Parenting style

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In psychology , pedagogy and sociology , styles of upbringing are characteristic bundles of basic attitudes and behavioral patterns that parents , teachers and other educators reveal in their educational activities.

Must be distinguished educational stile of educational concepts and educational philosophies . Educational concepts and philosophies are based on explicitly intentional elements such as educational goals , norms , models and ideals. Educational styles, on the other hand, are composed of basic educational attitudes and behavioral tendencies based on them, which are not necessarily reflected. The psychologists who have defined “parenting style” in this sense (and in German-speaking countries) include the couple Anne-Marie and Reinhard Tausch , but also Helmut Lukesch , Heinz Walter Krohne and Michael Hock . The Christian , Marxist or anti-authoritarian education are examples of educational concepts . An authoritarian , authoritative , pampering , permissive, or neglecting upbringing are examples of parenting styles .

Because parenting styles are based on elementary human attitudes, they are usually quite stable in the individual. Parents behave according to their individual disposition and their own growing up, when they are bringing up, either yielding or consistent, undemanding or demanding, skeptical or optimistic, aggressive or friendly, dismissive or responsive , self-centered or empathic. Upbringing styles are individual bundles of such characteristics that are considered to be particularly characteristic in a given culture.

The educational style research is a branch of the socialization research .

History of educational style research

Typological concepts

precursor

Scientific research into parenting styles began in the 20th century. In 1930 Alfred Adler's textbook on child rearing was published , in which he applied individual psychological concepts to child development and to education in school and at home. He particularly emphasized the excessive , pampering, caressing and neglecting upbringing as disruptive in character formation. A teacher typology designed by Ernst Vowinkel in the 1920s was largely ignored.

Lewin, Lippitt, and White; Glen H. Elder

The social psychologist Kurt Lewin is considered to be the founder of parenting style research , who at the end of the 1930s carried out field experiments in the USA with Ronald Lippitt and Ralph K. White on the effects of different leadership styles on the performance behavior of youth groups. The research group distinguished between an authoritarian , a democratic and a laissez-faire style , thus establishing a tradition of typological concepts that remained standard in the classification of educational styles until the 1970s. This study was also groundbreaking because it was the first time that an attempt was made to empirically confirm a distinction between styles of upbringing .

Leadership styles according to Lewin / Lippitt / White
Type Characteristic (selection)
Authoritarian The group leader makes all decisions alone, keeps his distance from the group; Praise and criticism are personal
Democratically Decisions are made jointly by the leader and the group; Leader discusses with the group, supports and encourages members; Praise and criticism are relevant and constructive
Laissez-faire Leader does not set any guidelines and does not participate in group decisions; Work results are not commented on or rated

A control study by K. Birth and G. Prillwitz in 1959 confirmed the findings of Lewin, Lippitt and White; the authors also postulated three of Lewin et al. a. leadership styles not described: a covertly authoritarian, a trainer and a control style.

Glen H. Elder , who dealt with parenting styles, added an autocratic, an egalitarian, a permissive and a disrespectful ( ignoring ) parent type in 1962.

Spranger

In the tradition of liberal arts education is Eduard Spranger's classification of educational styles. Spranger distinguished the following styles of upbringing:

Parenting styles according to Spranger
Types Explanation
close to the world (direct) vs. isolating (island-like) Is the child exposed to the pressures of reality at an early age or is it released from them for as long as possible?
free (liberal) vs. bound (authoritarian) Is the child allowed a lot or little initiative?
individuality-related vs. uniformed Is the child's individuality taken into account or is it subordinate to the whole?
anticipatory vs. true to development Is childhood seen as a transitory stage, or is it only taught what the child can actually take in at the moment?

Spranger's classification was of little importance for empirical research on parenting styles. This applies even more to the classifications designed entirely at the desk by Hans Wollasch, Werner Linke and Johann Peter Ruppert.

