EQ. Emotional intelligence

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EQ. Emotional Intelligence ( English original title: Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ ) is a book published in the United States in 1995 by the clinical psychologist and science journalist Daniel Goleman . Goleman introduced the concept of emotional intelligence to a wide audience in this book . The personality psychologists John D. Mayer and Peter Salovey developed this theoretical construct in the 1990s in order to point out the key role that competence in dealing with emotions plays in achieving professional goals and for personal happiness.

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The emotional brain

Feelings are generated by the amygdala (red). In alarm situations, it often takes control of other parts of the brain.

Human behavior is driven by both mind and emotions; both are closely related. Feelings are a product of evolution ; Since this takes place slowly and does not keep pace with accelerated social change, feelings appear archaic; the emotional repertoire that people still fall back on in overcoming problems today is tailored to the demands of the Pleistocene . Feelings are quintessential impulses for action: anger leads to attack, fear leads to flight, happiness leads to enthusiasm for action, surprise leads to exploration, disgust leads to spitting out and sadness leads to adaptation to the loss and reorientation. Neurologically, the feelings are represented by the limbic system , the mind by the neocortex , which is much younger in terms of development . The relationships between the two systems are highly complex; so the motherly love arose z. B. only with the neocortex. Today's subtlety and complexity of feelings (e.g. feelings about feelings) only unfolded with the neocortex.

In terms of development history, feelings that acted like lightning were a sensible behavioral measure for people (e.g. fear / flight). As Joseph LeDoux has described, feelings within the limbic system are particularly represented in the amygdala , which acts as an emotional guardian and, in certain alarmed situations, seizes control of the brain before the mind can set in; LeDoux speaks of “precognitive emotion”, which leads to action before the situation is completely overlooked. However, as Goleman puts it, the amygdala works “sloppily” and often takes over the brain even when the actual situation only vaguely resembles the alarmingly recalled scenario, which can lead to the emotionally motivated behavior being inappropriate for the situation.

Of course, the amygdala only takes control in emotional emergencies. Normally, their function is either quickly improved by the prefrontal cortex , or the prefrontal cortex works together with the amygdala from the outset, which requires a high degree of interconnection so that the neocortical response is much slower than the amygdala "going it alone". The prefrontal cortex plays a key role in the fine regulation of feelings and, because feeling precedes thinking, it is also the prerequisite for an increased complexity of feeling.

As António Damásio pointed out, a fruitful cooperation between the prefrontal cortex and the amygdala and thus access to emotional learning are indispensable prerequisites for the efficiency of the mind.

The nature of emotional intelligence

Intelligence in the traditional sense is not a reliable predictor of success (advancement, prestige, happiness) in professional and private life; at best it is suitable as a predictor of success in school or as a university professor. In 1983, Howard Gardner suggested expanding the traditional concept of intelligence and not only taking linguistic and mathematical skills into account, but also a whole range of other “intelligences” ( theory of multiple intelligences ). Gardner's constructs of an “interpersonal” and an “intrapsychic” intelligence are often referred to as “ character ” with a non-empirical-scientific term . On this basis, John D. Mayer and Peter Salovey formulated a basic definition for emotional intelligence in 1990. This comprises five individual competencies:

  • emotional self-awareness
  • emotional self-regulation
  • Ability to self-motivate and deferred reward
  • empathy
  • social competence

Emotional self-awareness

People are subject to personal perceptual and behavioral habits and perceive feelings with varying degrees of attention, with women tending to pay more attention to their feelings than men. In rare cases, the ability to consciously perceive and describe feelings is completely lacking ( alexithymia ). According to John D. Mayer, emotional self-awareness includes not only the perception of a feeling, but also the conscious perception of possible thoughts and judgments about the feeling.

Emotional self-awareness is a fundamental requirement of emotional self-regulation and impulse control. Damásio noted that it is also essential for people as a “ gut feeling ” when they have to make decisions; pure rationality is often of no help here.

Emotional self-regulation

How u. a. As highlighted by John Bowlby and Donald Winnicott , the ability to relieve unpleasant emotions is one of the most basic skills in life. Although humans cannot control which feelings overtake them, they can influence how long they last and whether they escalate (" emotion regulation ", more generally: " self-regulation "). An effective preventative against the escalation of anger e.g. B. is the early reframing of the triggering stimulus; The raving man can shorten and end an already started tantrum by isolating himself from further potential anger stimuli. Also worry - actually a eufunktionales feeling with which man is prepared for possible emergency situations - can become chronic. How to effectively help yourself against it have u. a. Lizabeth Roemer and Thomas Borkovec. The same applies to sadness and melancholy . The latter is escalated sadness that can be brought under control by distraction or reframing.

