau: On the west coast of Asia Minor. Berlin, 1900, pp. 109-230. On-line

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Article 2, quoted from Philipp Georgiades: The legal situation of the island of Samos. Dissertation, Erlangen 1912, p. 16
  2. ^ William Miller: The Ottoman Empire 1801-1913. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1913, p. 471
  3. ^ A b Alfred Philippson: The Greek landscapes. A country study. Part 4: The Aegean Sea and its islands. Edited with co-author Herbert Lehmann. After the author's death, ed. by Ernst Kirsten. Klostermann, Frankfurt am Main 1959, p. 268
  4. ↑ Philipp Georgiades: The legal relationships of the island of Samos. Dissertation, Erlangen 1912, p. 46
  5. ^ W. Albrecht: Principles of the constitutional law of the island of Samos. In: Journal of International and Federal Law. 1, No. 1 1906, pp. 56-70ö p. 58
  6. ↑ Philipp Georgiades: The legal relationships of the island of Samos. Dissertation, Erlangen 1912, p. 60 f.
  7. ^ W. Albrecht: Principles of the constitutional law of the island of Samos. In: Journal of International and Federal Law. 1, No. 1 1906, pp. 56-70, p. 65
  8. ^ W. Albrecht: Principles of the constitutional law of the island of Samos. In: Journal of International and Federal Law. 1, No. 1 1906, pp. 56-70, 65
  9. ↑ Philipp Georgiades: The legal relationships of the island of Samos. Dissertation, Erlangen 1912, p. 67 f.
  10. ^ Conrad Bornhak: One-sided relationships of dependency among the modern states. Duncker & Humblot, Leipzig 1896, p. 56
  11. ↑ Philipp Georgiades: The legal relationships of the island of Samos. Dissertation, Erlangen 1912, p. 34 f.
  12. ↑ Sabine Rutar: South East Europe - Comparison, entanglement, transfer. Contributions to European social history of the 19th and 20th centuries. LIT, Münster 2010, ISBN 978-3-643-10658-2 , p. 115
  13. ^ William Miller: The Ottoman Empire 1801-1913. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1913, p. 469 f.
  14. ↑ Michael D. Volonakis: The Island of Roses and Her Eleven Sisters or, the Dodekanese. From the Earliest Times Down to the Present Day. Macmillan & Co, London 1922, p. 313 ff. Online