Wour

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Wour
Wour (Chad)
Wour
Wour
Coordinates 21 ° 22 ′  N , 15 ° 59 ′  E Coordinates: 21 ° 22 ′  N , 15 ° 59 ′  E
Basic data
Country Chad

region

Tibesti
ISO 3166-2 TD-TI
height 770 m

Wour (also Wur in German-language literature ) is an oasis in northern Chad in the Tibesti region , about 140 km west of Bardaï . Wour has only a few hundred inhabitants, which makes it one of the largest settlements in the region.

Wour in the administration of Chad

Wour belongs to the Tibesti Ouest department (West Tibesti, capital Zouar) and is the seat of a sub-prefecture . With a total of only 1,498 inhabitants (as of 2009), Wour is the least populous sub-prefecture in all of Chad. Another source describes Wour as the main town of one of the three communes that make up the Tibesti Ouest department, these communes apparently being identical to the three sub-prefectures of Zouar, Goubone and Wour. Wour also became the seat of a brigade of the Chadian national gendarmerie in 1994 ; In contrast to the German usage, the brigade as part of a company represents the smallest division of the gendarmerie. Current sources (2017/18) mention Wour as the location of a battalion of the Chadian army (approx. 250 men). The department of Tibesti Ouest (Muqāṭaʿâtu Tibastī l-Ġarbī), created in 2008, largely corresponds to the hereditary rule (Maïna) of Zouar, which has existed since 1690, to which Wour has always belonged. The prefect of Zouar (since 2014 Mahamat Seid Haggar) is not identical to the Maï of Zouar (Jomode Dobimi), rather modern and traditional authority coexist.

Townscape and economy

Wour extends over 3 kilometers in an east-west direction in the Enneri (Wadi) Wour. According to satellite images, the traditional buildings in the form of round houses and huts predominate, plus a few modern buildings that apparently serve state purposes (garrison, gendarmerie). The place can hardly be seen from afar, as the mostly inconspicuous buildings are located in the dry valley of the Enneri Wour. The permanent buildings avoid the valley floor, however, as the Enneri carries water for a few hours or days every few years after strong regular cases - sometimes as a torrent - which would or will destroy buildings in lower elevations, as most recently in August 2010.

The school is on the eastern edge of the village, there is no hospital or paved roads in Wour, a mosque recognizable as such only since 2017. In contrast to other oases in Tibesti, there is no palm grove of any appreciable size in Wour. This was destroyed in the civil war in the 1970s and was never replanted. However, there is a certain population of date palms, in addition to a further, not insignificant tree population, especially acacias , which do not require artificial irrigation due to the very high groundwater level in this dry valley. The Wour wells have very good water at a depth of just 4 meters. This is unusual for the Tibesti and the central Sahara and one of the reasons for the relative attractiveness of the place. The economic basis of Wour is a modest agriculture on garden-like plots, nomadic cattle breeding (goats, dromedaries), legal and illegal trade as well as the public service, especially the military.

Climate and location, the problem of mining

Wour has an average annual rainfall of only 18 mm. Due to its comparatively low altitude, the average temperature in Wour is 23.5 ° C, noticeably higher than in other settlements in Tibesti.

Wour is one of the most remote places in Chad. There is no airfield, just a runway, which was probably built in 1942 and has not been used for a long time, 23 kilometers west of the town at 21 ° 21.75 'N, 15 ° 45.49' E. The route from Wour to the northwest in the direction of al -Qatrun / Libya and the one to the northeast in the direction of Bardai can normally only be accessed with off-road vehicles. In the direction of Libya, the route leads partly through uncleared minefields from the Libyan-Chadian border war , so it is dangerous to deviate from the runway. The road to the south is definitely only accessible for off-road vehicles and appropriately qualified trucks (as of 1999).

