Rampage at a school

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Laying of flowers in front of the business school in Freising on the day of the rampage in Eching and Freising in 2002

A school killing spree (also school massacre , school shooting or school rampage ) is an armed attack with the intention of killing people related to a school . The exact definition of the phenomenon is controversial in social science and criminological research.

Concept and definition

Different terms are used for the phenomenon, the definitions of which are controversial in social and criminological research. In the German-speaking world, the term Amok is predominantly used in social science research . In the United States, however, school rampages are known as School Massacre , School Shooting, or School Rampage . The term school shooting has also been adopted in German terminology and in the media, but has not yet replaced the guiding term amok. Other terms used to describe the phenomenon are “school massacre”, “school attack”, “intentional multiple killings by young offenders at educational institutions” or “Classroom Avenger”.

Bannenberg (2010) uses the term “rampage” in schools for “long-planned acts of violence with exaggerated fantasies of hate and revenge, which mostly end in planned suicide.” Bondü (2012) defines the term school shooting as “[targeted attack] one (former) pupil at his school, which was deliberately chosen as a crime scene, with potentially lethal weapons and intent to kill. The offense is conditioned by individually constructed motives in connection with the school context and is directed against at least partially previously selected people or groups of people who are associated with the school. ”Contrary to the meaning of the word, the weapon does not have to be a firearm. The school shooting is a specific form of the rampage.

Status and methodological problems of research

Research into the phenomenon has been increasing since the late 1990s. Most empirical studies so far have concentrated on the USA. Due to country-specific and cultural differences, their results cannot easily be transferred to the situation in other countries. The first research results on crimes and perpetrators in Germany have been available since 2009.

Research into the phenomenon is fraught with several methodological problems:

  • Since there is no uniformly used and defined term for the phenomenon, the incidents and existing study results can only be compared with one another to a limited extent.
  • The small perpetrator population contributes to the fact that investigations are usually only carried out on small samples and the study results cannot therefore be generalized easily.
  • There is a lack of control groups that would be necessary for the reliable identification of influencing factors.
  • Consistent study results could be due to repeated investigations of the same cases.
  • The acts can only be investigated retrospectively , prospective long-term investigations are prohibited for ethical reasons.
  • In many studies, influencing factors are listed without weighting or explaining them.

To make matters worse, access to data sources is restricted. The investigation files are mostly inaccessible to the researchers and questioning the perpetrators is often no longer possible because they have committed suicide or are not prepared to make any statements. The records they leave behind often leave questions unanswered. Relatives and friends of the perpetrators also rarely show willingness to participate in studies.

In the absence of other data sources, researchers therefore fall back on the analysis of media reports. The problem is that the media coverage is not reliable, as false information or stereotypes about the crime and the perpetrator are often spread. The researchers' lack of language skills make it more difficult to research school rampages in African or Asian countries compared to acts in countries in Europe, North and South America.

Incidence and Historical Development

Despite the great media attention these acts received, viewed overall and in comparison to everyday violence in schools, they are a very rare phenomenon. Bondü (2012) puts the probability of being killed in a school rampage for the USA and the year 1999 at 1: 1,000,000 to 1: 2,000,000. Exact information on the incidence is not possible due to the methodological problems described when researching school shootings . Bannenberg (2010) and Bondü (2012) assume one crime per year in Germany, but the trend is rising. There are also acts that have been prevented or merely announced in good time. Robertz and Wickenhäuser (2007) determined 99 school shootings worldwide for the period from 1974 to 2006 .

Up until the end of the 1980s there were only sporadic school-related rampages around the world. The most distant documented acts include the rampage of Julius Becker at a Saarbrücken grammar school in 1871, the rampage in Bremen in 1913, the school massacre in Bath in 1927, the Volkhoven assassination in 1964 and the rampage by Brenda Ann Spencer in that year 1979. From the 1990s onwards, the number of crimes increased significantly, especially in the United States. While there was an average of only one school shooting per year between 1992 and 1994 , there were five incidents of this kind between 1995 and 1999. After the rampage at Columbine High School in April 1999, which caused an international sensation due to the enormous media coverage there was also a significant increase in school shootings worldwide . Between 2000 and 2002, 30% of school rampages occurred outside of the United States. According to Fox and Levin (2005) , however, the number of school shootings in the USA declined again from the 2001/2002 school year, which is attributed to increased awareness and prevention, despite a series of copycat acts that resulted from the Columbine rampage .

