Nag el-Hagar fort

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Nag el-Hagar fort
Alternative name Praesentia (?)
limes Egyptian Limes
late antiquity, rear southern Limes line
section Thebaϊs
Dating (occupancy) tetrarchic ;
possibly up to the middle of the 6th century.
Type Fort
unit Vexillation of Legio III Diocletiana (?)
size outer circumference: 152 × approx. 152 m
(= 2.3 ha)
inner area: 142 × approx. 142 m
(= approx. 2.0 ha)
Construction Mud brick, stone
State of preservation The system has been preserved in the area of ​​the foundations and has been modified several times
place Nag el-Hagar
Geographical location 24 ° 21 '16.3 "  N , 32 ° 54' 49.1"  E
height 90  m
Upstream Philae Fort (south)

The Nag el-Hagar fort (Latin: possibly Praesentia ) is a late Roman military camp , the crew of which was responsible for rearward security and surveillance tasks in the southern border area of ​​the province of Theba .s . This province was established during the reign of the Emperor Diocletian (284-305) in 298 AD after the abandonment of the Dodecaschoinos . The remains of the garrison, which must have also served as the representative site of an important official, were discovered on the east bank of the Nile , near the village of Nag el-Hagar in the Aswan Governorate in Upper Egypt , and partially excavated in campaigns that began in 1984.

Name and location

The identification of the fort with the garrison town of Praesentia , where the late Roman state manual Notitia Dignitatum locates the Legio III Diocletiana , is still uncertain.

The responsible Roman strategists planned the plant around 45 kilometers behind the then newly established southern border of the Empire in Egypt, which ran close to Philae . Syene ( Aswan ), which had now become a border town, was around 30 kilometers south of the fort . The nearest town north of the fortification was Omboi ( Kom Ombo ), around 17 kilometers away . A civil village settlement was leveled for the construction of the late antique fort.

Research history

The first research campaigns were carried out by the Egyptian Antiquities Administration , Aswan Department. They were under the direction of Chief Inspector Mohi ed-Din Mustafa from 1984 to 1985 and were continued from 1986 to January 1989 under his successor Usama Abdel Wareth. The focus of these excavations was a small, poorly preserved palace (palatium) in the area of ​​the southwestern Praetentura (front camp ) of the fort. However, the excavations could not clarify its function with certainty. In addition, the various subsequent changes and obvious developments in the area of ​​interior construction were not recognized. The Swiss Institute for Architectural and Archaeological Research Egyptian in Cairo at the time, was commissioned together with the Antiquities Service the found architectural remains to document and publish final.

In order to anticipate the increasingly threatened destruction of the fort and to make it possible to publish the research results, the Swiss carried out a short documentation project in February and March 2005. The funding was taken over by the Munich University Society, the Association of Friends and Supporters of the Ludwig Maximilians University . The partially excavated building remains inside the western half of the fort, including the surrounding wall there, caused maintenance problems due to the palm trees growing on the eastern bank of the Nile and between the ruins. The east side of the fortification, in turn, was threatened by the expanding modern village. In addition, parts of the northern, eastern and southern perimeter walls as well as the north-east and south-east corner of the fort were most recently victims of willful destruction.

This excavation was followed in 2006 by a long-term cooperation project between the Antiquities Administration, Aswan Inspectorate, and the Swiss Institute for Egyptian Building Research and Antiquities in Cairo for further research into the fortification and the associated camp village ( Vicus ) . The management was placed in the hands of the German provincial Roman archaeologist Michael Mackensen with the assistance of the Egyptian Mohamed El-Bialy from the Aswan inspectorate. Open questions from the previous excavation should now be clarified and, as a new objective, the team barracks in the eastern camp area and the staff building (Principia) should be examined. Mackensen led the excavations in 2005, 2006 and 2008. The 2009 investigations were carried out by the archaeologist Regina Franke . The Swiss Institute, under the direction of Cornelius von Pilgrim , supported the excavators as administrative and logistical sponsors and helped the building researcher Alexander von Kienlin from the Technical University of Munich, who was called in, with his work. The first campaigns in 2006, 2008 and 2009 were financed by the Düsseldorf Gerda Henkel Foundation , and in 2008 by the Munich Eleonora Schamberger Foundation . This foundation also took over the promotion of the campaigns from 2011 until the end of the cooperation project on February 15, 2014. Franke then took over the final processing and evaluation of the excavations. The topographical survey of the fortifications and the creation of a plan of elevations were carried out by the academic director of the Technical University of Munich, Manfred Stephani , while Jörg Faßbinder from the Bavarian State Office for the Preservation of Monuments took over the geomagnetic field inspection.

Building history

Dating

The Eastern Roman division of the provinces of Egypt around AD 400. Later two more provinces were added through renewed divisions ( Augustamnica II and Thebais II ).

Since no building inscription has yet been discovered, the dating is limited to the recovered coin mantelpiece and the ceramics. Even the excavated ostraca do not offer any indications of a temporal evaluation. The exact date of construction of the fort remains as indefinite as the time at which the regular Roman military unit stationed here last left Nag el-Hagar. So it is also unclear when the population settled in the fort walls and when the archaeologically tangible transformation from a garrison site to a civilian settlement began. It is speculated that the fort was used for military purposes until the middle of the 5th century or even towards the middle of the 6th century. A section through the moat showed that it was cleaned regularly until the first half of the 6th century. With the end of the garrison, military buildings were converted, partly demolished and new buildings were built within the fort area.

As the detailed evaluation of the fine ceramics recovered from 1984 on in 2005 shows, the establishment of the garrison can be located in the early 4th century or even in the time around 300 AD. The problem with the pottery collected in Nag El-Hagar between 1984 and 1989, however, was that the all-important possibility of stratification was made impossible because the excavators at the time had neglected to provide the pottery with found slips or similar. Therefore, among other things, it is unknown when and where these pieces were discovered. The pottery included fragments of the African red-slip ware (ARS) from central and northern Tunisia as well as the Egyptian red-slip ware A (ERS A). The range of identifiable ERS-A fragments was largely the same as that of the ARS ware and ranged from the 4th to the 7th centuries, with the emphasis on the 5th and 6th centuries. Overall, the ARS offered good dating approaches despite the difficulties mentioned, as this high-quality fine ceramics, which had been imported in large quantities to Nag el-Hagar, can be chronologically located extremely well.