As a result of the longstanding conflict with Libya, northern Chad is still heavily mined. According to the Landmine Monitor Report of 1999, up to 70,000 anti-tank and anti-personnel mines were still in place there, around 45,000 of them in Tibesti and 31,000 in the area of ​​Wour alone. At this point in time, the immediate vicinity of Wour down to the airstrip, a runway from Wour to the southwest, a section of runway in the valley west of Wour, the vicinity of a water point 40 kilometers as the crow flies north of Wour (there were two serious accidents there in 1999 Mines) as well as several road sections in the wider area of ​​the village. The evacuation is proceeding very slowly, because the north of Chad is extremely poor and sparsely populated and because, especially in Tibesti, further conflicts and uprisings hindered the evacuation until 2010 and in some cases until today.

Map of the Tibesti with the settlement of Wour in the west

From the story of Wour

Early history of Wour

Before the colonial era

As the entire Tibesti so the Wour region in the late 11th century was the Fezzan Islamized ago by the legendary Derde Dunama converted ( "the Almighty" in the language of Teda) to Islam. The conversion, however, remained superficial, with many animistic ideas and practices remaining alive into the 19th century, some to this day. The Austrian ethnologist Peter Fuchs mentions the conflicts over Wour around 1700: “The Keressa ... first nomadized in the Abo massif, then descended to Wur, where they fight with the Mogodi. They were initially pushed back into the Abo, later the two clans allied and mixed with one another through numerous marriages. ”The Abo massif is located northeast of Wour and forms the northwestern foothills of the Tibesti Mountains. This conflict cannot have occurred until the late 17th century, when the Mogodi - some time before the Keressa - immigrated to the Wour area. This conflict thus coincides with the establishment of the rule inherited from father to son ("Maïna", translated in French as "principeauté", i.e. principality) of Zouar by the Derde Kosso Aramimi in 1690. Wour has to from the beginning this Maïna belongs.

Wour in the 19th and 20th centuries

Gustav Nachtigal in the Ennerie Wour 1869

The German African explorer Gustav Nachtigal , one of the first Europeans to travel to the Tibesti and the first to leave it alive, passed the Ennerie Wour on July 11, 1869, about 20 kilometers west of the Wour oasis. The place itself is not mentioned by Nachtigal.

French presence in 1913 and from 1930

At the end of 1913, French troops conquered the Tibesti Mountains for the first time. The advance of a column with several hundred soldiers under the command of Colonel Löfler took place from the Bilma oasis (in today's Niger), Wour was passed at the end of November / beginning of December 1913 and then Zouar was first occupied. After fighting and a. in the vicinity of Wour in early 1914, the occupation of Bardai took place in July 1914. The small garrison there left their post in the summer of 1916. Only in 1929/30 was a French military presence established again in Tibesti, with small contingents stationed in Wour, Bardai, Aouzou and Cherda in 1930. This presence lasted in principle until Chad gained independence in 1960, although there was not a continuous French garrison in Wour.

Wour in World War II

Despite its extremely remote location and very small size, Wour was the site of both French and German military activities during World War II.

French operations in the spring of 1942

In March 1942, French units under Major General Leclerc carried out explorations and successful attacks against Italian positions in Fezzan , the south of what is now Libya, from Tibesti . These operations were carried out by patrols with air support, starting points were Zouar and Wour with the runways there. Reports of the 1942 operations suggest that the above Airstrip west of the village was created at that time; it is currently (2018) to be expanded. In the meantime it has apparently remained largely unused and was probably blown away, at least it cannot be made out on current satellite images (2017). In January 1943 Leclerc and 2500 men advanced from the Tibesti to the British positions in Tripoli , in order to then fight the German Africa Corps with them . During this operation, one of the very first motorized crossings of the Sahara, almost all Italian positions in southern Libya were taken.