Traits

Crime planning and preparation

School rampages are rarely impulsive acts. Most school shootings are carefully planned and prepared by the perpetrators. In the Vossekuil et al. (2002) examined cases, the time span from the idea to its execution was between a day and a year in 95% of the cases, with over 51% of the perpetrators developing the idea for the act at least one month in advance. In 93% of the cases the crime was planned and prepared, 63% of the school shooters did so at least two days before the rampage. For some offenders, developing the crime plan took between six and eight months.

More recent publications assume that possible perpetrators are now learning from each other, practicing so to speak (“school of killing”) with the aim of achieving the highest possible degree of effectiveness and maximum attention to the planned crime; here the focus shifts from an “outbreak of violence” to a well-organized approach.

Notice of action ( leaking )

In many cases, the perpetrators directly or indirectly, intentionally or unintentionally, announce the rampage in advance. This so-called leaking (from English to leak , here in the sense of 'letting something leak through') is expressed, for example, in the form of verbal threats, through the creation of lists of victims or indications in diary entries, school essays, poems, letters, chats, Internet entries, videos or Drawings. Indirect leaking can result from excessive consumption of violent media, an increased interest in violence or weapons, the gathering of information about previous crimes and perpetrators, a change in behavior and external appearance (e.g. wearing army clothing or black clothing again) or show suicidal tendencies.

Vossekuil et al. (2002) came to the result in their study that in 81% of the cases there was at least one person who knew about the thoughts or plan of the gunman. This person was a friend, classmate, or sibling of the perpetrator 93% of the time.

The motives of the perpetrators with the leaking have not been conclusively clarified. It is sometimes assumed that the later perpetrator tries out the implementation of his fantasy of violence through the leak. It is also believed to be a cry for help, a final warning, or a means of creating fear, exercising control, or demonstrating power and superiority.

Triggers and motives for the crime

Certain psychosocial stressors to which the perpetrators were exposed over a longer period of time - weeks to years - and which they do not process appropriately due to their specific personality structure and psychopathology, their inadequate problem-solving skills and an actual or perceived lack of social support are regarded as triggers could handle.

The stressors that trigger offenses include, for example, rejection, losses, humiliation, perceived injustice, lack of future prospects or bullying experiences. The later perpetrators usually react to these unresolved stressors with anger, disappointment, frustration or despair and project the guilt for their predicament onto others. Over time, they recognize fewer and fewer alternatives for action and problem-solving, so that targeted lethal violence ultimately appears to them as the only way out of their situation. An accumulation of stressors can often be observed in close proximity to the act - according to Linssen and Bannenberg (2004) this is the "drop that brings the barrel to overflow."

The motives for the act are always individual and result from the specific life situation of the perpetrator. Usually there are several motifs at the same time, which reinforce each other in their effect. Studies identified four central motives for crime: revenge, problem-solving, suicide, and fame.

Time of offense

School shootings take place all year round, but significantly fewer acts take place in the summer months from June to September due to the holiday season. Most of the school shootings examined by Robertz and Wickenhäuser (2010) occurred in April, followed by the months of March and November. They attribute the accumulation of acts in April to imitation acts on the occasion of the anniversary of the rampage at Columbine High School. In the absence of lessons on the weekend, the acts take place almost exclusively on weekdays. Bondü and Beier (2015) found that the day of the act is most often a Monday and that most rampages take place during class between 6:00 and 10:00 a.m.

Execution and outcome of the crime

During the act, the perpetrators appear calm and controlled, both emotionally and physically. Your actions appear purposeful, considered and conscious. Hoffmann (2003) describes this behavior as “hunting mode”. The perpetrators are never or rarely drunk when they are committed. On the day of the tattoo, many school shooters stage themselves with striking outfits such as camouflage clothing, trench coats or T-shirts with a printed statement . In many cases, the perpetrators copied the clothes of the gunman at Columbine High School, the long on Tattag black coats and T-shirts with the inscriptions Natural Selection ( Natural Selection ) and Wrath (anger) contributed. Some perpetrators comment on their motivation during the killing spree.

Vossekuil et al. (2002) came to the conclusion that the rampage was ended in 27% of the cases investigated by the intervention of police forces, of which only three made use of their firearms. In around a third of the cases examined, the rampage was stopped either by school staff (27%) or classmates (5%). In 22% of the cases, the perpetrator ended the rampage of his own accord or he left the school premises. 13% of the crimes ended in the murderer's suicide . According to an analysis by the Criminological and Criminological Research Center of the State Criminal Police Office of North Rhine-Westphalia in 2007, however, in most cases the offender immediately committed suicide or attempted suicide.