Self-motivation and delayed rewards

Emotional intelligence is a learnable meta-skill that determines how efficiently other skills (e.g. raw intellect ) can be used. Anger, fear, worry, and sadness when they escalate affect intellectual performance. However, feelings are not fundamentally detrimental to a person's achievements and successes. On the contrary: Enthusiasm , zeal and perseverance lead to success e.g. B. possible in the academic, intellectual, artistic or sporting field; even a healthy amount of anxiety can lead to self-motivation to contribute. Especially powerful determinants of intrinsically motivated , self-forgotten action ( " flow ") and personal success are the ability impulses to control and to wait for a reward , as well as hope and optimism and that form of self-confidence that Albert Bandura as self-efficacy referred Has. All of these skills can be learned .

empathy

Empathy is the ability to sense other people's feelings; these are mostly communicated non-verbally. Empathy is based on self-awareness; the more open people are to their own feelings, the more likely they are to be able to correctly “read” the feelings of others. A strong determinant of how much empathy a person develops is the level of rapport ( attunement ) that they experienced in early childhood. Even babies behave empathically. Empathy assumes that you are calm and not inundated with feelings. How u. a. Robert Rosenthal has proven that empathetic people are emotionally balanced, sociable, popular and competent in dealing with the opposite sex. Empathy is not directly related to a person's intelligence, but it can have an indirect effect on academic success, because empathic students e.g. B. are particularly popular with teachers. As the American psychologist Martin Hoffman has argued, empathy is the starting point for altruism and morality .

Social competence

Social competence is based on the ability to infect others with feelings of well-being, confidence, and enthusiasm.

How lucky and successful a person is in interpersonal relationships, how effectively they interact with others, and whether they are liked and accepted largely depends on how well they handle emotions. The foundation of social competence is the ability to deal with other people's feelings. Prerequisites for this ability are self-control, empathy and the ability to express the right feelings in the right way in the right situation, whereby in many cases the respective culture decides what is “right”. Feelings play such a central role in social interaction because they are highly contagious . A person is perceived as lovable and charming who easily gets into attunement with other people and infects them with the feeling of well-being. Howard Gardner and Thomas Hatch have defined "interpersonal intelligence" as the sum of the following individual competencies:

  • Groups organize, decide and enforce what is done in the group;
    Leadership is u. a. the ability to reliably transfer one's own mood (of feasibility and enthusiasm) to others
  • Negotiating and mediating solutions, preventing or resolving conflicts
  • make personal connections
  • perceive and understand the feelings, motives and concerns of others (social analysis)

People who do not read nonverbal signals competently and who express their own feelings in a way that others cannot read them well often have interpersonal problems; you don't feel comfortable with them. Outsiders who find it difficult to find acceptance and acceptance in an existing social group often tend to claim a lot of attention without first exploring and appropriating the group's emotional agenda. Goleman names “social chameleons” as a further problem group, who know how to manage the feelings of other people skilfully (actors, lawyers, salespeople, diplomats, politicians), but who are often unable to keep this ability in balance with their own needs and feelings.

Emotional intelligence in practice

Partnership and marriage

In modern societies, in which marriages are not held together by external pressure, the emotional intelligence of the partners becomes the main determinant of the success and stability of living together. Partnerships fail when there is a lack of emotional self-awareness, self-control, empathy, and the ability to calm yourself and others down.

Since boys and girls experience different emotional socializations, they later also show characteristic unequal behavioral tendencies as husbands and wives. A classic scenario of partnerships at risk of separation is the woman who demands more communication and commitment from the man, and the man who withdraws from these demands. Alarm signs are attacks against the person (instead of behavior), contempt , delaying tactics and walls .

In bad relationships threatened with separation, the partners have stubbornly chronic expectations of the partner's bad character. These are no longer corrected even if the partner actually behaves in a friendly and cooperative manner, so that he is in a constant no-win situation . His behavior is monitored continuously, whereby - following the principle of confirmation bias - everything is interpreted in the sense of the pessimistic basic expectation and then triggers floods of emotions for which ever smaller and more subtle key stimuli are sufficient.