German reconnaissance operation in and near Wour in June 1942

After the French conquests in Fezzan in March 1942, the German side no longer came as a complete surprise, rather they tried to scout out the French troop movements in Chad. This reconnaissance was carried out from June 1942 by the Sonderkommando Dora , a scientific troop of the German Defense Abroad . For this purpose, a cargo glider of the type DFS 230 , which was loaded with reserve fuel, was towed towards Tibesti, made a stopover and left the DFS 230 there. Zouar, Bardai, Wour and, as the southernmost town, Cherda , about 50 kilometers southeast of Zouar ( Scherda in German sources at the time , mostly Sherda in English texts ) were flown to . On the return flight, they made a stopover at the abandoned cargo glider, refueled and dragged the DFS back to the starting point of the operation in southern Libya.

Wour after the beginning of Chadian independence in 1960 and the attempted Libyan occupation in 1973

After the French withdrew in 1960, Chadian troops moved into garrisons in Tibesti in 1965, particularly in Bardai and Zouar. A little later, in 1968, the native Tubu population began to revolt against this presence of military and administrative officials from the south of the country, which was perceived as foreign rule. Both Libya and France intervened in this conflict from the late 1960s, France did so between April 1969 and 1971. On a global scale, this conflict was part of a proxy war between the pro-Libya until Chad's victory in the Tibetan War against Libya in 1986/87. Soviet Libya and France, which politically belongs to NATO. From 1971 a creeping Libyan presence began in the Aouzou Strip , which Libya claimed, initially with purely civilian forces and only in the Aouzou oasis itself. In 1973, Libya's military presence in Aouzou was initially very small. The Libyan flag was hoisted there between March and June of this year, officially annexing the Aouzou Strip. The rebel leader at the time and later Chadian President Goukouni Weddeye had to attend this ceremony - according to his own account, under duress. At the time, Libya also tried to occupy Wour, which was outside the Aouzou strip, but without success. The town of Omchi should also have been occupied, but the Libyans did not try to set up a base there.

Wour in the Chad Civil War (1979-82)

Between the end of June and the end of July 1979, fierce fighting broke out in northern Chad at Ounianga Kebir, north of Faya-Largeau, and at Wour. In the process, Libyan forces suffered severe defeats against the Chadian movement FROLINAT (Front de Liberation Nationale) under the leadership of the future President Goukouni Oueddei . Oueddei had been the head of the Chadian transitional government (GUNT) since March 1979, but he was in a de facto civil war with the FAN (Forces Armées Nationales), a spin-off of FROLINAT from the south. His greatest rival was Hissène Habré from FAN, who had also previously belonged to FROLINAT and was now (nominally under Oueddei) Defense Minister of Chad. Oueddei accused him and the FAN after the victories at Ounianga-Kébir and Wour on August 1, 1979 in the newspaper Le Monde of "backing off when it comes to defending the country".

Wour in the Tibesti War of 1986/87

In 1980, the entire Tibesti Mountains with Wour came under Libyan control, as Libyan troops supported insurgents from the Tubu , which is based in Tibesti, in conquering the area. In August 1986, Libya lost control of almost all of Tibesti through a rebellion by its previous allies in northern Chad, including Wour, whose Libyan garrison had to withdraw. But the first Libyan counter-attacks began on October 5, 1986, and there was apparently also fighting over Wour himself. In order to restore its supply lines and to recapture the bases of Bardaï , Zouar and Wour, Libya under Gaddafi launched a major offensive against Chad on December 11th. Supported by military advisers from the Soviet Union and the GDR , 2,000 soldiers attacked with T-62 tanks and strong air support. The attack, which was carried out in three attempts against Bardai, Zouar, Wour and Yebbi-Bou , was initially successful. At Zouar and Wour, the defeated Chadian forces had to retreat to the surrounding mountains and, according to Chadian reports, were attacked there with napalm and chemical weapons . The Libyan offensive was thus initially successful overall, with the defeated rebels at Bardai able to inflict heavy losses on the far superior Libyan troops around December 20, before reinforcements arrived from the south. The Chadian GUNT ( Gouvernement d'Union Nationale de Transition ) lost its last positions of power, Wour as well as Bardai and Zouar were again under Libyan control.