Since the ceramics collected up to the end of the excavation in 1989 could not be used for further archaeological-historical questions due to the lack of information, a further field inspection was scheduled in 2006, which again focused on the sigillates, but also the remains of amphorae . The results from 2005 were confirmed here. In addition, new knowledge about the vicus was gained. This was obviously used until the end of Roman-Byzantine rule in 640 AD and probably even into the 8th century. However, since no early or other Islamic glazed ceramics were found, a term ante quem could be postulated here.

Another possibility of dating from the excavations carried out up to 1989 was a small hoard find of 77 Folles , which belong to the years from 317 to 337 AD. Unfortunately, there is different information about the exact location of the after-school care center. At least it seems certain that it was found on the U-shaped tower north of the Porta praetoria . Only nine late antique coins and one late Ottoman bronze coin were recovered from the palace in 1987/1988 . Regrettably, when these coins were excavated, no stratigraphic assignment was made either. The new numismatic finds that have been made since 2006 confirm the previous ceramic dating. It can be clearly stated that everything found began abruptly around AD 297. The oldest coin from Nag el-Hagar in 2012 was a Diocletian Antoninian from AD 295/296, followed by seven Antoninians from AD 296/297. A stratified Antoninian was recovered from a 2008 follow-up examination in the palace area. He had been struck in the Egyptian mint for the Emperor Maximian (286-305).

Enclosure

Nag el-Hagar Castle: All Coptic additions and alterations have been removed in this depiction. Of the late antique church buildings, only church A was considered, which was probably built at the time of the military use of the fort.

The fortification, which was almost square in plan, had an outer circumference of 152 × approx. 152 meters (= 2.3 hectares), as well as a usable inner area of ​​142 × approx. 142 meters (= approx. 142 meters) without taking into account the protruding corner and U-shaped towers 2.0 hectares). Its flanks were roughly oriented towards the four cardinal points. Its massive, impressive Praetorial Front faced the nearby Nile in the west. The surrounding wall was around 4.50 meters wide and was built from mighty sandstone blocks. At least their lowest layers were connected to one another by dovetail-shaped wooden clips. Since the Nile was the main traffic axis at the time, this front side was particularly impressive. The other three sides of the enclosure wall consisted largely of adobe bricks . Overall, the complex has all the characteristic and already fully developed features of late Roman fortresses, as they were built towards the end of the 3rd and beginning of the 4th century. In addition to four square corner towers protruding far, the building has three gates built into the center of the west, north and south sides of the surrounding wall. Part of the architecture of these gates is their structure with half-columns. Instead of a gate in the eastern front of the Dekuman , there is a U-shaped intermediate tower that also protrudes far from the wall. This tower is flanked by two other, identically designed intermediate towers. The same picture emerges on the three other facades of the surrounding wall. Here, too, two intermediate towers were positioned to the left and right of the gates. And these approaches to the fort also each have two U-shaped gate towers flanking them. At every intermediate tower in the examined western half of the fort, five equally designed wall templates protruded inwards at regular intervals. They were interpreted as the remains of staircases that allowed access to the first floor of the towers. The western main gate, the Porta praetoria , had a single-lane driveway between the two flanking gate towers, which were about 9.50 meters apart. In the southern flank tower of the gate, a small gate could also be found that opened towards the driveway. During the geomagnetic measurements in 2006 and subsequently by means of a section on the south and east sides, a pointed ditch was identified as an obstacle to the approach, which at least verifiably failed in front of the south gate. The trench certainly continued in front of the northern front, but it is still unknown there. No digging was necessary on the western front, as the Nile still flows by there today. The well-known southeast corner of the trench is semicircular.

Interior development

Headquarters building

The interior of the fort is accessed by two main streets, around 12 meters wide: the Via praetoria coming from the west and the Via principalis connecting the north and south gates . Both streets cross in the middle of the camp. About 45 meters behind the intersection, Via praetoria, coming from the west, met the entrance area of ​​the Principia , which was completely exposed in several campaigns up to 2013. It was found that the rear wall of the building was not erected directly on the inside of the eastern perimeter wall, but kept a distance of 2.30 meters from it, thus leaving enough space for Lagerringstrasse (Via sagularis) . The eastern substructure of the staff building was also uncovered during this investigation. There it still consisted of three layers of sandstone and a preserved layer of fired brick.

Stone robbers had already severely disrupted the main entrance in the west. Nevertheless, it was possible to examine the foundation of the stairs in front of the entrance. It was made of fired bricks and was about five meters wide and 1.75 meters deep. Further steps, made from large sandstone blocks, led to a higher, rectangular vestibule, which enclosed 10.60 × 7.85 meters. From there, visitors entered the main hall, which was 10.60 × 9.90 meters in size. To give this hall a more representative appearance, axially symmetrical walls were drawn into its four corners at an angle of 45 degrees, giving the room an octagonal floor plan. This room design, which originally towered over all the other parts of the main building, is just as unusual a discovery within a fort as the palace complex described below. The excavators speculated that this was the flag sanctuary (Aedes principiorum) of the fort. To the south of the two halls there was a complex consisting of several rooms, which accommodated the administrative rooms of the fort. The architectural effort that was made for the entrance hall and main hall is already evident in the foundations made of carefully placed rubble stones, which were 1.80 meters wide and 0.60 meters deep and whose rising masonry consisted of burnt bricks. In contrast to this, the office complex of the headquarters building to the south had no rubble foundation and, like the crew barracks, was only built from unfired bricks made from Nile mud.

