Zhang Qian

Zhang Qian leaves Emperor Wu. Early Tang Dynasty , Mogao Grottoes .

Zhang Qian ( Chinese  張 騫 , Pinyin Zhāng Qiān , W.-G. Chang Ch'ien ; * 195 BC ; † 114 BC ) was a Chinese explorer and imperial ambassador in the 2nd century BC. At the time of the Han Dynasty . He was the first Chinese official to succeed in providing the imperial court with reliable information about Central Asia (under Emperor Wu ). He was also a pioneer of Chinese colonization and conquest of the Xinjiang region. Zhang Qian reports of his explorations in Central Asia are in the Shiji by Sima Qian noted.

Life

Zhang Qian was born in Chenggu ( 成 固 ) country, Hanzhong Commandantry ( 漢中 ) (in western China). Between 140 and 134 BC Chr., He went as a nobleman ( 郎 ) to the capital Chang'an to Emperor Wu to serve. At that time, the Xiongnu controlled what is now Inner Mongolia and Xiyu ( 西域 , "western areas").

First embassy to the west

The imperial court sent Zhang Qian to Xiyu in 138 with an embassy of over 100 men, including a Xiongnu leader who had defected. Zhang Qian was commissioned to achieve an alliance with the Yuezhi in what is now Tajikistan . On the way he was captured by the Xiongnu and held for ten years. He took a Xiongnu as his wife and gained the trust of the tribal leader.

When Zhang Qian finally reached the Yuezhi lands, he found its residents too long-established to go to war with the Xiongnu. He spent about a year with the Yuezhi, documenting their customs, way of life and economy before returning to China.

Zhang Qian's report

Map of the countries Zhang Qian describes. Countries he has visited are marked in blue .

Zhang Qian's travelogue was written in the 1st century BC chronicle. Often quoted by Sima Qian . Zhang Qian visited the Kingdom of Dayuan in Ferghana , the Yuezhi regions in Transoxania , the Bactrian country Daxia with the remains of the Greco-Bactrian rule and Kangju ( Sogdia ). He also reported on neighboring countries that he had not visited himself: Anxi ( Parthia ), Tiaozhi ( Mesopotamia ), Shendu ( India ) and Wusun .

Dayuan (Ferghana)

Zhang Qian begins with an account of the first foreign country he visited after his captivity with the Xiongnu: Dayuan, west of the Tarim Basin . He estimates its residents as a highly developed urban culture, the Parthians and Bactrians as it were. The name Dayuan ("big yuan") can be a transliteration of the name Yona for the Greeks, who lived from the 4th to the 2nd century BC. BC kept this area occupied.

“Dayuan is located southwest of the Xiongnu country, about 10,000 Li (5000 km) west of China. Its inhabitants are sedentary, tilling their fields and planting rice and wheat. They also make wine from grapes. The people live in houses that are in fortified cities. There are about seventy cities of various sizes in this region. The people number several hundred thousand. "

Yuezhi (Tocharer?)

With the support of the King of Dayuan, Zhang Qian went southwest to the area of ​​the Yuezhi, with whom he was supposed to reach an alliance against the Xiongnu. He reports about his trip as follows:

“The great Yuezhi live 2,000 to 3,000 li west of Dayuan, north of the Gui River ( Amu Darya ). Their land is bounded in the south by Daxia (Bactria), in the west by Anxi (Parthia) and in the north by Kangju (Sogdia). They are a nomadic people and move from place to place with their herds, and their customs are similar to the Xiongnu. They have 100,000 or 200,000 archers. "

Zhang Qian also describes the origin of the Yuezhi, which he suspects in the Tarim Basin. This has encouraged modern historians to associate the Yuezhi with the European-looking mummies found there and the Indo-European Tochars .

“The Yuezhi originally lived between the Qilian Mountains ( Tianshan ) and Dunhuang , but after being defeated by the Xiongnu, they moved to the far west to the Dayuan. There they attacked the people of Daxia (Bactria) and set up their royal court on the northern bank of the Gui (Oxus). "

According to Zhang Qian's report, the “little Yuezhi”, who are related to the “big” Yuezhi, did not take part in the migration and sought refuge with the “ Qiang barbarians” ( Tibetans ).