If the murderer committed suicide, the act is also referred to as "homicide suicide". Researchers assume that the suicide does not occur spontaneously, but is a planned element of the act. It is also suspected that the perpetrators are suicidal to avoid a return to the "main reality" after the crime.

Perpetrator characteristics

School shootings are almost exclusively committed by young male perpetrators; Offenders are rare. According to Frank Robertz (2004), 97 percent of the perpetrators are men with an average age of 15.6 years.

The perpetrators often show psychological abnormalities, but usually do not suffer from schizophrenic or affective psychoses with loss of reality or hallucinations. Instead, the majority of the perpetrators were depressed and suicidal prior to the offense . Lothar Adler presented three psychological-psychiatric typologies, distinguishing between (delusional-) schizophrenic, (shameful-) depressive and (narcissistic-) personality-disturbed perpetrators. He regards the latter as the most dangerous group, whose deeds are the most victims. Peter Langman differentiates between the psychopathic , psychotic and traumatized perpetrator types.

In the individual cases analyzed by Bannenberg (2010), the perpetrators did not attract attention in the run-up to the offense due to disrupted social behavior, violence or aggression, but were described as inconspicuous, calm, quiet, shy, fearful, inaccessible and / or closed. Her strong social withdrawal was also noticeable. In many cases, the perpetrators had hinted to their classmates about previous rampages or talked about suicide before the crime. In their written records, the perpetrators expressed feelings of hatred and a need for revenge, which, according to Bannenberg, appeared “completely exaggerated and incomprehensible”. Bannenberg also names the following commonalities between the perpetrators in the cases she investigated:

  • Members of the middle class
  • Origin from "normal" family relationships
  • mostly there are siblings
  • Loner or outsider
  • not a steadfast girlfriend
  • mostly poor school performance, which does not correspond to the abilities and especially from the 7th / 8th Show class
  • subjective feelings of being bullied, not necessarily realistic, and feelings of deep hurt
  • Fascination for weapons ("gun fanatic")
  • Fear of physical confrontations with their peers
  • Wear black clothing in the months prior to the act
  • Interest in gunmen, mass and serial killers
  • intensive occupation with violent computer games and films
  • psychological abnormalities (e.g. narcissistic personality disorder , depression , obsessive-compulsive disorder ), of which the later perpetrators are often self-aware.

School shootings are mostly committed by individual perpetrators. However, perpetrator duos are also known, such as the rampage at Westside Middle School in 1998, the rampage at Columbine High School or the rampage in Suzano , São Paulo , in 2019. The perpetrators often come from the current or brief circle Students who were previously dismissed or rejected, such as the rampages in Montréal (1989), Eching and Freising and Erfurt (2002), the rampage in Emsdetten (2006) and the rampages in Winnenden and Wendlingen and in Ansbach (2009).

Victim

According to Frank Robertz (2004), the cases he examined were injured in roughly equal proportions, either exclusively teaching staff, exclusively classmates, or both school staff and students. Vossekuil et al. (2002) give a teacher share of 54%. So-called death lists were found in only a few cases.

Relevant criminal offenses

This article or paragraph presents the situation in Germany . Help us to describe the situation in other countries.

Shootings are not legally defined in Germany and are not listed separately in the police crime statistics , but are included in the number of cases of other offenses. Relevant criminal offenses under German criminal law are, in particular, murder in accordance with Section 211 of the Criminal Code (StGB) and manslaughter in accordance with Section 212 of the German Criminal Code as well as crimes against physical integrity ( Sections 223, 224, 226, 227 StGB). The criminal offenses of hostage taking ( Section 239b of the Criminal Code), of causing an explosive explosion ( Section 308 of the Criminal Code), the preparation of an explosion or radiation crime ( Section 310 of the Criminal Code) or violations of the Weapons Act and the Act on the Control of War Weapons also come into consideration . Announcements of offenses can constitute an offense of disturbance of the public peace by threatening a criminal offense according to § 126 StGB or the threat according to § 241 StGB.

Since school shootings are mostly committed by young people (14 to 17 years old) or adolescents (18 to under 21 years of age), the provisions of youth criminal law must be observed in Germany . If there is a conviction for a crime , the maximum youth penalty for young people is 10 years. In the case of an adolescent, the penalty for a murder conviction and determination of the particular gravity of the guilt can be up to 15 years. Often, however, the offender's suicide does not lead to criminal proceedings.

consequences

A rampage has direct and indirect consequences. These include, among other things, considerable financial expenses for the aftercare of the injured, which is necessary over long periods of time, as well as the repair and renovation of buildings.