During the investigations from 1984 to 1989, the area of ​​the staff building was not touched. At the place of the Principia, however, a dozen partially fragmented column shafts made of rose granite , which were between 0.50 and two meters in length, were found before the excavation . In addition, two column bases made of red granite could already be identified before the excavation . The components made of rose granite are very volatile. Apparently they were made in a hurry. The investigations by von Kienlin made it clear that these pillars apparently belonged to a post-fortified Coptic church that was erected on the site of the staff building.

Crew barracks

Until 2012 only a small part of the buildings inhabited by the teams had been examined, so that the maximum total number of soldiers stationed here is still unknown. For this purpose, the excavations were oriented towards the south-eastern quarter of the fort. Here, a 13.75 × 32.40 meter long, rectangular building was uncovered, of which, however, mostly only parts of the lowest foundation layer made of mostly unfired, air-dried Nile mud bricks were preserved. This brick foundation was one to four feet wide. In addition to the natural weathering processes, the western area of ​​the barrack was particularly affected by the destruction carried out by the fellahs . The farmers used the air-dried bricks as fertilizer. The building, clearly identifiable as a crew barracks (Centuria) , was oriented east-west and had a longitudinal wall in the middle that ran between the two narrow sides and separated the building in two halves. It was clear that the excavators were dealing with a double barracks here. The regular interior division consisted of two rows of almost the same width, each with eight crew rooms ( Contubernia ) , which had an average size of 15 square meters. Four to five men could have been quartered in each room. Due to the poor state of preservation, neither thresholds nor traces of the Roman level were preserved. The rooms could be entered via separate entrances from the narrow warehouse lanes to the north and south of the crew accommodation. These alleys were only around 2.40 to 2.80 meters wide. The last remains and traces of interior decoration in the Contubernia yielded three findings in the form of vessels sunk into the floor, which are shown in the drawing published here. The finding 119 determined during the 2009 campaign in room 4 can be set in time due to its stratigraphic reference to the first use phase of the team barracks. The 53 centimeter high and thick-walled four-handle pot with its high stand ring has a grooved horizontal edge and simple linear painting. The piece could date as early as 300 AD and was sunk around 0.40 meters into the ground, that is, under the very first foundation layer. Since this ceramic vessel filled with sand contained a complete 17.70 centimeter high one-handle jug of the shape Gempeler T 854 in the area of ​​its shoulder , it can be assumed that most of the edge of the four-handle pot was most likely already broken off when this product was brought in. Room 15 contained the finding 100. This still consisted of a 20.50 centimeter high vessel lower part, which, because of its similarities, was once considered to be a similar piece to the four-handled jug mentioned. In addition to these vessels found in situ , the impression of a third ceramic vessel was also observed in another room.

The archaeologists made long probe cuts to the south and west in order to explore the area around the double barracks. In the process, other building remnants of comparable scope could be identified. It is therefore conceivable that the entire southeast quarter was built on with a total of four double and two single barracks. Mackensen reckoned 64 to 80 men for the completely excavated double barracks and came to around 300 to 400 soldiers who could only have been barracked in the southeast quarter. The investigations made it clear that these barracks belonged to the oldest building finds on site and can therefore be assigned to the founding phase of the fort. As the completely uncovered barracks building bordered directly on the Via sagularis , which ran parallel to the eastern fort wall , its width was also known at this point and measured at 3.50 meters.

What was remarkable for the archaeologists was the finding that the crew barracks, which had previously been documented and had a reconstructable floor plan, lacked the otherwise typical head structures for the officers in charge or NCOs. Possibly they lived in one of the uniform rooms at the beginning or end of the barracks. After that, according to Mackensen, the number of crews for the crew quarters excavated immediately south of the Principia would be reduced by four to ten men.

Horrea and residential buildings

In the northwestern praetentura next to the via principalis dextra , two adjacent, three-part granaries (horrea) were uncovered adjacent to the via sagularis . In addition, at least three houses with an as yet unknown purpose could be identified. The best-preserved of these houses, which was built in the northwest corner of the fort, has an almost square floor plan of around 19 × 18 meters (= 340 square meters) and is therefore similar in size to the commander's house (Praetorium) in Dionysias ( Qasr Qarun ). For this reason, this square building in Nag el-Hagar was interpreted as an officer's apartment.

Castellum Aquae

The complex infrastructure of the palace buildings in the south-east quarter of the fort also included a Castellum Aquae . These buildings were used for water storage and distribution. Their remains were found in the ancient cities of Pompeii and Nîmes, among others . The Castellum Aquae of Nag el-Hagar was located near the Via principalis sinistra , which led to the south gate, the Porta principalis sinistra . As the excavators discovered, the foundations of the water distributor probably only survived because they were reused in the construction of a later building. Despite this fact, the remains of the building were still so well preserved that the functionality of the structure could be partially documented. The groundwater entered a deep basin inside the Castellum Aquae on its west side through an opening in the floor and was raised there by a pumping station to form two towering water reservoirs. These basins, which functioned as tanks and had a thick coat of hydraulic mortar , were connected to pipelines that ensured the further distribution of water. On the north side of the Castellum two lead pipes could be observed which led through the masonry to one of the reservoirs. Since the complex is in an otherwise unexcavated area, it is not yet possible to get a more precise idea of ​​the further distribution of water. At least one canal made of interlocking ceramic pipes leading in a wide arc to the north is secured, which brought fresh water to the latrines at the thermal baths and ensured continuous flushing. In a probe there were also two parallel ceramic pipes of the same type, which apparently ran in the direction of the south-west corner of the fort.