Tree bark

In the 1940s, Alfred L. Baldwin developed research methods that are still used today for the analysis of parent-child interactions in the so-called rock studies using questionnaires and long-term observations. These formed the basis for Diana Baumrind's extensive work in the 1960s. Her investigations and categorizations of parenting styles strongly influenced later research. Baumrind distinguished between an authoritarian, an authoritative and a permissive type of parental control:

Raising styles based on tree bark
Type Characteristic (selection)
Authoritarian Parents primarily demand obedience from the child; Punishments are the preferred means of education; the child's autonomy may be limited; verbal exchange through discussions is rare; worried and protective behavior is just as possible as neglecting
Authoritative Parents value the child's autonomous and personal will and take their interests into account, but the parental point of view has priority and obedience is expected; parents use both arguments and their power to assert themselves; parental decisions are discussed
Permissive Parents accept the child's behavior and do not restrict their freedom of action and autonomy; they do not see themselves as active agents who are responsible for an educational control of the behavioral development of the child; a loving and protective behavior is just as possible as a negligent one

Further

In Germany, Christian Caselmann developed a typology especially for teachers in the 1960s; He differentiated logotropic (towards science) and paidotrope (towards children), authoritative and human, scientific-systematic, artistic-organic and practical teaching styles.

Dimensioned concepts

From the 1970s onwards, the typological concept of parenting styles came into question. Younger researchers who tried to work empirically with Baumrind's classification repeatedly complained that it was not possible to discern which dimensions of parenting behavior lead to which educational consequences. They therefore suggested that not only types (authoritarian upbringing, authoritative upbringing, etc.), but also the dimensions on which types were based should be taken into account. The pioneer of this dimensioned concept of parenting style research was the American social psychologist Earl S. Schaefer , who had already designed a circumplex model of maternal parenting behavior in 1959 . The scales developed by Schaefer are still used in research today. The German psychologists Anne-Marie Tausch and Reinhard Tausch followed Schaefer when they made an explicit distinction between a steering dimension (control, authority) and an emotional dimension (warmth, affection, appreciation) in the 1970s.

Parenting styles after swap / swap:
High steering Medium steering Little steering
High appreciation Socially integrative as partners
Low appreciation Autocratic Laissez-faire

At the same time, researchers in Marburg tried for the first time to find a learning-theoretical foundation for research on educational styles. On the basis of Orval H. Mowrer's revised two-factor theory of learning , Kurt-Hermann Stapf , Aiga Stapf , Theo Herrmann and Karl H. Stäcker developed a two-component model of parental affirmation (also known as the “Marburg two-component model”), based on which Heinz Walter Krohne later built a two-process model of parental educational effects. The central dimensions of the two-component model were parental support and rigor.

Eleanor Maccoby and John A. Martin expanded Baumrind's 1983 model to include four parenting styles. The categorization they have developed is the most widely used today (see also below ).

Upbringing styles according to Maccoby / Martin:
High demands Low demands
High responsiveness Authoritative Permissive, pampering
Low responsiveness Authoritarian Rejecting, neglecting

As critics have noted time and again, theories in parenting style research have not yet reached a satisfactorily high level.

Dimensions of parenting styles

There is only some degree of consensus in research on the dimensions relevant to parenting styles. The most common are:

  • Caring, empathy (Parker / Tulping / Brown, Goleman )
  • Support (Krohne / Hock)
  • Emotional warmth (Rohner)
  • Responsiveness
  • Acceptance / rejection (Schaefer)
  • Restriction
  • Rigor (tree bark)
  • Control / autonomy (Schaefer, Steinberg / Mounts / Lamborn / Dornbusch)
  • mild / sharp discipline (Wagner / Cohen / Brook)
  • Overprotection / independence
  • consequence

Upbringing styles according to Maccoby and Martin

This article or the following section is not adequately provided with supporting documents ( e.g. individual evidence ). Information without sufficient evidence could be removed soon. Please help Wikipedia by researching the information and including good evidence.

Permissive parenting style

In the permissive parenting style, acceptance and a high level of responsiveness predominate and the control dimension is kept low. The educators are characterized by high tolerance and acceptance of the child's behavior. Control or punishment are seldom exercised. The permissive parenting style is a moderate form of the laissez-faire parenting style. The educator tends to be reluctant to bring up the children, and limits are rarely set.

Authoritative parenting style

→ Main article: Authoritative education

The authoritative parenting style is characterized by a high level of control and high responsiveness on the part of the educators. This scenario is presented very inconsistently in the literature due to definition problems and a lack of theoretical foundation.