The ideal way to reduce such tensions and conflicts is through conscious countermeasures against impending emotional floods, through empathy and reframing. Above all, people want to be heard and understood, even if you don't share their perspective. The anger with which a point of view is put forward should not be interpreted as a personal attack, but as an expression of how important this matter is to the other. Taking responsibility for mistakes made also helps.

Working life

In the professional world, inadequate emotional intelligence has consequences such as reduced productivity, missed deadlines, errors, breakdowns and the migration of dissatisfied, but actually indispensable employees. Since the 1980s, it has become common sense in many companies that interpersonal skills are more beneficial to corporate success than reckless management .

According to Golemans, three areas of responsibility pose particular challenges for the human resources management of modern companies: social harmony as a prerequisite for efficient teamwork , the tolerance of employees towards minorities (customers, colleagues, business partners) and - most importantly - dealing with criticism . Since the success of a company depends sensitively on the performance of its employees, feedback from personnel management to employees is a question of survival for the company. While efficient, empathic criticism has perspectives and scope for improvement, emotionally incompetent managers and superiors articulate criticism as a devaluation of the personality of the criticized. Often the criticism comes far too late, namely when the damage can no longer be repaired and the superior "boils over" out of frustration. Conversely, many employees are not good at handling criticism; they let themselves be inundated with feelings and fail to absorb criticism, d. H. to use, but instead feel unjustly treated and demoralized, become defensive, stonewall and back off from responsibility.

Feelings and health

The psychologist Arthur Stone ( Stony Brook University ) has observed that married people often catch a cold exactly 3–4 days after a marital argument .

Goleman also looks at the health consequences of dealing with emotions, focusing on two questions:

  • People handle their emotions more or less well. What are the consequences for your health ?
  • To what extent are these relationships relevant to the medical service providers (doctors, etc.)?

There is a popular rhetoric based on positive psychology , according to which a “positive attitude ” supposedly can cure all diseases. Goleman considers such generalizations to be harmful because they give the sick person the feeling that they are responsible for their own illness.

However, numerous medical studies have shown that there are complex but strong connections between feelings and health. Special credit goes to psychoneuroimmunology , which has provided many insights into the interplay between feelings and the immune system. Although it has not yet been fully clarified how severely and how stress and other negative feelings affect the immune system , there is no doubt about this connection today. Unresolved stress and depression increase - presumably indirectly - the susceptibility to a variety of infectious diseases such as B. colds and herpes , and may even reduce the body's ability to fight back against the metastasis of tumors. Badly managed, chronic anger, stress, depression, and habitual pessimism are predictors of heart attack and other heart disease. Infarct patients, dialysis patients , paraplegics and the elderly with femoral neck fractures have better chances of survival or rehabilitation if they can avoid depression or treat it completely. Harmonious interpersonal relationships, in which one is emotionally caught, have also been described as disease-preventive or healing-promoting factors.

Goleman also demands more empathy from health care providers, whereby he not only has human medicine in mind, but also points out the massive medical relevance that the emotional state of the patient has.

Window of opportunity

Parental home education

The acquisition of emotional intelligence begins early in childhood , with emotionally intelligent parents , e.g. B. work well as a couple, usually raising children like that, while less privileged children tend to have a variety of problems.

Parents who are competent with their own feelings are able to teach their child to be competent with their own feelings and those of other people. They treat the child's feelings with respect , but instruct the child in alternative, better forms of emotional expression if their behavior is inappropriate. Characteristic of such behaved 's children that they can calm well themselves, are balanced, low voltages with their parents, show them a lot of heat and are used by other people generally liked. In addition, they have all the prerequisites you need to learn well: expectation of self-efficacy , curiosity , determination, self-control, the ability to relate to other people, communication skills and the ability to cooperate.

One of the most harmful experiences a child can have is emotional neglect , which calls into question basic trust and which can create a lifelong pessimistic attitude. As the psychologist Martha Erickson ( University of Minnesota ) has shown, emotional neglect has even more serious long-term consequences for the child than e. B. Abuse . The latter - often a tragic family tradition - also blocks the learning of empathy and thus drastically reduces the child's school and personal future prospects.