Palatium

After the excavations that took place until 1989, the palace fell victim to steadily progressive destruction, which is why today, at best, only several layers of burnt Nile mud bricks remain. In the central rooms, remains of the floors made of cut limestone slabs have survived. The most important building complex in Nag el-Hagar is very rare for military fortifications of the late 3rd and 4th centuries. This finding was completely unexpected for the excavators. It is a palatial structure that is located in the south-western part of the fort next to the Porta praetoria . The remains of the wall discovered there result in an overall very complex floor plan. The building was entered from Via praetoria through a small rectangular room with a semicircular apse facing south . A large passage in the west wall of this room allowed arriving visitors to step into a basilica-like single-nave hall, the long sides of which were structured by uniformly attached, semicircular wall templates. This elongated structure also had a semicircular apse in the south. In the southeast wall of the hall there was a subsequently narrowed passage, from which a tiled distribution room with doors in all four directions could be entered. The northern entrance led into a rectangular room that was once perhaps not roofed over and without any further entrances. The adobe walls were already badly disturbed there, but half-round wall templates could be found in the corners. The substructure of the floor consisted of fired bricks, over which a gray screed lay. Above that, in turn, there were few remains of a floor covering. The eastern entrance, which led to the latrines and the bathroom, had to be entered via a small step. Upon entering this step, visitors came through a gate that was flanked by two half-columns towards the distribution room, but had corner edges beveled on the inside at a 45-degree angle. If visitors went through the southern entrance, they came to the largest and most representative area of ​​the palace, a three-aisled construction. The excavators reconstructed this basilica-like floor plan with a central nave that was open at the top and was supported by two rows of columns on the long side. Both the central nave and the two smaller side wings end in semicircular apses that also curve to the south. The overall size of the last-mentioned building structure, including its main apse, is around 15.50 × 27.00 meters. It was addressed as a reception hall ( assembly hall ) . This auditorium was rebuilt in shape and size at least once. The southern, square-delimited area of ​​the auditorium is not aligned with the northern apse and the adjacent floor covering made of limestone slabs, but is shifted slightly to the west. It is also noteworthy that the lateral edges of the elongated main room and the slightly raised side aisles were only equipped with a smooth, reddish screed instead of this paving. During a renovation phase, the floor in the southern part of the auditorium and the adjacent room groups was raised by one step. The two pillars that bordered the southern part of the auditorium could also have been laid down at that time. To the east and west of this basilica-like space there is a group of four rooms on each side. Both room groups were perhaps laid out on two floors and were probably intended as apartments for high-ranking officials or dignitaries. In the northwest area of ​​the basilica-like structure there is a passage that leads into an approximately 25 meter long rectangular hall supported by a central row of columns. This hall, as well as the first two smaller apse rooms mentioned, border with their north wall on the Via praetoria . A partly uncovered bath (balneum) adjoins the residential palace in the east . Overall, the palatium without the bathing building measures around 50 × 35 meters (= 0.175 hectares) and thus covers a little less than a tenth of the inner surface of the fort.

When the palace was built, spoils from older buildings were reused. Among them was a fragmented inscription ( Tabula ansata ) , which can be assigned to the reign of Emperor Trajan (98-117). Therefore the assumption arose that there might have been an older residential development at this point. Mud brick walls that came to light during the excavations in the area of ​​the palatium and its thermal baths could provide a concrete indication . All known findings indicate that there was probably a civilian village here before the garrison was established. When the palace was erected, the older buildings were demolished and the area was leveled with a layer of earth and rubble around 0.80 meters high. The soles of the palace buildings erected on it extend around 0.40 meters above the original walking level. Although the palatium was evidently built from the beginning in the extent known today, there are individual, in some cases more complex, later conversions inside it. Also noteworthy are some structural changes made from rubble stones, which, in their chronological order, clearly indicate that the building complex will continue to be used after the withdrawal of the Roman troops.

So far it has not been possible to make a reliable archaeological dating of the palatium . Thus it remains only a conjecture that the fort and palace for Emperor Diocletian and his accompanying troops (sacer comitatus) were built during their visit to the Upper Egyptian province in the summer of 298 AD. During this trip on the Nile, the emperor had decided to withdraw the Roman troops from the Dodecaschoinos region and to reorganize the border zone around the First Cataract between Philae and Syene . Certainly the palace was ultimately built for a high-ranking official of the Roman provincial administration. With today's knowledge, who this was is speculative. It was considered whether a location for the military commander of the province Theba Provinz (dux Thebaϊdos) could have been located here. The separation between the civil provincial governor and the military provincial commander was completed around AD 308/309.

Churches

To the south of the palace, between it and the fort wall, two churches were subsequently built. The building researcher Alexander von Kienlin called them Church A and B. In addition, he saw a third church building (Church C) in the area of ​​the former Principia as given.

Western Church A

This oldest church building, a three-aisled pillar basilica with a total width of around eight meters, still used the fort wall in the south and west and was attached to it. At a later point in time, the church received a semicircular, east-facing apse, which was built from Spolia. Other alterations can also be seen, which in particular revolve around liturgical aspects. With the exception of the two wall sections formed by the old surrounding wall of the fort, this church consisted mainly of unfired clay bricks. Small remnants of the former painting were found inside. Some construction techniques, including the columns made of quarter-circle-shaped fired bricks, which were probably only added later in the building, as they were also found in the palatium , could speak in favor of building the fort during the military use of the fort. Possibly the building originated in the second half of the 4th century and could have been used as a palace church by the military. Typologically, the church - at least in its first phase of construction - still belongs to the first generation of Constantine churches.

Eastern Church B

Church A was demolished for the construction of the second church. This much larger new building was built slightly to the east to the older church and also planned as a three-aisled column basilica. The easternmost parts of church A were found under the narthex of church B. Spolia from the older church building was also reused in the construction of church B, which, in addition to the east-facing apse, may also have a transept . The building was built along the south wall of the fort's enclosure wall and consists of dry-set rubble stones. It is possible that the mud brick wall of the fort had already fallen into disrepair at this point, because the church uses its own load-bearing south wall, which was built inside the fort directly along the old surrounding wall. Even during the construction period, a rescheduling can be seen that made an initially unplanned passage between palace and church possible. Several conversions followed later. Typologically, Church B can be compared with Coptic churches from the 5th and 6th centuries.

South of the church, between the south-western corner tower of the fort and the first intermediate tower in the southern perimeter wall, a mighty, possibly rectangular building was built, possibly in the same time window or a little earlier than Church B, the north wall of which leans against the outer facade of the old defensive wall. Its use is so far unknown.