A variant of this style of upbringing that emerged at the end of the 20th century is attachment parenting propagated by William Sears , in which there is far more intimate body contact between mother and child - through breastfeeding into toddlerhood, constant carrying of the child in a sling and through co-sleeping is cultivated than in ordinary authoritative upbringing.

Negligent parenting style

Here, the parents behave in a rejecting manner and at the same time not controlling or interested. The parents feel little obligation to the child, they devote minimal time and effort to the child and are very distant. Overall, this parenting style can be called the most uncomfortable for a child. Among other things, this can lead to the children showing disorders in their attachment behavior and clear deficits in various areas (self-worth, self-concept, intellectual development). What is striking is the low degree of self-control and the lack of aggression control.

Authoritarian parenting style

It is characterized by high levels of control and low responsiveness. The educators are very rejecting and strongly controlling the person to be educated. Strict rules are established and authority must not be questioned. In the case of undesirable behavior, severe punishment is applied, which can also be physical. Numerous studies have shown that children raised in an authoritarian manner are more prone to aggression themselves and are characterized by low social skills and low self-esteem . The authoritarian style, which goes hand in hand with an interventional concept of education, relies heavily on the means of education of reward and punishment and less on conviction, but mostly conveys security. The opinion of the person to be educated is accepted, but in the end the educator decides who only takes a back seat later.

Determinants and acquisition of parenting styles

The style of upbringing is determined, among other things, by the personality structure and lifestyle ( individual psychology ) of the educators and their acquired and mostly unconscious conception of upbringing. The style of upbringing experienced in the family of origin has been shown to have an impact on one's own style of upbringing. Research by Harry Harlow has shown that primates also have a style of parenting that is acquired and not inherited. When acquiring the parenting style, in addition to the role model effect ( learning on the model ), the educators in the home and school play with their specific educational content and goals, the sociocultural situation (class affiliation of the family) with their specific educational norms, the individual social environment, the family constellation and dynamics (Sibling row) and the overall social and cultural situation that affects the family play a role. Walter Toman examined the formative influence of sibling positions and justified it empirically and theoretically.

Parent style and goal of parenting

Many authors, including Herbert Gudjons , are of the opinion that certain educational goals are firmly tied to certain educational styles. For example, a liberal-democratic style of upbringing is more conducive to the independence development of a child than a restrictive, authoritarian style of upbringing. Success in upbringing , on the other hand, depends on the consistency of the style practiced.

Parenting styles and eating disorders

In 2009, an Israeli research team conducted a study of the relationship between parenting style and eating disorders in children. The empirical study was based on data from 53 families with children with eating disorders. It showed that children who described their father as authoritarian were significantly more often thin or dissatisfied with their bodies than children who perceived their father as authoritative. The mother's parenting style did not have a strong effect on these variables.

Parenting styles and suicidal behavior

In a study that was representative of Germany in 2014 and included more than 44,000 young people with an average age of 15 years, Donath and colleagues showed that an authoritative parenting style in childhood (high values ​​in parental control / supervision and high values ​​in parental warmth / affection ) is a protective factor in suicide attempts in adolescents. It was also the only protective factor for suicidal behavior that could be identified from a set of 19 variables. In contrast, a negligible parenting style in childhood (low values ​​in parental control / supervision and low values ​​in parental warmth / affection) increased the risk of later suicide attempts by more than 1.5 times compared to children with different parenting style experiences and thus represents a significant risk factor for mental health.

literature

Overview literature

Further literature

  • Alfred L. Baldwin: Democracy in parent-child relationships . 1943.
  • JG Borkowsky, SL Ramey, M. Bristol-Power (Eds.): Parenting and the child's world: Influences on academic, intellectual, and social-emotional development . Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah NJ 2002.
  • David Eberhard : That's how we use snot spoons. Interview. In: The time. March 12, 2015, pp. 71–72.
  • M. Hofer, E. Klein-Allermann, P. Noack: Family relationships . Hogrefe, Göttingen 1992, ISBN 3-8017-0460-2 .
  • Sylva Liebenwein: Upbringing and social milieus, parental upbringing styles in milieu-specific differentiation . Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, Wiesbaden 2008, ISBN 978-3-531-15688-0 .
  • R. Ruthe: Consistency in education. ERF-Verlag, Wetzlar 2007, ISBN 978-3-89562-994-5 .
  • S. Walper, R. Pekrun (Ed.): Family and Development . Hogrefe, Göttingen 2001, ISBN 3-8017-1420-9 .
  • The Way We Live Now: Let the Kid Be. In: The New York Times . May 29, 2009. nytimes.com (about the history of modern parenting styles)
  • C. Donath, E. Gräßel, D. Baier, S. Bleich, T. Hillemacher: Is parenting style a predictor of suicide attempts in a representative sample of adolescents? In: BMC Pediatrics. Volume 14, 2014, p. 113. (biomedcentral.com)