Trauma and trauma management

The concept of emotional intelligence is also useful for understanding and treating psychological trauma . Trauma can be described on both a neurophysiological and an emotional level. Massive changes in the limbic system and the connections between this system and the pituitary gland and the control of the body's own opioids ( endorphins ) bring about certain emotional symptoms, among which hypervigilance or excessive frightfulness and numbness (especially for joy) are particularly characteristic. Psychologically, it concerns the chronification of a fear reaction , which is stereotypically triggered again and again after the end of the traumatizing experience by trivial stimuli, whereby extreme experiences in particular qualify as traumatic in which the person concerned cannot contribute anything to the control of the situation and from the impression of his own Helplessness is overwhelmed. Goleman makes a significant difference here in assessing the traumatizing potential of natural disasters and acts of violence. The latter are more damaging than natural disasters (...) because the victims of the violence feel that they have been deliberately chosen as the target of malice. This destroys assumptions about the trustworthiness of people and the security of the interpersonal world (...) in one fell swoop the social world becomes a dangerous place, where people become potential threats to their own security .

In contrast to ordinary fear, which is learned through conditioning and which disappears on its own over time, an extensive, therapeutically accompanied learning process is usually necessary in coping with trauma, the aim of which is primarily that trivial stimuli are no longer answered with panic attacks.

Plasticity of personal temperament

A shy kid. In light of the concept of emotional intelligence, temperament is not an immutable fate.

According to the current state of research, a person's temperament is already established and verifiable at birth. Even newborns show individual tendencies to cheerfulness or melancholy, to courage or shyness . There are e.g. B. fear-prone infants whose amygdala was already overexcitable at birth, so that minimal stimuli are sufficient to produce feelings of displeasure or fear. Later on, such children often become fearful and shy adults. As the psychologist Jerome Kagan has shown in a long-term study, such a child's temperament can be massively influenced and changed by educational influences, whereby competent parents repeatedly expose their child to unpleasant stimuli with gentle pressure until the child learns to regulate his feelings and such No longer to fear stimuli.

Emotional education

Goleman considers the social impact of inadequate emotional education to be immense. According to his conviction and the judgment of the scientists whom he cites, it favors, among others, a. following problems:

Although biological, familial, social and economic factors are also involved in all cases, the question of which individual people fall victim to risk ultimately depends on the individual's resilience .

Goleman complains that ex-post damage control is usually the only answer society uses to address such problems. At the center of the last main part of his book is a plea for prevention, with Goleman especially with schools in mind. Many American schools were running model emotional education programs at the time the book was published . Although these programs have different names - such as Self Science , Social Development , Life Skills , Social and emotional learning and Personal intelligences - they have a common goal: to increase the social and emotional competence of children as part of normal education.

Appearance and reception

The book was published in early September 1995 by Bantam Books , a subsidiary of the Random House publishing group , and was on the New York Times bestseller list for 18 months . It has been translated into 40 languages ​​and more than 5 million copies have been sold. The TIME Magazine took the title in his list of the 25 most influential business books. In 1998, Goleman published a follow-up work, Working With Emotional Intelligence , in which he summarized the ideas he had in EQ. Had imagined Emotional Intelligence applied to the business world.

In Germany, Stefana Sabin accused Goleman of excessive belief in the upbringing and changeability of the individual. The journalist Rolf Degen considered the book - just like the entire concept of emotional intelligence - to be simply unscientific.

expenditure

English original edition

  • Emotional intelligence . Why It Can Matter More Than IQ. 1st edition. Bantam, New York 1995, ISBN 0-553-09503-X . Hardback edition
  • Emotional intelligence . Why It Can Matter More Than IQ. 1st edition. Bloomsbury, London 1996, ISBN 0-7475-2622-2 . Paperback
  • Emotional intelligence . Why It Can Matter More Than IQ. Macmillan Audio, 2001, ISBN 1-55927-642-8 . Audiobook, abridged, read by the author
  • Emotional intelligence . Why It Can Matter More Than IQ. Macmillan Audio, 2005, ISBN 1-59397-780-8 . Audiobook, unabridged, read by the author

In German language

  • EQ . Emotional intelligence. dtv, 1997, ISBN 3-423-36020-8 . Paperback; translated by Friedrich Griese
  • EQ . Emotional intelligence. Rusch, 1998, ISBN 3-907595-25-4 . Audio book (cassettes)
  • EQ . Emotional intelligence. HÖR Verlag, 2001, ISBN 3-89584-896-4 . Audiobook, heavily shortened, read by Edgar M. Böhlke

Individual evidence

All references to EQ. Unless otherwise noted, emotional intelligence refers to the original English edition ( Emotional Intelligence , 1995).