Church C

Von Kienlin sited a third church on the site of the former Principia and began building it, two centuries after Church B was built. The foundations of this church have apparently been completely removed. He sees only the accumulation of column shafts and bases on the area as the last remains of this church. He assumed that churches B and C were probably used in parallel for a certain time.

literature

  • Mohi ed-Din Mustafa, Horst Jaritz : A Roman Fortress at Nag El-Hagar. First preliminary report . In: Annales du Service des Antiquités de l'Égypte 70, 1985, pp. 21–31.
  • Usama Abdel Wareth, Pierre Zignani : Nag al-Hagar. A Fortress with a Palace of the Late Roman Empire. Second preliminary report . In: Bulletin de l'Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale 92, 1992, pp. 185-210.
  • Pierre Zignani: L'armée romaine de Haute-Egypte sous Dioclétian, on the subject of “Presentia” . In: VI Congresso Internazionale di Egitologia. Atti II , 1993, pp. 591-596.
  • Michael Mackensen : Late Roman African red slip ware from the frontier region in the province of Thebais (Upper Egypt) . In: Andrew Wilson (ed.): Romanitas. Essays on Roman Archeology in Honor of Sheppard Frere on the Occasion of his Ninetieth Birthday . Oxford 2006, pp. 211-229.
  • Michael Mackensen, Mohamed El-Bialy , Alexander von Kienlin , Hans-Christoph Noeske , Florian Schimmer , Barbara Seeberger , Maike Sieler : The Late Roman Fort at Nag el-Hagar near Kom Ombo in the province of “Thebaïs” (Upper Egypt). Report on the first season of the Egyptian-Swiss Joint Mission . In: Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologische Institut, Cairo Department , 62, 2006 (2007) pp. 161–195.
  • Michael Mackensen, Mohamed El-Bialy: Report on the second season of the Egyptian-Swiss Joint Mission at the Late Roman Fort at Nag el-Hagar (Upper Egypt) . In: Annales du Service des Antiquités de l'Égypte 81, 2007, pp. 39–51.
  • Michael Mackensen: The Tetrarchic fort at Nag al-Hagar in the province of Thebaïs: preliminary report (2005-8) . In: Journal of Roman Archeology 22, 2009, pp. 286-311.
  • Michael Mackensen, Regina Franke : A crew accommodation in the tetrarchical Nag al-Hagar fort near Kom Ombo (Upper Egypt) . In: Christa Ebnöther , Regula Schatzmann (Ed.): Oleum non perdidit. Festschrift for Stefanie Martin-Kilcher on her 65th birthday (= Antiqua 47), 2010, pp. 81–94.
  • Michael Mackensen, Mohamed El-Bialy: Fourth report of the Egyptian-Swiss Joint Mission at the Late Roman Fort at Nağ'al-Hağar near Kom Ombo (Upper Egypt) . In: Annales du Service des Antiquités de l'Égypte 84, 2010 (2012), pp. 243-258.
  • Michael Mackensen, Mohamed El-Bialy: The Late Roman Fort at Nag al-Hagar near Kom Ombo (Upper Egypt). Report on the Fourth Season of the Egyptian-Swiss Joint Mission . In: Dietrich Raue , Stephan Seidlmayer , Philipp Speiser (eds.): The First Cataract of the Nile. One Region - Diverse Perspectives (= special publications of the German Archaeological Institute, Cairo Department 36), 2013, pp. 111–121.
  • Maike Sieler: Egyptian red slip ware A and its production at the site of the late Roman fort at Nag el-Hagar / Upper Egypt . In: Rei Cretariae Romanae Acta 40, 2008, pp. 271-278.
  • Alexander von Kienlin: The palace in the late Roman fort of Nag el-Hagar . In: Report on the 44th Conference on Excavation Science and Building Research. From May 24th to 28th, 2006 in Wroclaw . Koldewey Society, 2008, pp. 118–128.
  • Alexander von Kienlin: The churches of Nag el-Hagar . In: Alejandro Jiménez-Serrano , Cornelius von Pilgrim (ed.): From the Delta to the Cataract. Studies Dedicated to Mohamed el-Bialy. Brill, Leiden 2015, ISBN 978-90-04-29344-1 , pp. 108-131.
  • Mohamed El-Bialy, Michael Mackensen, Jörg Faßbinder , Alexander von Kienlin, Manfred Stephani : Report on the Second Season of the Egyptian-Swiss Joint Mission at the Late Roman Fort at Nag el-Hagar (Upper Egypt) . In: Annales du Service des Antiquités de l'Égypte 81, 2007, pp. 39–51.
  • Mohamed El-Bialy, Alexander von Kienlin: Report on the third season of Egyptian-Swiss joint mission at Nag El-Hagar . In: Annales du Service des Antiquités de l'Égypte 82, 2008, pp. 61–66.
  • Regina Franke: Demonstration of imperial power on the Nile - The late Roman fort Nag'al-Hagar near Kom Ombo in Upper Egypt . In: Antike Welt 5, 2012, pp. 57–65
  • Regina Franke: The headquarters building in the tetrarchic fort at Nag 'el-Hagar (Upper Egypt) . In: Journal of Roman Archeology 26, 2013, pp. 456-463.
  • Regina Franke: The Tetrarchic Fort at Nag'al-Hagar (Upper Egypt) - Excavations in 2005 to 2012 . In: Lyudmil Vagalinski, Nicolay Sharankov (ed.): Proceedings of the 22nd International Congress of Roman Frontier Studies , Bulgaria, Ruse, 2012, Limes XXII, 2015, pp. 369-375.