School shootings not only have serious effects on the killed and injured victims and their relatives, but also on witnesses who have not suffered any physical harm. In addition to students and school staff, this also includes police and rescue workers. Many of them suffer from serious mental health problems for years after the event. For example, shortly after the rampage in Erfurt, 46% of the students studied suffered from a post-traumatic stress disorder ; six to nine months after the crime, 19.7% were still affected. Seven months after the killing spree, 16 of the 43 teachers examined were in psychotherapeutic treatment, another 16 were classified as in need of therapy. Five years after the crime, there were still 24 students, six teachers and an administrator in therapy. Many survivors of the Columbine High School rampage reported that they were still suffering from the psychological consequences of the crime 20 years after the crime.

In the aftermath of rampages, there are repeated acts of imitation , which is why there is often talk of a “copycat effect”. Since the rampage at Columbine High School in particular has inspired many copycat criminals, the term " Columbine Effect" is also used. A pull or model effect is assumed to be particularly effective in the media. What is striking is a periodic accumulation of school accusations in connection with anniversaries of spectacular accusations.

Prevention

According to Britta Bannenberg (2007), no specific amok prevention can take place. Only general measures of suicide or violence prevention could be applied. In addition, the attention and commitment of the social environment could prevent such acts of violence.

An 18-member special committee set up by the Baden-Württemberg state parliament as a result of the Winnenden rampage gave more than 100 cross-party recommendations after ten months of work; 77 of them came from the report of an additionally appointed expert commission of the Baden-Württemberg Ministry of Culture ( Expert Group Amok Baden-Württemberg ). The cost of implementing all of these proposals has been estimated at around EUR 30 million.

Organizational measures

At Easter 2012, a new administrative regulation came into force in Baden-Württemberg on how to behave in schools in the event of violent and damaging incidents: detailed additional instructions on how to behave in the event of a threat of amok or a rampage were incorporated and it was ensured that the alarm signals and reaction plans at the schools were triggered depending on the dangerous situation clearly distinguish.

Technical measures

Emergency and hazard response systems (NGRS) in accordance with DIN VDE V 0827 are used to trigger amok alarms and to alert those providing assistance. These systems are primarily for use in public buildings such as educational institutions (e.g. schools, universities) , Authorities, kindergartens and similar institutions. However, they can also be used in non-public buildings with a similar risk and need for protection. Emergency and hazard detectors (NGRS detectors) according to DIN VDE V 0827-1 or emergency and danger intercom systems (NGS) according to DIN VDE are used to manually trigger an alarm message in the event of an acute emergency or danger (e.g. amok) V 0827-2. The alarm is forwarded via remote alarm systems to an auxiliary point (e.g. an emergency call and service control center). In justified cases, the NGRS can also be connected directly to the police in coordination with the police . This must be carried out analogously to the ÜEA guideline . In this case, the police must be involved in planning the NGRS at an early stage.

The technical measures against school-related Amoktaten be used in many schools used so far, for opening the classroom doors from the inside and outside herabzudrückenden doorknobs replaced with so-called "Amok doorknobs." After that, the corresponding doors should only be able to be opened from the outside with a key, so the doors could be locked by simply pulling them closed from the inside (from the classroom). It is disputed whether these knobs should be rotatable from the outside ( rotary knob ) or not ( fixed knob ) ; in the case of non-rotating knobs, access would also be made much more difficult for rescue workers who might appear. In the USA, a system is used in which rotating door knobs can also be locked from the inside.

In order to make it easier for rescue workers and emergency services to find their way around in emergency situations, the Main-Taunus-Kreis has been setting up a nationwide color coding system in schools ( signage ) since 2009 . This system is now also used in various other federal states.

Following a recommendation from the special committees set up in the wake of the Winnenden rampage , the Ministry of Education and Cultural Affairs of the State of Baden-Württemberg will equip its public schools with so-called pagers from Easter 2012 (see: radio receiver ): the police can use these to send warning messages to schools in acute situations. The costs for the necessary data connections are borne by the municipalities, those of the approx. 4,800 devices amounting to more than € 500,000 are borne by the state.

Reduction, prevention of risk factors

Depiction of violence - prohibition, control

In connection with violent media, the partial aspect of imitation, taking up and living out an idea by young people appears to be relevant for understanding school shootings as well. This is indicated by the imitation of hero characters from well-known films or computer games by the perpetrators.

Some scientists and politicians also associate the increase in violence with violence and a falling inhibition threshold due to training and habituation effects from computer games (" killer games ") or films that perform and use violence : They could in particular be socially not firmly rooted and unstable Massively influence students.

The German Youth Protection Act contains special passages relating to media use.