  1. ^ Emotional Intelligence (1995), pp. 3‒5
  2. ↑ Emotional Intelligence (1995), p. 6f
  3. ^ Emotional Intelligence (1995), pp. 10-12
  4. ^ Emotional Intelligence (1995), p. 21
  5. ↑ Emotional Intelligence (1995), pp. 14-18, 24; Joseph LeDoux: Emotional Memory Systems in the Brain , in: Behavioral Brain Research, Volume 58, Issue 1‒2, December 20, 1993, p. 69 79; Joseph LeDoux: Emotion, Memory and the Brain , Scientific American, June 1994; Joseph LeDoux: Emotion and the Limbic System Concept , in: Concepts in Neuroscience, Volume 2, 1992, p. 169 199
  6. ↑ Emotional Intelligence (1995), pp. 21-24
  7. ↑ Emotional Intelligence (1995), p. 24f
  8. ↑ Emotional Intelligence (1995), pp. 25f
  9. ↑ Emotional Intelligence (1995), pp. 27f; António R. Damásio: Descartes' error - feeling, thinking and the human brain , Munich: List, 1994. ISBN 3-471-77342-8
  10. ↑ George E. Vaillant: Adaptation to Life , Boston: Little, Brown, 1977; JK Felsman, GE Vaillant: Resilient Children as Adults: A 40-Year Study , in: EJ Anderson, BJ Cohler (Eds.): The Invulnerable Child , New York: Guilford Press, 1987; Emotional Intelligence (1995), p. 34
  11. ↑ Emotional Intelligence (1995), p. 42
  12. ^ Howard Gardner: Frames of Mind: The theory of multiple Intelligences , New York, 1983; Emotional Intelligence (1995), p. 38 40
  13. ↑ Emotional Intelligence (1995), p. 36
  14. ↑ John D. Mayer, Peter Salovey: Emotional intelligence ( Memento of the original from January 18, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 350 kB) , in: Imagination, Cognition, and Personality, Volume 9, 1990, pp. 185-211; Emotional Intelligence (1995), pp. 38, 43f  @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.unh.edu
  15. ↑ Emotional Intelligence (1995), p. 48 50
  16. ↑ Emotional Intelligence (1995), p. 50f
  17. ↑ Emotional Intelligence (1995), p. 47
  18. ↑ Emotional Intelligence (1995), p. 46f
  19. ^ Emotional Intelligence (1995), p. 53; António R. Damásio: Descartes' error - feeling, thinking and the human brain , Munich: List, 1994. ISBN 3-471-77342-8
  20. ^ Emotional Intelligence (1995), p. 57
  21. ↑ Emotional Intelligence (1995), pp. 58-63; Diane Tice, Roy Baumeister: Controlling Anger: Self-induced emotion change and self-justification , in: Daniel Wegner, James Pennebaker (Eds.): Handbook of Mental Control , Volume 5, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1993 ; Dolf Zillmann: Mental Control of Angry Aggression , in: Daniel Wegner, James Pennebaker (Eds.): Handbook of Mental Control , Volume 5, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1993; Redford Williams, Virginia Williams: Anger Kills , New York: Times Books, 1993
  22. ↑ Emotional Intelligence (1995), pp. 65-69; Lizabeth Roemer, Thomas Borkovec: Worry: Unwanted Cognitive Activity That Controls Unwanted Somatic Experience , in: Daniel Wegner, James Pennebaker (Eds.): Handbook of Mental Control , Volume 5, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1993
  23. ↑ Emotional Intelligence (1995), pp. 70-75; Susan Nolen-Hoeksma: Sex Differences in Control of Depression , in: Daniel Wegner, James Pennebaker (Eds.): Handbook of Mental Control , Volume 5, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1993.
  24. ↑ Emotional Intelligence (1995), pp. 34, 36
  25. ↑ Emotional Intelligence (1995), pp. 78f, 83f
  26. ↑ Emotional Intelligence (1995), pp. 79f
  27. ^ Emotional Intelligence (1995), pp. 81-95
  28. ^ Emotional Intelligence (1995), p. 89
  29. ↑ Emotional Intelligence (1995), p. 96f
  30. ^ Emotional Intelligence (1995), p. 96; John D. Mayer, Melissa Kirkpatrick: Hot Information-Processing Becomes More Accurate With Open Emotional Experience , University of New Hampshire, unpublished manuscript, October 1994; Randy Larsen et al. a .: Cognitive Operations Associated With Individual Differences in Affect Intensity , Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Volume 53, 1987