Web links

Remarks

  1. ↑ a b c d e Michael Mackensen, Mohamed El-Bialy, Alexander von Kienlin, Hans-Christoph Noeske, Florian Schimmer, Barbara Seeberger, Maike Sieler: The Late Roman Fort at Nag el-Hagar near Kom Ombo in the province of “Thebaïs ”(Upper Egypt). Report on the first season of the Egyptian-Swiss Joint Mission . In: Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologische Institut, Cairo Department , 62, 2006 (2007) pp. 161–195; here: p. 163.
  2. ^ Raoul McLaughlin: The Roman Empire and the Indian Ocean. The Ancient World Economy & the Kingdoms of Africa, Arabia & India 2014, ISBN 978-1-78346-381-7 , p. 67.
  3. ↑ Notitia Dignitatum occ. 31, 33
  4. ↑ Michael Mackensen, Mohamed El-Bialy, Alexander von Kienlin, Hans-Christoph Noeske, Florian Schimmer, Barbara Seeberger, Maike Sieler: The Late Roman Fort at Nag el-Hagar near Kom Ombo in the province of “Thebaïs” (Upper Egypt) . Report on the first season of the Egyptian-Swiss Joint Mission . In: Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologische Institut, Cairo Department , 62, 2006 (2007) pp. 161–195; here: p. 162.
  5. ↑ a b Alexander von Kienlin : The churches of Nag el-Hagar . In: Alejandro Jiménez-Serrano, Cornelius von Pilgrim (ed.): From the Delta to the Cataract. Studies Dedicated to Mohamed el-Bialy. Brill, Leiden 2015, ISBN 978-90-04-29344-1 , pp. 108-131; here: p. 110.
  6. ↑ Alexander von Kienlin: The churches of Nag el-Hagar . In: Alejandro Jiménez-Serrano, Cornelius von Pilgrim (ed.): From the Delta to the Cataract. Studies Dedicated to Mohamed el-Bialy. Brill, Leiden 2015, ISBN 978-90-04-29344-1 . Pp. 108-131; here: pp. 110–111.
  7. ↑ a b c d Michael Mackensen, Regina Franke: A crew accommodation in the tetrarchic fort Nag al-Hagar near Kom Ombo (Upper Egypt) . In: Christa Ebnöther, Regula Schatzmann (Ed.): Oleum non perdidit. Festschrift for Stefanie Martin-Kilcher on her 65th birthday (= Antiqua 47), 2010, pp. 81–94; here: p. 84.
  8. ^ Nicolas Grimal , Emad Adly, Alain Arnaudiès: Fouilles et travaux en Égypte et au Soudan, 2008–2009 . In: Orientalia. Pontificium Institutum Biblicum . 78, 2 (2009), p. 185.
  9. ↑ Mohamed El-Bialy, Michael Mackensen, Jörg Faßbinder, Alexander von Kienlin, Manfred Stephani: Report on the Second Season of the Egyptian-Swiss Joint Mission at the Late Roman Fort at Nag el-Hagar (Upper Egypt) . In: Annales du Service des Antiquités de l'Égypte 81, 2007, pp. 39–51; here: p. 39.
  10. ↑ a b Michael Mackensen, Mohamed El-Bialy, Alexander von Kienlin, Hans-Christoph Noeske, Florian Schimmer, Barbara Seeberger, Maike Sieler: The Late Roman Fort at Nag el-Hagar near Kom Ombo in the province of “Thebaïs” (Upper Egypt). Report on the first season of the Egyptian-Swiss Joint Mission . In: Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologische Institut, Cairo Department , 62, 2006 (2007) pp. 161–195; here: p. 170.
  11. ↑ a b c d e f g Regina Franke: Demonstration of imperial power on the Nile - The late Roman fort Nag'al-Hagar near Kom Ombo in Upper Egypt . In: Antike Welt 5, 2012, pp. 57–65.
  12. ↑ Mohamed El-Bialy, Alexander von Kienlin: Report on the third season of Egyptian-Swiss joint mission at Nag El-Hagar . In: Annales du Service des Antiquités de l'Égypte 82, 2008, pp. 61–66; here: p. 64.
  13. ↑ Michael Mackensen, Mohamed El-Bialy, Alexander von Kienlin, Hans-Christoph Noeske, Florian Schimmer, Barbara Seeberger, Maike Sieler: The Late Roman Fort at Nag el-Hagar near Kom Ombo in the province of “Thebaïs” (Upper Egypt) . Report on the first season of the Egyptian-Swiss Joint Mission . In: Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologische Institut, Cairo Department , 62, 2006 (2007) pp. 161–195; here: pp. 170–171.
  14. ↑ Michael Mackensen, Mohamed El-Bialy, Alexander von Kienlin, Hans-Christoph Noeske, Florian Schimmer, Barbara Seeberger, Maike Sieler: The Late Roman Fort at Nag el-Hagar near Kom Ombo in the province of “Thebaïs” (Upper Egypt) . Report on the first season of the Egyptian-Swiss Joint Mission . In: Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologische Institut, Cairo Department , 62, 2006 (2007) pp. 161–195; here: p. 181.
  15. ↑ Fouad Ibrahim , Barbara Ibrahim: Egypt. Geography, history, economics, politics. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 2006, ISBN 3-534-17420-8 , pp. 20, 25
  16. ↑ a b c d Michael Mackensen, Mohamed El-Bialy, Alexander von Kienlin, Hans-Christoph Noeske, Florian Schimmer, Barbara Seeberger, Maike Sieler: The Late Roman Fort at Nag el-Hagar near Kom Ombo in the province of “Thebaïs” (Upper Egypt). Report on the first season of the Egyptian-Swiss Joint Mission . In: Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologische Institut, Cairo Department , 62, 2006 (2007) pp. 161–195; here: p. 167.
  17. ↑ Michael Mackensen, Mohamed El-Bialy, Alexander von Kienlin, Hans-Christoph Noeske, Florian Schimmer, Barbara Seeberger, Maike Sieler: The Late Roman Fort at Nag el-Hagar near Kom Ombo in the province of “Thebaïs” (Upper Egypt) . Report on the first season of the Egyptian-Swiss Joint Mission . In: Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologische Institut, Cairo Department , 62, 2006 (2007) pp. 161–195; here: p. 171.