This attack soon proved to be a failure for Libya, as Hissène Habré sent 2,000 men from his FANT to support them, who united with the remaining fighters of the GUNT. The French President Mitterrand had supplies, ammunition, bazookas and military advisors flown in for support and parachuted to the Tibesti. At first, however, only the partial reconquest of the mountains was successful. According to a French report dated December 24, 1986, Chadian troops that had left the capital N'Djamena the previous week had "probably" reached Wour. The tide of the fighting in Tibesti initially turned at Bardai.

At the beginning of 1987 the Libyan expeditionary force in the (entire) north of Chad still consisted of 8,000 soldiers and 300 tanks. From January 2, 1987, Chad managed to recapture almost the entire north in just a few weeks in the so-called Toyota War, with American support. Wour and Zouar came under Chadian control again in January, although Libyan planes attacked both locations and the Chadian military there on January 16 from the air. The rest of the Tibesti, with the exception of the Aouzou Strip , was not finally recaptured until March 1987. Libyan troops offered bitter resistance here and only withdrew when their positions had become untenable as a result of Libyan defeats in northeastern Chad. According to another source, Chad did not finally recapture Zouar until March 1987.

The September 11, 1987 air raid

However, the conflict did not end there, according to a report by the AP agency, Wour was attacked again by the Libyan air force on the morning of September 11, 1987, and Bardaï in the afternoon of the same day. These attacks, on the day an OAU- brokered ceasefire came into force , were a Libyan reaction to the devastating defeat in Chadian's surprise attack on the Libyan air base at Maatan as Sarra on September 5.

Wour in the Tibesti uprising from 1998 to 2003 (2010)

Wour also played a role in the Tibesti uprising from 1998 to 2003, which was only finally ended in spring 2010. In 1999, several years after the end of the war with Libya, Wour was again an important Chadian garrison location . In May 2000, according to a report by the BBC, fighting broke out between the MDJT insurgents and government troops at Wour.

Wour in the 21st century

On August 29, 2002, the Chadian government reported that the "President" of the MDJT, Youssouf Togoimi , had been seriously injured when his vehicle drove into a land mine between Zouar and Wour. Togoimi died from his injuries in a hospital in Libya on September 24, but the MDJT continued its uprising. When a peace agreement was signed on December 14, 2003 in Wagadugu (Burkina Faso) between President Idriss Déby and the moderate wing of the rebels under Adoum Togoi Abbo , the radicals responded on the same day with an attack on Chadian government soldiers not far from Wour. According to the rebels, 30 soldiers were killed.

Although the agreement led to a significant weakening of the uprising, Wour remained a military base . Detailed census data from 2009 indicate a military presence of 200 to 250 men in Wour at this time due to the excess of men typical of other garrisons in Tibesti (Bardai, Zouar). The uprising of the MDJT was finally ended only in spring 2010.

March 2004 - Salafist attack at Wour and US intervention

Around March 10, 2004, militants from the Salafist terrorist group for Preaching and Struggle , which had invaded the Tibesti from Niger , attacked Chadian government soldiers between Wour and Zouarke . According to Chadian sources, three soldiers were killed and 16 wounded, 40 militant Salafists were also killed and another four were taken into custody. The Chadian government then turned to the USA with a request for help, which dispatched two transport aircraft with 19 tons of military aid to Faya-Largeau within a few hours from the Ramstein air base on March 13th .

Mine clearance from 2006/2009

In the successive conflicts between 1977 and 1996, many places in northern Chad were mined, especially roads, water points and their access points, strategically important points and places of fighting. The area around Wour was also affected. During an action by the Mines Advisory Group (MAG) between 2004 and 2007 to clear mines and other dangerous legacies of the fighting, a technical survey on the status of mine clearance was carried out in Wour in 2006, with eleven minefields being found in and directly near Wour or individual mines identified but not initially cleared. The planned mine clearing in Tibesti itself could not be carried out (except in Zouarke ) because fighting was already taking place there. In the north of the country, the MAG only resumed its work in 2009, in Tibesti especially from 2014 with major clearings at Zouar , Zouarké and Ogui , but so far (as of 2017) hardly at Wour.