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Köhne (2003), p. 255.
  2. ↑ Klaus Schneewind : Consequences of Parenthood. In: Psychology in Education and Teaching. Volume 30, 1983, pp. 161-172; Helmut Lukesch: Parenting style. In: D. Lenzen (Ed.): Enzyklopädische Erziehungswissenschaft. Volume 1: Theories and Basic Concepts of Upbringing and Education. 2nd Edition. Stuttgart 1992, pp. 403-405; Heinz Walter Krohne, Michael Hock: Parental upbringing and fear development of the child: Investigation of the developmental conditions of fearfulness and fear management. Huber, Bern 1994; Heinz Walter Krohne, Michael Hock: parenting style. In: DH Rost (Hrsg.): Concise dictionary of educational psychology. Beltz, Weinheim 1998.
  3. ↑ Köhne (2003), p. 254.
  4. ^ Alfred Adler : Raising children. (1930). Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 1976, ISBN 3-596-26311-5 , p. 9.
  5. ↑ Alfred Adler: Why do we live? (1931). Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 1976, ISBN 3-596-26708-0 , p. 24.
  6. ^ Ernst Vowinkel: Pedagogical type theory. Rösl & Co., Munich 1923.
  7. ^ Kurt Lewin, Ronald Lippitt, Ralph K. White: Patterns of aggressive behavior in experimentally created “social climates” . (PDF; 1.6 MB). In: Journal of Social Psychology. Volume 9, 1939, p. 10, pp. 271-299, ISSN  0022-4545 ; Kurt Lewin: Field theory in the social sciences. Selected theoretical writings. Hans Huber Verlag, Bern 1963; Köhne (2003), p. 256.
  8. ↑ K. Birth, G. Prillwitz: Leadership styles and group behavior. In: Journal of Psychology. Volume 163, 1959, pp. 230-301; Köhne (2003), p. 258.
  9. ↑ Glen H. Elder: Structural Variations in the Child Rearing Relationship. In: Sociometry. Volume 25, Issue 25, 1962, pp. 241-262, ISSN  0038-0431 ( abstract and preview )
  10. ^ Eduard Spranger: Pedagogical Perspectives . Heidelberg 1950; Harald Riedel: Spranger parenting styles.
  11. ↑ Hans Wollasch: On the typology of the educator. In: W. Brezinka (Ed.): Education as a profession . Vienna 1955; Werner Linke: Basic Forms of Educational Action. In: HW Bähr, Th. Litt, N. Louvaris , H. Wenke (eds.): Education for humanity: Festschrift for Eduard Spranger . Niemeyer, Tübingen 1957, pp. 291-305; Johann Peter Ruppert: Educator personality and styles of education. Hogrefe, 1959; Köhne (2003), p. 255.
  12. ^ A b Diana Baumrind, Allen E. Black: Socialization practices associated with dimensions of competence in preschool boys and girls. In: Child Development. Volume 38, 1967, pp. 291-327; Diana Baumrind: Child-care practices anteceding three patterns of preschool behavior. In: Genetic Psychology Monographs. Volume 75, 1967, pp. 43-88; Diana Baumrind: Current patterns of parental authority. In: Developmental Psychology Monograph. Volume 4, Issue 1, Part 2, 1971; Diana Baumrind: The development of instrumental competence through socialization. In: A. Pick (Ed.): Minnesota Symposium on Child Psychology . University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis 1973, pp. 3-46; Diana Baumrind: Some thoughts about childrearing. In: U. Bronfenbrenner, MA Mahoney (Ed.): Influences on human development . The Dryden Press, Hinsdale IL 1975, pp. 270-282; Diana Baumrind: The influence of parenting style on adolescent competence and substance use. In: Journal of early adolescence. Volume 11, Issue 1, 1991, pp. 56-95.
  13. ↑ Christian Caselmann: Essence forms of the teacher. Stuttgart 1964; Christian Caselmann: Differential Psychology of the Teacher and Educator. In: K. Strunz (Hrsg.): Educational psychology for high schools. Munich / Basel 1967, pp. 453-465.