  31. ^ Emotional Intelligence (1995), pp. 100-102
  32. ↑ Emotional Intelligence (1995), p. 98
  33. ^ Emotional Intelligence (1995), p. 104
  34. ^ Emotional Intelligence (1995), p. 104; Robert Rosenthal et al .: Sensitivity to Nonverbal Communication: The PONS Test , The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979, ISBN 0801821592
  35. ^ Emotional Intelligence (1995), p. 97
  36. ^ Emotional Intelligence (1995), pp. Xii, 105; Martin Hoffman: Empathy, Social Cognition, and Moral Action , in: W. Kurtines, J. Gerwitz (Eds.): Moral Behavior and Development: Advances in Theory, Research, and Applications , New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1984
  37. ↑ Emotional Intelligence (1995), pp. 112, 121, 124
  38. ^ Emotional Intelligence (1995), pp. 112-114
  39. ↑ Emotional Intelligence (1995), pp. 114-117
  40. ^ Emotional Intelligence (1995), p. 118; Howard Gardner, Thomas Hatch: Multiple intelligences to to school: Educational implications of the theory of multiple intelligences , Educational Researcher, Volume 18, Issue 8, 1989, pp. 4-9
  41. ^ Emotional Intelligence (1995), p. 117
  42. ^ Emotional Intelligence (1995), p. 117; Marshall Duke and Stephen Nowicki coined the term dyssemia for this handicap (Marshall Duke, Stephen Nowicki: Helping The Child Who Doesn't Fit In , Atlanta: Peachtree Publisher, 1992; cf. en: Dyssemia ); see. also Byron Rourke: Nonverbal Learning Disabilities , New York: Guilford Press, 1989
  43. ↑ Emotional Intelligence (1995), p. 123
  44. ↑ Emotional Intelligence (1995), pp. 119f; Mark Snyder: Impression Management: The Self in Social Interaction , in: LS Wrightsman, K. Deaux (Eds.): Social Psychologie in the '80s , Monterey: Brooks / Cole, 1981
  45. ↑ Emotional Intelligence (1995), p. 129f
  46. ^ Emotional Intelligence (1995), p. 140
  47. ↑ Emotional Intelligence (1995), pp. 130-132; Leslie Brody, Judith Hall: Gender and Emotion , in: Michael Lewis, Jeannette Haviland (Eds.): Handbook of Emotions , New York: Guilford Press, 1993; Deborah Tannen: You Just Don't Understand: Women and Men in Conversation , Ballentine Books, 1990, ISBN 0345372050
  48. ^ Emotional Intelligence (1995), p. 130
  49. ↑ Emotional Intelligence (1995), pp. 134-136, 140-142
  50. ↑ Emotional Intelligence (1995), pp. 137, 144f
  51. ↑ Emotional Intelligence (1995), pp. 137-140; John Gottman : What Predicts Divorce: The Relationship Between Marial Processes and Marital Outcomes , Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1993
  52. ↑ Emotional Intelligence (1995), pp. 143-146
  53. ↑ Emotional Intelligence (1995), pp. 159-163
  54. ↑ a b Emotional Intelligence (1995), pp. 155-159
  55. ↑ Emotional Intelligence (1995), p. 150f
  56. ↑ Emotional Intelligence (1995), pp. 151-154; Harry Levinson: Feedback to Subordinates , Addendum to the Levinson Letter, Levinson Institute, Waltham, Massachusetts, 1992
  57. ↑ See e.g. B. Ken Bossone: Why Positive Thinkers Have the Power: How to Use the Powerful Three-Word Motto to Achieve Greater Peace of Mind , 2008
  58. ↑ Emotional Intelligence (1995), pp. 165f
  59. ^ Howard Friedman, S. Boothby-Kewley: The Disease-Prone Personality: A Meta-Analytic View , American Psychologist , Volume 42, 1987
  60. ^ Emotional Intelligence (1995), p. 167; Steven B. Maier et al. a .: Psychoneuroimmunology , American Psychologist, December 1994; David Felten et al. a .: Noradrenergic Sympathetic Innervation of Lymphoid Tissue , Journal of Immunology, Volume 135, 1985
  61. ^ Emotional Intelligence (1995), pp. 168, 172; Bruce S. Rabin et al. a .: Bidirectional Interaction Between the Central Nervous System and the Immune System , Critical Reviews in Immunology, Volume 9, Issue 4, 1989, pp. 279-312; Bruce McEwen, Eliot Stellar: Stress and the Individual: Mechanisms Leading to Disease , In: Archives of Internal Medicine , Volume 153, September 27, 1993