The end of the Tibesti uprising in Wour 2009/10

The Wagadugu Agreement of December 14, 2003 was unable to finally end the uprising that had erupted in Tibesti in 1998. The last leader of the rebels in the Wour area before the end of the uprising in 2009 was Allatchi Toke Gourde. The pacification of the Tibesti was only achieved in 2009/2010 with a further agreement that provided that the rebels should be amnestied and that the remaining parts of the rebel MDJT and other rebelling groups should be integrated into the Chadian army. On January 13, 2009, the list of those to be amnestied by the President of Chad was published, including Allatchi Toke Gourde for the Wour area (“Branche Wour”). The end of the Tibesti uprising in 2009/10 is related to the end of the Chadian civil war, which broke out in 2005, also in 2010. Unlike earlier civil wars, this conflict was overlaid by an interstate conflict with Sudan . In this respect, in contrast to earlier internal conflicts in Chad, in which Libya was involved, the Tibesti was not an important arena of this last Chadian civil war.

Flood in August 2010

From the end of July 2010, heavy rainfall fell in the entire north of Chad after two extremely dry years, in Tibesti it was the heaviest since 1968. According to information from the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) on August 25, 2010, the places Wour, Bardai, Zouar and Aouzou flooded and partially destroyed. In the Tibesti region, 2,100 houses were damaged or destroyed and 10,500 people were left homeless, about 40 percent of the population. In the mined parts of the Tibesti, especially in the area around Wour, such floods increase the risk of mines because the tracks of the slopes on sand or earth in the dry valleys (Enneris), which were safe until then, are no longer visible and also because the mines, which are often only superficially buried, are washed away with the floods to other places. In fact, despite the intensified clearing and marking of minefields since 2009, there was again a serious mine accident at Wour in February 2014 (see below).

April 2013 - influx of refugees from Libya

On April 30, 2013, the International Organization for Migration (IOM) reported the sudden arrival of around 2000 Chadians in poor health in Wour the week before. The refugees, whose number significantly exceeded those of the residents of Wour, had recently been released from camps in Libya.

Summer 2013 - French military presence

In view of the continuing instability in Libya and the Islamist tendencies in Niger and Mali, France again demonstrated its military presence in Tibesti in the summer of 2013. As part of the "Operation Guelta", a detachment of almost 150 French soldiers carried out reconnaissance and patrol trips in the Tibesti for several weeks from July 18, with stations in Zouar, Wour and Bardai. The detachment, led by Colonel Paul Peugnet, was partially equipped with armored vehicles and had covered over 2,500 kilometers by August 11. The official mandate was to support the Chadian army and security forces as well as to protect French citizens. The French Ministry of Defense officially announced this operation on August 11, 2013.

February 2014 - Serious mine accident

Around February 10, 2014 (the date of the report was February 13), Wour had a particularly serious accident with uncleared mines. Five dead and nine injured were mourned when trucks ran into a minefield. The injured were first brought to Zouar and from there flown to the capital N'Djamena .

Bloody clashes with prospectors

Significant gold discoveries in Enneri Miski , a wadi southeast of Wour, have triggered a kind of gold rush in Tibesti since 2012 . A few years later, several thousand gold prospectors tried their luck in Enneri Miski alone, with a local population of only around 300 people. Groups of gold prospectors, almost always armed in view of the situation in Tibesti, repeatedly fight with other gold prospectors and local Tubus (Tedas), partly in a dispute over the minimal resources of the region, partly in a dispute over gold found. A particularly bloody incident of this type occurred in the summer of 2015 in the sub-prefecture of Wour, when five people were killed (reported July 31).