  14. ↑ Laura H. Weiss, J Conrad Schwarz: The Relationship between Parenting Types and Older Adolescent's Personality, Academic Achievement, Adjustment and Substance Use. In: Child Development. Volume 67, 1996, pp. 2101-2114. ( Abstract and preview ); Harald Uhlendorf: Upbringing in the social environment: an empirical study of parental upbringing behavior in East and West Germany. Leske + Budrich, Opladen 2001.
  15. ^ Earl S. Schaefer: A circumplex model for maternal behavior. In: Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. Volume 59, 1959, pp. 241-246.
  16. ^ Children's Report of Parental Behavior Inventory (CRPBI)
  17. ↑ Reinhard Tausch, Anne-Marie Tausch: Educational Psychology: Psychological Processes in Education and Teaching. Hogrefe, Göttingen 1973; Dieter Spanhel, Reinhard Tausch, Sven Tönnies: Main dimensions of teacher behavior and their connection with constructive student behavior in 41 lessons. In: Psychology in Education and Teaching. Volume 22, 1975, pp. 343-350.
  18. ^ OH Mowrer: On the Dual Nature of Learning: A Re-Interpretation of Conditioning and Problem-Solving. In: Harvard Educational Review. Volume 17, 1947, pp. 102-148; OH Mowrer: Learning Theory and Behavior. New York, 1960.
  19. ↑ KH Stapf, T. Herrmann, A. Stapf, KH Stäcker: Psychology of the parental educational style. Bern 1972.
  20. ↑ HW Krohne: Development Conditions for Anxiety and Coping with Anxiety: A Two-Process-Model of Parental Education Effect. In: HW Krohne (Ed.): Coping with fear in life situations. Weinheim 1985, pp. 135-160; HW Krohne: Education style research: Newer theoretical approaches and empirical findings. In: Journal for Educational Psychology. Volume 3, 1988, pp. 157-172.
  21. ^ Köhne (2003), 264-267
  22. ^ Eleanor Maccoby, John A. Martin: Socialization in the Context of the Family: Parent-Child Interaction. In: E. Mavis Hetherington (Ed.): Handbook of Child Psychology: Socialization, Personality, and Social Development. 4th edition. New York 1983, pp. 1-102.
  23. ↑ Theo Herrmann , Aiga Stapf, Werner Deutsch: Data collection without end? Notes on parenting style research. In: Psychological Rundschau. Volume 26, 1975, pp. 176-182; Helmut Lukesch: Research strategies in the field of parenting style research. In: KA Schneewind, T. Herrmann (Hrsg.): Erziehungsstilforschung: Theories, methods and application of the psychology of parenting behavior . Huber, Bern 1980, pp. 57-88; Heinz Walter Krohne: Education style research: Newer theoretical approaches and empirical findings. In: Journal for Educational Psychology. Volume 2, 1988, pp. 157-172; Klaus Schneewind, Reinhard Pekrun: Theories and models of educational and socialization psychology. In: Klaus Schneewind (ed.): Psychology of education and socialization. Hogrefe, Göttingen 1994, pp. 3-39; Heinz Walter Krohne, Michael Hock: parenting style. In: DH Rost (Hrsg.): Concise dictionary of educational psychology . Beltz, Weinheim 1998; Elke Wild: Parental upbringing and school motivation to learn . Habilitation thesis. Mannheim 1999.
  24. ↑ Gordon Parker, Hilary Tulping, LB Brown: A Parental Bonding Instrument. In: British Journal of Medical Psychology. Vol. 52, 1979, pp. 1-10; Daniel Goleman: Emotional Intelligence . Why It Can Matter More Than IQ. 1st edition. Bantam, New York 1995, ISBN 0-553-09503-X . , P. 190f.