Gun access control

Stricter laws and a ban on deadly sporting weapons are repeatedly demanded after rampages. This is particularly true of handguns, with which many massacres have been committed. After a school massacre in Great Britain and violent reactions from the population, a ban on handguns was pronounced there in 1997.

As a reaction to rampages in schools, German gun law was tightened.

Gun controls are increasing in schools in the United States.

School psychology

In many federal states, school psychological crisis intervention teams have been set up and structures have been created to provide schools with short-term support from school psychologists in the event of crises and incidents of violence (Drewes & Seifried 2012); In some federal states, new jobs have also been created for this purpose. A total of 75 new jobs have been set up in North Rhine-Westphalia since 2007. In Baden-Württemberg , the first 30 of 100 additional school psychologists should be deployed as early as the 2010/11 school year; Overall, the number is to be doubled to 200 within three years.

See also

literature

Non-fiction

  • Britta Bannenberg : Amok. Recognize causes - understand warning signals - prevent disasters. Gütersloher Verlagshaus, Gütersloh 2010, ISBN 978-3-579-06873-2 .
  • Nils Böckler, Thorsten Seeger: school ramblers. An analysis of self-portrayals of perpetrators in the media and their appropriation by young recipients. Juventa, Weinheim u. a. 2010, ISBN 978-3-7799-1499-0 .
  • Nils Böckler, Thorsten Seeger, Peter Sitzer, Wilhelm Heitmeyer (eds.): School Shootings. International Research, Case Studies, and Concepts for Prevention. Springer, New York, NY, etc. a. 2013, ISBN 978-1-4614-5525-7 .
  • Benjamin Faust: School shoot. Young people running amok between adaptation and exclusion. Psychosozial-Verlag, Giessen 2010, ISBN 978-3-8379-2063-5 .
  • Robert A. Fein, Bryan Vossekuil, William S. Pollack, Randy Borum, William Modzeleski, Marisa Reddy: Handout for assessing threatening situations in schools. United States Secret Service - United States Department of Education, Washington, DC 2002, (PDF; 332.83 kB) .
  • Ines Geipel : The amok complex or the school of killing . Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart 2012, ISBN 978-3-608-94627-7 .
  • André Grzeszyk: Impure Pictures. For media (self) staging of school shooters. Transcript, Bielefeld 2012, ISBN 978-3-8376-1980-5 (At the same time: Erlangen, Nuremberg, University, dissertation: If I could nuke the world I would - for the media (self-) staging of school shooters. ).
  • Anne Kühling: School Shooting. Causes and background to extreme acts of violence in German schools (= online series on social work. Vol. 2). Vechtaer Verlag for Studies, Science and Research VVSWF, Vechta 2009, ISBN 978-3-937870-08-3 ( Also : Vechta, University, Diploma thesis, 2009; (PDF; 671.33 kB) ( Memento from April 2, 2015 in Internet Archive )).
  • Peter Langman : Amok in the head. Why students kill. Beltz, Weinheim u. a. 2009, ISBN 978-3-407-85887-0 .
  • Elsa Pollmann : School crime scene. When teenagers run amok. Tectum-Verlag, Marburg 2008, ISBN 978-3-8288-9801-1 .
  • Frank Robertz, Ruben Wickenhäuser : The crack in the board. Rampage and heavy violence at school. Springer, Heidelberg 2007, ISBN 978-3-540-71630-3 .
  • Melanie Verhovnik: School Shootings. Interdisciplinary analysis and empirical investigation of journalistic reporting (= current series. Studies on journalism. Vol. 9). Nomos, Baden-Baden 2015, ISBN 978-3-8487-1805-4 (Simultaneously slightly revised version by: Eichstätt, Ingolstadt, Catholic University, dissertation, 2014).
  • Hans-Peter Waldrich : In blind rage. Rampage and school (= new small library. 124). 2nd, revised and updated edition. PapyRossa-Verlag, Cologne 2010, ISBN 978-3-89438-374-9 .

Fiction

  • Morten Rhue: I'll shoot you guys! (= Ravensburger Taschenbücher. 58172). Ravensburger Buchverlag, Ravensburg 2008, ISBN 978-3-473-58172-6 (original title: Give a Boy a Gun. ).
  • Lionel Shriver : We need to talk about Kevin. Novel. List, Berlin 2006, ISBN 3-471-78679-1 (original title: We need to talk about Kevin. ).
  • Patrick-Philippe Christian Seifert: Under the wings of angels. Novel. Edition tse, Leutenbach 2012, ISBN 978-3-00-038071-6 .