August 2016: Visit of the President

On August 25, 2016, Chadian President Idriss Déby , who was also President of the African Union at the time , visited Wour and held talks with local authorities, including the Governor of the Tibesti Region, Tahir Barkaï. It was the most prominent visitor to the place in living memory. Idriss Déby took the opportunity to clearly criticize the lack of acceptance of Chadian government authority in this remote part of the country and in particular urged compliance with customs regulations. Local representatives complained about the lack of drinking water, of simple socio-educational infrastructure, of teachers and nurses. The President recalled that he had been elected with 99% of the votes in Tibesti and promised in his reply: "I will build a water tower in Wour, expand the basic infrastructure and connect the departments of Tibesti East and West with the mobile phone network , starting in Wour. " ( "Je construirais un château d'eau à Wour, augmenterais le nombre des infrastructures de base et connecterais les départements du Tibesti Est et ouest au réseau des téléphonies mobiles en commençant par Wour." ) According to the Chadian President's website, these words were marked with " Volleys of applause "recorded.

Opposition voices, however, criticized the visit.

2016/17: Construction of a mosque

Until 2016, Wour only had an inconspicuous Muslim prayer house. A mosque with a minaret and dome as well as an adjacent multi-purpose building was then built by autumn 2016 at the latest . Posts and photos on Facebook show that the shell of this building was completed at the end of March 2017.

March 2017: Wour as the only border crossing to Libya

On January 5, 2017, the government of Chad announced the complete closure of its land border with Libya because of the "serious threat of terrorist infiltration". "Today there is an arms trade, drug trade, traffic of all kinds of bandits and highwaymen along the entire Chadian-Libyan border, and that in view of the existing situation in Libya", the Chadian Minister for Public Security and Immigration explained the decision. The border closure hit the Tibesti region hard, as it is heavily dependent on trade with Libya. On March 3, the government eased the border closure "for humanitarian reasons", but the border crossing was only allowed in one place, at Wour. In other places in Tibesti, for example in Zouar, this decision was regretted, because there is only one open route to Libya with four barriers and you have to pay to be able to pass. The prices for staple foods in Tibesti have risen significantly as a result.

Wour in literature

The French novel "Un Été au Tibesti" [A Summer in Tibesti] by David Lascoux , published in 2004, is set partly in and around Wour.

literature

  • Robert Buijtenhuijs: Le Frolinat et les guerres civiles du Tchad (1977-1984). ASC / Karthala, Paris 1987. ISBN 2865371964
  • Peter Fuchs: The peoples of the Southeast Sahara: Tibesti, Borku, Ennedi. (254 pages), Vienna 1961
  • David Lascoux: Un été au Tibesti [A Summer in Tibesti], Roman, 206 pp., Paris 2004. ISBN 2748143493
  • Nolutshungu, Sam C .: Limits of Anarchy: Intervention and State Formation in Chad. University of Virginia Press, 1995, ISBN 0-8139-1628-3 .
  • Kenneth Michael Pollack: Arabs at War: Military Effectiveness, 1948-1991 , 2002.