  25. ↑ Heinz Walter Krohne, Michael Hock: Parental education and fear development of the child. Huber, Bern 1994.
  26. ^ A. Roe, Marvin Siegelman: A parent-child relations questionnaire. In: Child Development. Volume 34, 1963, pp. 355-369; Ronald P. Rohner: The Warmth Dimension: Foundations of Parental Acceptance-Rejection Theory . Beverly Hills 1986.
  27. ^ Earl S. Schaefer: Children's Reports of Parental Behavior: An Inventory. In: Child Development. Volume 36, 1965, pp. 413-424.
  28. ^ Earl S. Schaefer: Children's Reports of Parental Behavior: An Inventory. In: Child Development. Volume 36, 1965, pp. 413-424; L. Steinberg, NS Mounts, SD Lamborn, SM Dornbusch: Authoritative parenting and adolescent adjustmunst across varied ecological niches. In: Journal of Research on Adolescence. Volume 1, 1991, pp. 19-36.
  29. ^ Barry M. Wagner, Patricia Cohen, Judith S. Brook: Parent / Adolescent Relationships: Moderators of the Effects of Stressful Life Events. In: Journal of Adolescent Research. Volume 11, Issue 3, 1996, pp. 347-374.
  30. ↑ Gordon Parker, Hilary Tulping, LB Brown: A Parental Bonding Instrument. In: British Journal of Medical Psychology. Vol. 52, 1979, pp. 1-10; Gordon Parker: Parental Overprotection: A Risk Factor in Psychosocial Development . New York 1983; A. McFarlane, A. Bellissimo, G. Norman: The Role of Family and Peers in Social Self-Efficiency. In: American Journal of Orthopsychiatry. Volume 65, Issue 3, July 1995, pp. 402-410; J. Shucksmith, L. Hendry, A. Glendinning: Models of parenting: Implications for adolescent well-being within different types of family contexts. In: Journal of Adolescence. Issue 18, 1995, pp. 253-270.
  31. ↑ Steven R. Asher, John D. Coie: Peer Rejection in Childhood . CUP Archive, 1990, ISBN 0-521-39836-3 , pp. 192–193 ( google.de [accessed on August 10, 2018]).
  32. ↑ K. Aunola, J.‐E. Nurmi: The role of parenting styles in children's problem behavior . In: Child development . tape 76 , no. 6 , February 4, 2005, p. 1144-1159 , p. 1145 .
  33. ↑ Christoph Spera: A review of the relationship among parenting practices, parenting styles, and adolescent school achievement. In: Educational psychology review . tape 17 , no. 2 . Springer, June 1, 2005, p. 125-146 , p. 135 .
  34. ^ Christopher Spera: A Review of the Relationship Among Parenting Practices, Parenting Styles, and Adolescent School Achievement JO - Educational Psychology Review SP - 125 EP - 146 VL - 17 IS - 2 AB. In: Springer. Springer, June 1, 2005, pp. 134–135 , accessed on August 10, 2018 .
  35. ↑ Klaus Schneewind , S. Ruppert: Families yesterday and today: a generation comparison over 16 years . Quintessenz, Munich 1995, ISBN 3-86128-335-2 , quoted from: Sylva Liebenwein: Education and social milieus . VS-Verlag, 2008.
  36. ^ Harry Harlow: The development of affectional patterns in infant monkeys. In: BM Foss (ed.): Determinants of infant behavior. Methuen, London 1961.
  37. ^ Walter Toman: Family constellations . Your influence on people . (EA 1961) 7th edition. Beck, Munich 2002, ISBN 3-406-32111-9 .
  38. ^ Herbert Gudjons: Basic pedagogical knowledge. 6th, revised edition. Bad Heilbrunn 1999.
  39. ↑ Köhne (2003), p. 253.
  40. ↑ Roni Enten, Moria Golan: Parenting Styles and Eating Disorder Pathology. In: Appetite. Volume 52, 2009, p. 786. PMID 19501782 , Elsevier.
  41. ^ A b C. Donath, E. Gräßel, D. Baier, S. Bleich, T. Hillemacher: Is parenting style a predictor of suicide attempts in a representative sample of adolescents? In: BMC Pediatrics. Volume 14, 2014, p. 113.