Daxia (Bactria)

In Daxia, Zhang Qian probably experienced the last phase of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom, in which it was subjugated by the nomadic Yuezhi. The few remaining princes of Bactria had no power and were apparently vassals of the Yuezhi.

“Daxia is more than 2000 Li (1000 km) west of Dayuan (Ferghana), south of the Gui (Amu Darya). Its inhabitants work the land and live in houses and cities. Their customs are similar to those of the Dayuan. They don't have a strong leader, just numerous small princes who rule over various cities. The people have little idea of ​​how to handle weapons and fear armed conflicts. But they are skilled traders. Ever since the Great Yuezhi conquered their land, they have been subject to them. The country's population is large, probably 1,000,000 or more. All kinds of goods are traded in the capital Lanshi (Baktra). "

Shendu (India)

Zhang Qian also reports the existence of India southeast of Bactria. The name "Shendu" comes from the word Sindho used by the inhabitants of the Sindh Empire . Sindh was at that time the most advanced of the Indian sub-empires and prospered through sea trade with Persia and Arabia. It belongs to Pakistan today . At that time, Greeks ruled north-western India, who lived around 180 BC. Founded an Indo-Greek kingdom .

“To the southeast of Daxia is the Kingdom of Shendu ... They told me it was a few thousand li southeast of Daxia. The people there cultivate the land and live like the people of Daxia. The region should be hot and humid. Its inhabitants ride elephants into battle, and the kingdom lies on a great river (the Indus ?). "

Anxi (Parthia)

Zhang Qian clearly describes Parthia as an advanced urban civilization comparable to Bactria and Ferghana. Its name "Anxi" is a transliteration of the name Arsacids , the ruling dynasty of the Parthian Empire.

“Anxi is located a few thousand li west of the Great Yuezhi. The people settle in their land, till the fields and plant rice and wheat. They also make wine from grapes. Like the Dayuan (Ferghana) people, they have walled cities and there are several hundred cities of various sizes in their empire. The country's coins are made of silver and bear the image of the king. When the king dies, the currency is changed immediately and the new coins are minted with the successor's face. The people make records by writing on horizontal strips of leather. To the west of them are Tiaozhi (Mesopotamia), Yancai and Lixuan (Hyrcania). "

Tiaozhi (Mesopotamia / Charakene)

Zhang Qian writes in broad terms about Mesopotamia, the neighboring country of the Parthians. This is due to the fact that he did not visit this country himself and had to rely on reports from others.

“Tiaozhi is a few thousand Li west of Anxi (Parthia) and borders the Western Sea ( Persian Gulf ? Mediterranean ?). It is hot and humid and the people live from agriculture and plant rice ... The inhabitants are numerous and are ruled by various little princes. The ruler of Anxi gives orders to these princes and treats them like vassals. "

Kangju (Sogdia)

Zhang Qian personally visited the Sogdia area that was populated by nomads. He reports:

“Kangju is located about 2000 Li (1000 km) northwest of Dayuan (Bactria). Its inhabitants are nomads and resemble the Yuezhi in their customs. They have 80,000–90,000 skilled archers. The country is small and lies on the border with Dayuan. It recognizes the supremacy of the Yuezhi in the south and the Xiongnu in the east. "

Yancai (Turkestan)

Another area, which was probably inhabited by the Sarmatians and which Zhang Qian calls "Yancai", he describes as being on the other side of Kangju.

“Yancai is about 2000 Li (1000 km) northwest of Kangju. Its inhabitants are nomads and their customs are largely similar to those of Kangju residents. More than 100,000 archers live in the country, and its border is a large, shoreless lake, which may be the Northern Sea ( Aral Sea ). "

Return to China

When Zhang Qian wanted to return to China, he was captured again by the Xiongnu. Again they spared his life because they impressed his sense of duty and his fearlessness in the face of death. Two years later, the Xiongnu leader died and Zhang Qian escaped in the turmoil.