  18. ↑ Michael Mackensen, Mohamed El-Bialy, Alexander von Kienlin, Hans-Christoph Noeske, Florian Schimmer, Barbara Seeberger, Maike Sieler: The Late Roman Fort at Nag el-Hagar near Kom Ombo in the province of “Thebaïs” (Upper Egypt) . Report on the first season of the Egyptian-Swiss Joint Mission . In: Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologische Institut, Cairo Department , 62, 2006 (2007) pp. 161–195; here: p. 172.
  19. ↑ a b Michael Mackensen, Mohamed El-Bialy, Alexander von Kienlin, Hans-Christoph Noeske, Florian Schimmer, Barbara Seeberger, Maike Sieler: The Late Roman Fort at Nag el-Hagar near Kom Ombo in the province of “Thebaïs” (Upper Egypt). Report on the first season of the Egyptian-Swiss Joint Mission . In: Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologische Institut, Cairo Department , 62, 2006 (2007) pp. 161–195; here: p. 164.
  20. ↑ a b c Michael Mackensen, Mohamed El-Bialy, Alexander von Kienlin, Hans-Christoph Noeske, Florian Schimmer, Barbara Seeberger, Maike Sieler: The Late Roman Fort at Nag el-Hagar near Kom Ombo in the province of “Thebaïs” ( Upper Egypt). Report on the first season of the Egyptian-Swiss Joint Mission . In: Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologische Institut, Cairo Department , 62, 2006 (2007) pp. 161–195; here: p. 165.
  21. ↑ a b Michael Mackensen, Regina Franke: A crew accommodation in the tetrarchical Nag al-Hagar fort near Kom Ombo (Upper Egypt) . In: Christa Ebnöther, Regula Schatzmann (Ed.): Oleum non perdidit. Festschrift for Stefanie Martin-Kilcher on her 65th birthday (= Antiqua 47), 2010, pp. 81–94; here: p. 83.
  22. ↑ Michael Mackensen, Mohamed El-Bialy: Report on the second season of the Egyptian-Swiss Joint Mission at the Late Roman Fort at Nag el-Hagar (Upper Egypt) . In: Annales du Service des Antiquités de l'Égypte 81, 2007, pp. 39–51; here: p. 45.
  23. ^ Regina Franke: Demonstration of imperial power on the Nile - The late Roman fort Nag'al-Hagar near Kom Ombo in Upper Egypt . In: Antike Welt 5, 2012, pp. 57–65; here: p. 60.
  24. ↑ a b c Michael Mackensen, Regina Franke: A crew accommodation in the tetrarchical Nag al-Hagar fort near Kom Ombo (Upper Egypt) . In: Christa Ebnöther, Regula Schatzmann (Ed.): Oleum non perdidit. Festschrift for Stefanie Martin-Kilcher on her 65th birthday (= Antiqua 47), 2010, pp. 81–94; here: p. 82.
  25. ↑ Michael Mackensen, Mohamed El-Bialy, Alexander von Kienlin, Hans-Christoph Noeske, Florian Schimmer, Barbara Seeberger, Maike Sieler: The Late Roman Fort at Nag el-Hagar near Kom Ombo in the province of “Thebaïs” (Upper Egypt) . Report on the first season of the Egyptian-Swiss Joint Mission . In: Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologische Institut, Cairo Department , 62, 2006 (2007) pp. 161–195; here: p. 191.
  26. ↑ Michael Mackensen, Mohamed El-Bialy, Alexander von Kienlin, Hans-Christoph Noeske, Florian Schimmer, Barbara Seeberger, Maike Sieler: The Late Roman Fort at Nag el-Hagar near Kom Ombo in the province of “Thebaïs” (Upper Egypt) . Report on the first season of the Egyptian-Swiss Joint Mission . In: Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologische Institut, Cairo Department , 62, 2006 (2007) pp. 161–195; here: p. 194.
  27. ↑ a b c Alexander von Kienlin: The churches of Nag el-Hagar . In: Alejandro Jiménez-Serrano, Cornelius von Pilgrim (ed.): From the Delta to the Cataract. Studies Dedicated to Mohamed el-Bialy. Brill, Leiden 2015, ISBN 978-90-04-29344-1 , pp. 108-131; here: p. 131.
  28. ↑ a b c d Michael Mackensen, Regina Franke: A crew accommodation in the tetrarchic fort Nag al-Hagar near Kom Ombo (Upper Egypt) . In: Christa Ebnöther, Regula Schatzmann (Ed.): Oleum non perdidit. Festschrift for Stefanie Martin-Kilcher on her 65th birthday (= Antiqua 47), 2010, pp. 81–94; here: p. 85.
  29. ↑ Michael Mackensen, Regina Franke: A crew accommodation in the tetrarchic fort Nag al-Hagar near Kom Ombo (Upper Egypt) . In: Christa Ebnöther, Regula Schatzmann (Ed.): Oleum non perdidit. Festschrift for Stefanie Martin-Kilcher on her 65th birthday (= Antiqua 47), 2010, pp. 81–94; here: pp. 86–87.
  30. ↑ Michael Mackensen, Regina Franke: A crew accommodation in the tetrarchic fort Nag al-Hagar near Kom Ombo (Upper Egypt) . In: Christa Ebnöther, Regula Schatzmann (Ed.): Oleum non perdidit. Festschrift for Stefanie Martin-Kilcher on her 65th birthday (= Antiqua 47), 2010, pp. 81–94; here: p. 88.
  31. ↑ Michael Mackensen, Regina Franke: A crew accommodation in the tetrarchic fort Nag al-Hagar near Kom Ombo (Upper Egypt) . In: Christa Ebnöther, Regula Schatzmann (Ed.): Oleum non perdidit. Festschrift for Stefanie Martin-Kilcher on her 65th birthday (= Antiqua 47), 2010, pp. 81–94; here: p. 89.
  32. ↑ Michael Mackensen, Regina Franke: A crew accommodation in the tetrarchic fort Nag al-Hagar near Kom Ombo (Upper Egypt) . In: Christa Ebnöther, Regula Schatzmann (Ed.): Oleum non perdidit. Festschrift for Stefanie Martin-Kilcher on her 65th birthday (= Antiqua 47), 2010, pp. 81–94; here: p. 93.