  62. ↑ Sheldon Cohen et al. a .: Psychological Stress and Susceptibility to the Common Cold , In: New England Journal of Medicine , Volume 325, 1991; Arthur Stone et al. a .: Secretory IgA as a Measure of Immunocompetence , Journal of Human Stress, Volume 13, 1987; RD Clover et al. a .: Family Functioning and Stress as Predictors of Influenza B Infection , Journal of Family Practice, Volume 28, May 1989
  63. ^ Emotional Intelligence (1995), S. Ronald Glaser, Janice Kiecolt-Glaser: Psychological Influences of Immunity , American Psychologist, Volume 43, 1988; HE Schmidt u. a .: Stress as a Precipitating Factor in Subjects With Recurrent Herpes Labialis , Journal of Family Practice, Volume 20, 1985
  64. ↑ Joseph C. Courtney et al. a .: Stressful Life Events and the Risk of Colorectal Cancer , Epidemiology, Volume 4, Issue 5, September 1993; Seymour Reichlin: Neuroendocrine-Immune Interactions , New England Journal of Medicine, October 21, 1993
  65. ↑ Emotional Intelligence (1995), pp. 169-177; Gail Ironson et al. a .: Effects on Anger on Left Ventricular Ejection Fraction in Coronary Artery Disease , The American Journal of Cardiology, Volume 70, 1992; Redford Williams: The Trusting Heart , New York: Times Books / Random House, 1989; Lyndra H. Powell: Emotional Arousal as a Predictor of Long-Term Mortality and Morbidity in Post MI Men , Circulation, Volume 82, Issue 4, Supplement III, October 1990; Murray A. Mittleman: Triggering of Myocardial Infarction Onset by Episodes of Anger , In: Circulation , Volume 89, Issue 2, 1994; Stephen Manuck, Frederick N. Garland: Coronary-Prone Behavior Pattern, Task Incentive, and Cardiovascular Response , In: Psychophysiology , Volume 16, Issue 2, March 1979, pp. 136-142
  66. ^ Emotional Intelligence (1995), p. 176; Robert Anda et al. a .: Depressed Affect, Hopelessness, and the isk of Ischemic Heart Disease in a Cohort of US Adults , Epidemiology, July 1993
  67. ↑ Nancy Frasure-Smith et al. a .: Depression Following Myocardial Infarction , Journal of the American Medical Association, October 20, 1993; Chris Peterson et al. a .: Learned Helplessness: A Theory for the Age of Personal Control , New York: Oxford University Press, 1993
  68. ↑ Howard Burton et al. a .: The Relationship of Depression to Survival in Chronic Renal Failure , Psychosomatic Medicine, March 1986
  69. ↑ Timothy Elliott et al. a .: Negotiating Reality After Physical Loss: Hope, Depression, and Disability , Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Volume 61, Issue 4, 1991
  70. ↑ James Strain: Cost Offset From a Psychiatric Consultation-Liaison Intervention With Elderly Hip Fracture Patients , American Journal of Psychiatry, Volume 148, 1991
  71. ↑ Emotional Intelligence (1995), p. 178f; James House et al. a .: Social Relationships and Health , Science, July 29, 1988; Carol Smith et al. a .: Meta-Analysis of the Association Between Social Support and Health Outcomes , Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 1994; Lisa Berkman et al. a .: Emotional Support and Survival After Myocardial Infarction: A Prospective Population Based Study of the Elderly , Annals of Internal Medicine , December 15, 1992; Annika Rosengren u. a .: Stressful Life Events, Social Support, and Mortality in Men Born in 1933 , British Medical Journal, October 19, 1993; Janice Kiecolt-Glaser u. a .: Marital Quality, Marital Disruption, and Immune Function , Psychosomatic Medicine, Volume 49, 1987; New Light on How Stress Erodes Health , New York Times, December 15, 1992
  72. ^ Emotional Intelligence (1995), pp. 165, 182-185; All Too Often, The Doctor Isn't Listening, Studies Show
  73. ^ Emotional Intelligence (1995), p. 190; Carole Hooven, Lynn Katz, John Gottman: The Family as a Meta-emotion Culture , Cognition and Emotion, Spring 1994
  74. ^ Emotional Intelligence (1995), p. 191; Carole Hooven, Lynn Katz, John Gottman: The Family as a Meta-emotion Culture , Cognition and Emotion, Spring 1994
  75. ^ Emotional Intelligence (1995), p. 191
  76. ↑ Emotional Intelligence (1995), p. 192