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ GEOHIVE, Chad: administrative units, extended, population 2009-5-20 census ( memento of the original from September 24, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.geohive.com
  2. ↑ Ordonnance 08-002 2008-02-19 PR - ordonnance portant restructuration de certaines Collectivités Territorial Décentralisées. (No longer available online.) February 19, 2008, archived from the original on March 4, 2016 ; Retrieved April 30, 2015 . Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / legitchad.cefod-tchad.org
  3. ↑ Décret 94-039 1994-03-10 PR / MDPRC / DNACVG ( Memento of the original from March 4, 2016 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / legitchad.cefod-tchad.org
  4. ↑ International Campaign to Ban Land Mines: Landmine Monitor Report 1999 : Toward a Mine-free World , p. 141
  5. ^ Website of the Sahara expert Klaus Daerr , Bruckmühl (November 2000)
  6. ↑ Peter Fuchs: The peoples of the Southeast Sahara: Tibesti, Borku, Ennedi. Vienna 1961, p. 117
  7. ^ Jean Schneider: Carnets du Tchad - Au Tibesti, 1995, p. 64
  8. ↑ Gustav Nachtigal: Tibesti - The discovery of the giant craters and the first crossing of Sudan 1868-1874 , Edition Erdmann, Wiesbaden 2013, p. 152f.
  9. ^ Radio France International (RFI), interview by Laurent Correau with G. Weddeye, August 18, 2008.
  10. ↑ Robert Buijtenhuijs: Le FROLINAT et les guerres civiles du Tchad (1977-1984). Paris 1987. p. 142
  11. ↑ a b UPI Archives: France continues to supply Chad rebels, Dec. 24, 1986
  12. ↑ Chicago Tribune: Chad Morale, Elements Repel Libya, January 13, 1987 , by Bernard E. Trainor, New York Times News Service.
  13. ↑ a b Chad: Repelling Libya's Occupying Force, 1985-87 ; December 1988
  14. ^ A b United Press International: Libya Opens Fire On Chad Rebels, December 21, 1986
  15. ↑ a b Nolutshungu, Sam C .: Limits of Anarchy: Intervention and State Formation in Chad. University of Virginia Press, 1995, ISBN 0-8139-1628-3 , pp. 213-216
  16. ^ AP, January 16, 1987: Libya Renews Air Raids at Three Points in Northern Chad .
  17. ↑ Kenneth Michael Pollack: Arabs at War: Military Effectiveness, 1948-1991, p. 390
  18. ↑ quoted in Los Angeles Times on September 12, 1987
  19. ^ Travel report of the journalist G. van der Aa from February 1999. ( Memento of the original from 23 August 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / deserttravels.wordpress.com
  20. ↑ BBC News, July 18, 2000
  21. ↑ Global Terrorism Database, Announcement No. 200208290005, dated August 29, 2002
  22. ↑ IRIN, Dec 16, 2003: "Hardline rebel faction in north rejects peace deal" ( Memento of the original from June 17, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.ethnonet-africa.org
  23. ^ Sudan Tribune, 15./18. March 2004: EUCOM delivers aid to Chadian foces to fight terrorism
  24. ↑ www.desert-info.ch , "Minenreport" by Jorge Serpa of February 3, 2007 based on data from MAG
  25. ^ Clearing the Way in Chad: Assessment, Access and Impact by Katharine Hopper (Mines Advisory Group), April 2008
  26. ↑ List des amnistiés civils et militaires; www.tchadoscopie.com from January 23, 2009 (accessed on August 24, 2015)
  27. ↑ OCHA: TCHAD - Inondations Situation Report # 1 of August 25, 2010 (French), pp. 1 and 4.
  28. ^ IOM report of April 30, 2013 (English)
  29. ^ Tchad: operation Guelta dans le Tibesti; Website of the French Ministry of Defense, reported on 11 August 2013 .
  30. ↑ Djamil Ahmat Yacoub: "Tchad: 5 morts et 9 blessés dans l'explosion de mines". www.alwihdainfo.com, February 13, 2014
  31. ↑ TCHAD (REGION DU TIBESTI): UNE GUERRE D'OR, TCHAD (REGION DU TIBESTI): UNE GUERRE D'OR - Magazine Charilogone July 31, 2015 .
  32. ↑ https://www.presidence.td/fr-news-2571-Le_President_de_la_Republique_a_rencontre_les_autorites_administratives_et_les_jeunes_de_Wour.html
  33. ↑ https://www.facebook.com/pages/Letchadanthropus-tribune/219222081561242
  34. ^ Announcement by Radio France Internationale (RFI) of March 3, 2017
  35. ^ Announcement by Radio France Internationale (RFI) of March 12, 2017
  36. ^ Announcement by Radio France Internationale (RFI) of March 12, 2017