Movies

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Definition of school shooting. Freie Universität Berlin: Project NETWASS, accessed on May 12, 2012 .
  2. ↑ a b Anna-Lena Braun: Adult Amoktäter: A qualitative investigation of the motives from a criminological point of view. Springer, Wiesbaden 2018, ISBN 978-3-658-20038-1 , p. 238.
  3. ↑ Jörn Ahrens: The incomprehensible act - society and amok. Campus Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 2017, ISBN 978-3-593-42864-2 , p. 29.
  4. ↑ Jörn Ahrens: The incomprehensible act - society and amok. Campus Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 2017, ISBN 978-3-593-42864-2 , p. 30.
  5. ↑ Britta Bannenberg: Amok. Recognize causes - understand warning signals - prevent disasters. Gütersloher Verlagshaus, Gütersloh 2010, ISBN 978-3-641-04216-5 , p. 28 f.
  6. ↑ Rebecca BONDUE: School Shootings in Germany: International comparison, warning signs, risk factors, developmental pathways. Dissertation, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin 2012, p. 25 ( online , accessed October 13, 2019).
  7. ↑ Rebecca BONDUE: School Shootings in Germany: International comparison, warning signs, risk factors, developmental pathways. Dissertation, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin 2012, p. 24 ( online , accessed October 13, 2019).
  8. ↑ Rebecca BONDUE: School Shootings in Germany: International comparison, warning signs, risk factors, developmental pathways. Dissertation, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin 2012, p. 28 ( online , accessed October 13, 2019).
  9. ↑ a b c d Rebecca Bondü: School Shootings in Germany: International Comparison, Warning Signals, Risk Factors, Development Processes . Dissertation, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin 2012, pp. 40 ff. ( Online , accessed January 25, 2020).
  10. ↑ a b c d Rebecca Bondü: School Shootings in Germany: International Comparison, Warning Signals, Risk Factors, Development Processes . Dissertation, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin 2012, p. 31 ( online , accessed October 13, 2019).
  11. ↑ Anna-Lena Braun: Adult Amoktäter: A qualitative investigation of the motives from a criminological point of view. Springer, Wiesbaden 2018, ISBN 978-3-658-20038-1 , p. 243.
  12. ↑ a b Britta Bannenberg: Amok. Recognize causes - understand warning signals - prevent disasters. Gütersloher Verlagshaus, Gütersloh 2010, ISBN 978-3-641-04216-5 , p. 36.
  13. ↑ Rebecca BONDUE: School Shootings in Germany: International comparison, warning signs, risk factors, developmental pathways. Dissertation, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin 2012, pp. 18, 28 ( online , accessed October 13, 2019).
  14. ↑ Anna-Lena Braun: Adult Amoktäter: A qualitative investigation of the motives from a criminological point of view. Springer, Wiesbaden 2018, ISBN 978-3-658-20038-1 , p. 245 f.
  15. ↑ Rebecca BONDUE: School Shootings in Germany: International comparison, warning signs, risk factors, developmental pathways. Dissertation, Free University of Berlin, Berlin 2012, p. 32 f. ( online , accessed October 13, 2019).
  16. ↑ Jennifer Hausen: Characteristics of the act (motives, sequence). In: Matthias Böhmer (ed.): Amok at schools. Prevention, intervention and follow-up care for school shootings. Springer, Wiesbaden 2019, ISBN 978-3-658-22707-4 , p. 115.
  17. ↑ Bryan Vossekuil et al .: THE FINAL REPORT AND FINDINGS OF THE SAFE SCHOOL INITIATIVE: IMPLICATIONS FOR THE PREVENTION OF SCHOOL ATTACKS IN THE UNITED STATES. Ed .: United States Secret Service and United States Department of Education, Washington, DC 2002, p. 23 f. ( online [PDF; accessed October 12, 2019]).
  18. ↑ Dirk Becker: "Columbine was the starting point". Ines Geipel on the complexity of shooting sprees. In: Potsdam's latest news. March 27, 2012, accessed October 31, 2015 .
  19. ↑ Jennifer Hausen: Characteristics of the act (motives, sequence). In: Matthias Böhmer (ed.): Amok at schools. Prevention, intervention and follow-up care for school shootings. Springer, Wiesbaden 2019, ISBN 978-3-658-22707-4 , p. 115 f.