  33. ↑ Michael Mackensen, Regina Franke: A crew accommodation in the tetrarchic fort Nag al-Hagar near Kom Ombo (Upper Egypt) . In: Christa Ebnöther, Regula Schatzmann (Ed.): Oleum non perdidit. Festschrift for Stefanie Martin-Kilcher on her 65th birthday (= Antiqua 47), 2010, pp. 81–94; here: p. 92.
  34. ↑ a b Michael Mackensen, Mohamed El-Bialy, Alexander von Kienlin, Hans-Christoph Noeske, Florian Schimmer, Barbara Seeberger, Maike Sieler: The Late Roman Fort at Nag el-Hagar near Kom Ombo in the province of “Thebaïs” (Upper Egypt). Report on the first season of the Egyptian-Swiss Joint Mission . In: Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologische Institut, Cairo Department , 62, 2006 (2007) pp. 161–195; here: p. 166.
  35. ↑ Kirsten Geißler: The public water supply in Roman law (=  Freiburg legal-historical treatises 29), Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1998, ISBN 3-428-09162-0 , p. 151 (= dissertation).
  36. ↑ Kirsten Geißler: The public water supply in Roman law (=  Freiburg legal-historical treatises 29), Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1998, ISBN 3-428-09162-0 , p. 153 (= dissertation).
  37. ↑ Usama Abdel Wareth, Pierre Zignani : Nag al-Hagar. A Fortress with a Palace of the Late Roman Empire. Second preliminary report . In: Bulletin de l'Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale 92, 1992, pp. 185-210; here: p. 201.
  38. ↑ Usama Abdel Wareth, Pierre Zignani : Nag al-Hagar. A Fortress with a Palace of the Late Roman Empire. Second preliminary report . In: Bulletin de l'Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale 92, 1992, pp. 185-210; here: p. 197.
  39. ↑ Michael Mackensen, Mohamed El-Bialy, Alexander von Kienlin, Hans-Christoph Noeske, Florian Schimmer, Barbara Seeberger, Maike Sieler: The Late Roman Fort at Nag el-Hagar near Kom Ombo in the province of “Thebaïs” (Upper Egypt) . Report on the first season of the Egyptian-Swiss Joint Mission . In: Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologische Institut, Cairo Department , 62, 2006 (2007) pp. 161–195; here: p. 190.
  40. ↑ Michael Mackensen, Mohamed El-Bialy, Alexander von Kienlin, Hans-Christoph Noeske, Florian Schimmer, Barbara Seeberger, Maike Sieler: The Late Roman Fort at Nag el-Hagar near Kom Ombo in the province of “Thebaïs” (Upper Egypt) . Report on the first season of the Egyptian-Swiss Joint Mission . In: Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologische Institut, Cairo Department , 62, 2006 (2007) pp. 161–195; here: p. 190.
  41. ↑ a b c Alexander von Kienlin: The churches of Nag el-Hagar . In: Alejandro Jiménez-Serrano, Cornelius von Pilgrim (ed.): From the Delta to the Cataract. Studies Dedicated to Mohamed el-Bialy. Brill, Leiden 2015, ISBN 978-90-04-29344-1 , pp. 108-131; here: p. 130.
  42. ↑ Michael Mackensen, Mohamed El-Bialy, Alexander von Kienlin, Hans-Christoph Noeske, Florian Schimmer, Barbara Seeberger, Maike Sieler: The Late Roman Fort at Nag el-Hagar near Kom Ombo in the province of “Thebaïs” (Upper Egypt) . Report on the first season of the Egyptian-Swiss Joint Mission . In: Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologische Institut, Cairo Department , 62, 2006 (2007) pp. 161–195; here: pp. 167–168.
  43. ↑ Michael Mackensen, Mohamed El-Bialy, Alexander von Kienlin, Hans-Christoph Noeske, Florian Schimmer, Barbara Seeberger, Maike Sieler: The Late Roman Fort at Nag el-Hagar near Kom Ombo in the province of “Thebaϊs” (Upper Egypt) . Report on the first season of the Egyptian-Swiss Joint Mission . In: Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologische Institut, Cairo Department , 62, 2006 (2007) pp. 161–195; here: p. 169.
  44. ↑ a b Alexander von Kienlin: The churches of Nag el-Hagar . In: Alejandro Jiménez-Serrano, Cornelius von Pilgrim (ed.): From the Delta to the Cataract. Studies Dedicated to Mohamed el-Bialy. Brill, Leiden 2015, ISBN 978-90-04-29344-1 , pp. 108-131; here: p. 111.
  45. ↑ Alexander von Kienlin: The churches of Nag el-Hagar . In: Alejandro Jiménez-Serrano, Cornelius von Pilgrim (ed.): From the Delta to the Cataract. Studies Dedicated to Mohamed el-Bialy. Brill, Leiden 2015, ISBN 978-90-04-29344-1 , pp. 108-131; here: pp. 118–119.
  46. ↑ Alexander von Kienlin: The churches of Nag el-Hagar . In: Alejandro Jiménez-Serrano, Cornelius von Pilgrim (ed.): From the Delta to the Cataract. Studies Dedicated to Mohamed el-Bialy. Brill, Leiden 2015, ISBN 978-90-04-29344-1 , pp. 108-131; here: pp. 111–112.
  47. ↑ Alexander von Kienlin: The churches of Nag el-Hagar . In: Alejandro Jiménez-Serrano, Cornelius von Pilgrim (ed.): From the Delta to the Cataract. Studies Dedicated to Mohamed el-Bialy. Brill, Leiden 2015, ISBN 978-90-04-29344-1 , pp. 108-131; here: pp. 111–121.
  48. ↑ Alexander von Kienlin: The churches of Nag el-Hagar . In: Alejandro Jiménez-Serrano, Cornelius von Pilgrim (ed.): From the Delta to the Cataract. Studies Dedicated to Mohamed el-Bialy. Brill, Leiden 2015, ISBN 978-90-04-29344-1 , pp. 108-131; here: p. 122.