In 125, 13 years after he left, Zhang Qian returned to China. His report made it clear to the emperor that highly developed civilizations existed in the west with which China could forge worthwhile diplomatic ties. The Shiji writes: “The emperor learned about Dayuan, Daxia, Anxi and other countries that are rich in unusual goods and whose peoples cultivate the land and live their lives in many things like the Chinese. All of these states, he learned, were militarily weak and appreciated the kindness and benevolence of Han. "

Zhang Qian was sent on another, better prepared mission in 119 to establish trade relations with the Wusun . The mission was a complete success and resulted in trade relations between Persia and China.

Merit and Effect

Through Zhang Qian's trip and reports, trade relations developed between China and Central Asia that extended as far as the Middle East. In the 2nd and 1st centuries BC, many embassies were sent west on the same route, which led to the creation of the Silk Road . According to the Shiji, the largest expedition involved hundreds of men, while even the smaller embassies numbered over a hundred. Five or six, sometimes ten missions were sent out within a year. The exchange of smaller items that reached Guangzhou in the east began early on . A Persian box and numerous artefacts of Central Asian origin were found in the tomb of King Wen of Nan-Yue (122 BC).

Around 120 BC The first Buddhist statues came to China. Drawings in the Mogao Grottoes in Dunhuang depict Emperor Wu worshiping two of these statues. They are described as "golden men, 120 BC. Brought here by a Han general after his campaign against the nomads ”. However, there is no evidence in historical records that Emperor Wu paid homage to the Buddha.

A message from the Chinese to Parthia followed in 100 BC. An embassy from the Parthians, which Sima Qian describes as follows:

“When the Han embassy first visited the Kingdom of Anxi, the king sent 20,000 horsemen to meet them on the eastern border of his empire ... When the embassy was preparing to return to China, the king gave them an escort with ... The emperor was pleased about it. "

In addition to contacts with Central and West Asia, Sino-Roman relations began after Zhang Qian's trip . The Roman historian Florus describes numerous embassies, including one of the Seres (Chinese) to the first Roman emperor Augustus , who ruled from 27 BC. Ruled until 14 AD:

“Even the other peoples of the world, who were not subject to the emperor, felt his greatness and majesty and looked with respect at the Roman people, the great conqueror of the peoples. So even the Scythians and Sarmatians sent embassies to win Rome's friendship. Yes, the Serer and the Indians, who live beyond the vertical sun, came and brought precious stones, pearls and elephants as gifts. But those gifts faded in the face of the arduous journey they had undertaken, which had taken four years. One really only needs to mention their amazement to notice that they are inhabitants of a different world than ours. "

In 97 AD, the Chinese general Ban Chao reached the Caspian Sea with 70,000 men and established direct military exchanges with the Parthian Empire. He even sent an embassy to Rome in the form of his officer Gan Ying , but it did not reach its destination.

There have been several Roman embassies since AD ​​166, which are recorded in the records of the Chinese imperial court. Other outstanding Chinese explorers were Faxian , Xuanzang and Zheng He .

In Taiwan , an Oliver Hazard Perry class frigate was christened "Zhang Qian (Chang Chien)". She is in the service of the Republic of China today .

The tomb of Zhang Qian in Hanzhong has been part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site entitled Silk Roads: the road network of the Chang'an Tianshan Corridor since 2014 .

literature

• Sima Qian : Records of the Grand Historian. Han Dynasty II . Second Revised Edition. Columbia University Press, New York NY et al. 1993, ISBN 0-231-08165-0 .

Individual evidence

1. ↑ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k} Sima Qian, Shiji , chapter 123
2. ^ Henry Yule (Colonel) & Henri Cordier : Cathay and the Way Thither; Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China. New Edition, Revised Throughout in the Light of Recent Discoveries. Second edition. Hakluyt Society . Second series. Vols. XXXVIII, XXXIII, XXXVII and XLI. London: The Hakluyt Society, 4 volumes, 1913-1916.
3. ^ Silk Roads: the Routes Network of Chang'an-Tianshan Corridor. In: whc.unesco.org. UNESCO World Heritage Center, accessed February 7, 2019 .