    Rebecca Bondü: School Shootings in Germany: International Comparison, Warning Signals, Risk Factors, Development Processes     . Dissertation, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin 2012, p. 48 ( online , accessed October 13, 2019).
  20. ↑ Rebecca BONDUE: School Shootings in Germany: International comparison, warning signs, risk factors, developmental pathways. Dissertation, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin 2012, p. 48 ( online , accessed October 13, 2019).
  21. ↑ Bryan Vossekuil et al .: THE FINAL REPORT AND FINDINGS OF THE SAFE SCHOOL INITIATIVE: IMPLICATIONS FOR THE PREVENTION OF SCHOOL ATTACKS IN THE UNITED STATES. Ed .: United States Secret Service and United States Department of Education, Washington, DC 2002, p. 25. ( online [PDF; accessed October 12, 2019]).
  22. ↑ Rebecca BONDUE: School Shootings in Germany: International comparison, warning signs, risk factors, developmental pathways. Dissertation, Free University of Berlin, Berlin 2012, p. 50 f. ( online , accessed October 13, 2019).
  23. ↑ Rebecca BONDUE: School Shootings in Germany: International comparison, warning signs, risk factors, developmental pathways. Dissertation, Free University of Berlin, Berlin 2012, p. 81 f. ( online , accessed October 13, 2019).
  24. ↑ Jennifer Hausen: Characteristics of the act (motives, sequence). In: Matthias Böhmer (ed.): Amok at schools. Prevention, intervention and follow-up care for school shootings. Springer, Wiesbaden 2019, ISBN 978-3-658-22707-4 , p. 120 f.
  25. ↑ Rebecca BONDUE: School Shootings in Germany: International comparison, warning signs, risk factors, developmental pathways. Dissertation, Free University of Berlin, Berlin 2012, p. 81 f. ( online , accessed October 13, 2019).
    Adolf Gallwitz: Amok - going under grandiose without lending a hand . In: Police today , 30 (6), 2001, pp. 170–175.
  26. ↑ Quoted from Rebecca Bondü: School Shootings in Germany: International Comparison, Warning Signals, Risk Factors, Development Processes . Dissertation, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin 2012, p. 82 ( online , accessed October 13, 2019).
  27. ↑ Jennifer Hausen: Characteristics of the act (motives, sequence). In: Matthias Böhmer (ed.): Amok at schools. Prevention, intervention and follow-up care for school shootings. Springer, Wiesbaden 2019, ISBN 978-3-658-22707-4 , p. 122 f.
  28. ^ Frank J. Robertz, Ruben Philipp Wickenhauser: The crack in the panel. Springer, Berlin 2010, ISBN 978-3-642-11309-3 , pp. 74 f.
  29. ↑ Jennifer Hausen: Characteristics of the act (motives, sequence). In: Matthias Böhmer (ed.): Amok at schools. Prevention, intervention and follow-up care for school shootings. Springer, Wiesbaden 2019, ISBN 978-3-658-22707-4 , p. 116.
  30. ↑ Rebecca BONDUE: School Shootings in Germany: International comparison, warning signs, risk factors, developmental pathways. Dissertation, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin 2012, p. 45 ( online , accessed October 13, 2019).
  31. ↑ a b Rebecca BONDUE: School Shootings in Germany: International comparison, warning signs, risk factors, developmental pathways. Dissertation, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin 2012, p. 96 ( online , accessed October 13, 2019).
  32. ↑ Jeff Kass: Columbine: A True Crime Story. Conundrum Press, Golden, CO 2014, ISBN 978-1-938633-26-3 , p. 3.
    Jaclyn Schildkraut, Glenn W. Muschert: Columbine, 20 Years Later and Beyond: Lessons from Tragedy. Praeger, Santa Barbara, CA 2019, ISBN 978-1-4408-6252-6 , 146.
  33. ↑ Bryan Vossekuil et al .: THE FINAL REPORT AND FINDINGS OF THE SAFE SCHOOL INITIATIVE: IMPLICATIONS FOR THE PREVENTION OF SCHOOL ATTACKS IN THE UNITED STATES. Ed .: United States Secret Service and United States Department of Education, Washington, DC 2002, p. 27 f. ( online [PDF; accessed January 23, 2020]).
  34. ↑ a b Amoktaten - Research overview with special attention to juvenile offenders in the school context. (PDF) LKA North Rhine-Westphalia, Criminological and Criminological Research Center, Analyzes No. 3/2007, p. 1 , accessed on January 23, 2020 .
  35. ↑ Britta Bannenberg: Amok. Recognize causes - understand warning signals - prevent disasters. Gütersloher Verlagshaus, Gütersloh 2010, ISBN 978-3-641-04216-5 , p. 76.