  77. ↑ Emotional Intelligence (1995), p. 192f; T. Berry Brazelton: Head Start: The Emotional Foundations of School Readiness , Arlington, Virginia: National Center for Clinical Infant Programs, 1992
  78. ↑ Emotional Intelligence (1995), pp. 193-195
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  81. ↑ Emotional Intelligence (1995), pp. 196-198; Mary Main, Carol George: Responses of Abused and Disadvantaged Toddlers to Distress in Agemates: A Study in the Day-Care Setting , Developmental Psychology, Volume 21, Issue 3, 1985; Bonnie Klimes-Dougan, Janet Kister: Physically Abused Preschoolers' Responses to Peer's Distress , Developmental Psychology, Volume 26, 1990; LR Huesman, Leonard Eron, Patty Warnicke-Yarmel: Intellectual Function and Aggression , The Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, January 1987; Robert Emery: Family Violence , American Psychologist, February 1989
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  84. ^ Emotional Intelligence (1995), p. 203; Joseph E. Ledoux: Indelibility of Subcortical Emotional Memories , Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, Volume 1, 1989, pp. 238-243
  85. ↑ Emotional Intelligence (1995), p. 204
  86. ↑ See Goleman, German edition: EQ, Emotionale Intellektiven, Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag; Edition: 2nd edition. (May 1, 1997), p. 254.
  87. ↑ Emotional Intelligence (1995), pp. 204-214; Lenore Terr: To Scared to Cry , New York: Harper Collins, 1990; Judith Lewis Herman: Trauma and Recovery , New York: Basic Books, 1992; Mardi Horowitz: Stress Response Syndromes , Northvale, New Jersey: Jason Aronson, 1986
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  93. ↑ Emotional Intelligence (1995), pp. 231f, 252-255; Jeanne M. Tschann: Initiation of Substance Abuse in Early Adolescence , Health Psychology, Volume 4, 1994; Katheleen Merikangas u. a .: Familial Transmission of Depression and Alcoholism , Archives of General Psychiatry, April 1985; Howard Moss et al. a .: Plasma GABA-like Activity in Response to Ethanol Challenge in Men at High Rish for Alcoholism , Biological Psychiatry, Volume 27, Issue 6, March 1990; Edward Khantzian: Psychiatric and Psychodynamic Factors in Cocain Addiction , in: Arnold Washton, Mark Gold (Eds.): Cocaine: A Clinician's Handbook , New York: Guilford Press, 1987
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  95. ↑ Emotional Intelligence (1995), pp. 246-249; Gloria R. Leon et al. a .: Personality and Behavioral Vulnerabilities Associated with Risk Status for Eating Disorders in Adolescent Girls , Journal of Abnormal Psychology, Volume 102, 1993; PE Sifneos: Affect, Emotional Conflict, and Deficit: An Overview , Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Volume 56, Issue 3, 1991, pp. 116-122
  96. ↑ Emotional Intelligence (1995), pp. 256, 260; Norman Garmezy: The Invulnerable Child , New York: Guilford Press, 1987
  97. ^ Emotional Intelligence (1995), pp. 261f; Daniel Goleman: Managing your feelings , New York Times Nov. 7, 1993; Daniel Goleman: To 3 R's, some add emotions , New York Times, March 10, 1994; two examples of important violence prevention programs: Resolving Conflict Creatively Program ( Memento of the original from April 3, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , PATHS - Parents and Teachers Helping Students @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.ncrel.org
  98. ↑ website of the author ; Stuart Crainer, Des Dearlove: Business, the Universe & Everything . Conversations with the Worlds' Greatest Management Thinkers. Capstone, 2003, p. 23 .
  99. ^ The 25 Most Influential Business Management Books
  100. ^ Sense and Sensibility , Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, April 2, 1996
  101. ↑ The stupid thing about emotional intelligence: wishful thinking, sentimentalism, and doing business instead of a sound concept , Psychotherapy, October 19, 2001