  36. ^ A b Frank J. Robertz: School Shootings. About the relevance of the imagination for the commission of multiple killings by young people , Verlag für Polizeiwissenschaft, Frankfurt am Main 2004, ISBN 978-3-935979-41-2
  37. ^ Robert Brumme: School Shootings. Sociological Analysis. VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, Wiesbaden 2011, ISBN 978-3-531-17745-8 , p. 42 f.
  38. ↑ Lothar Adler: Amok: A study . Belleville Verlag, Munich 2000, ISBN 978-3-923646-86-9
  39. ^ Peter Langman: Why Kids Kill. Palgrave Mcmillan, New York, NY 2009, ISBN 978-0-230-23637-0 , p. 55.
  40. ↑ Britta Bannenberg: Amok. Recognize causes - understand warning signals - prevent disasters. Gütersloher Verlagshaus, Gütersloh 2010, ISBN 978-3-641-04216-5 , p. 85 f.
  41. ↑ Britta Bannenberg: Amok. Recognize causes - understand warning signals - prevent disasters. Gütersloher Verlagshaus, Gütersloh 2010, ISBN 978-3-641-04216-5 , p. 85 ff.
  42. ^ Report of the Gutenberg High School Commission. (PDF) In: Thüringer Allgemeine. April 19, 2004, archived from the original on September 28, 2006 ; Retrieved January 1, 2005 .
  43. ↑ Bryan Vossekuil, Robert A. Fein, Marisa Reddy, Randy Borum & William Modzeleski: The Final Report and Findings of the Safe Schools Initiative . Washington, DC 2002, United States Secret Service and United States Department of Education.
  44. ↑ a b Amoktaten - research overview with special attention to juvenile offenders in the school context 2007. (PDF) LKA Nordrhein-Westfalen, Kriminalistische-Kriminologische Forschungsstelle, Analyzes No. 3/2007, S. 3 , accessed on March 12, 2015 .
  45. ↑ a b Rebecca BONDUE: School Shootings in Germany: International comparison, warning signs, risk factors, developmental pathways. Dissertation, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin 2012, p. 30 ( online , accessed January 25, 2020).
  46. ↑ Herbert Scheithauer: The Berlin Leaking Project for the Early Detection of Severe Targeted Violence in Schools: Possibilities and Limits. (PDF; 683 kB) Lecture at the conference on preventing violence in schools and the school environment in the Detmold district government. November 7, 2007, accessed December 10, 2011 .
  47. ↑ Rebecca BONDUE: School Shootings in Germany: International comparison, warning signs, risk factors, developmental pathways. Dissertation, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin 2012, p. 37 f. ( Online , accessed January 25, 2020).
  48. ^ Alan Prendergast: Columbine Survivors Talk About the Wounds That Won't Heal. In: Westword. March 19, 2019, accessed April 20, 2019.
  49. ↑ Anna-Lena Braun: Adult Amoktäter: A qualitative investigation of the motives from a criminological point of view. Springer, Wiesbaden 2018, ISBN 978-3-658-20038-1 , p. 133.
  50. ↑ Katrin Sanders: How it stands with the amok protection in schools. In: dradio.de. October 17, 2011, accessed October 21, 2011 .
  51. ↑ Report: Expert group Amok: Acting together - recognizing and minimizing risks. (PDF) Retrieved November 2, 2010 .
  52. ↑ a b Roland Muschel: Country wants to draw consequences from the rampage. Badische Zeitung, March 10, 2010, accessed October 30, 2010 .
  53. ↑ a b Ministry of Culture equips public schools with alarm devices. baden-wuerttemberg.de, April 12, 2012, accessed on April 15, 2012 .
  54. ↑ Hofheim: With colored stripes for more security. (No longer available online.) In: Press release- Hessen.de. Hofheim City Press Office, September 18, 2009, archived from the original on February 27, 2011 ; Retrieved October 11, 2011 . Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.pressemeldung-hessen.de
  55. ↑ Video legacy with a weapon, coat, combat boots. Spiegel Online from November 20, 2006
  56. ↑ Studies: Computer games can make you aggressive. Heise online , December 1, 2006
  57. ↑ heise.de , February 14, 2007: Media scientist: No new law for violent games necessary
  58. ↑ Robert Probst Life Risk , Süddeutsche Zeitung, March 11, 2019, p. 14.
  59. ↑ Sebastian Fischer: Dispute over consequences: Union and police officers reject stricter gun law. In: Spiegel Online. March 11, 2009, accessed August 25, 2019.
  60. ^ Rheinische Post , November 23, 2006, School Against Violence
  61. ↑ spiegel.de, April 18, 2007: America's weapons, America's tragedy