Wusun

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Situation of the Wusun and the neighboring peoples
The Ili River is one of the ancestral areas of the Wusun

The Wusun ( Chinese  烏孫  /  乌孙 , Pinyin Wūsūn , also called Uysunen or Üjsin) were an ancient tribe of Indo-European origin ( Indo-Aryan branch ), which is mentioned in Chinese sources from the 1st century before to the 5th century AD. They lived southeast of Lake Balkhash , along the river area of ​​the Ili in the Siebenstromland .

origin

The Wusun are possibly identical to the Issedonen described by Herodotus . They were a people of nomadic shepherds without cities and without agriculture. According to legend, Liejiaomi (獵 驕 靡) founded a kingdom of the Wusun.

Researchers in the former Soviet Union believed that the Wusun were descendants of the Saks . Other researchers determined the period of the Saken and Wusun cultures to be between 600 BC. And 400 AD

history

overview

Researchers at the Academy of Social Sciences of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region , People's Republic of China , suspect that before the Qin Dynasty, the Wusun called themselves Chinese  昆 , Pinyin Kūn . During the Western Zhou Dynasty , they lived with the Yuezhi in the Hexi Corridor . The title of the chiefs of the Wusun was Chinese  昆莫 , Pinyin Kūnmò or Chinese  昆 彌 , Pinyin Kūnmí . At the time of the Han Wendis of the Western Han Dynasty , the Wusun were attacked by Yuezhi as they were being harassed by the Xiongnu . The Wusun suffered a heavy defeat; their chief Nantoumi (難 兜 靡) was killed. The chief of the Xiongnu, Mao-tun (冒頓 單于), took in the rest of the Wusun. Years later, the grandson of Mao-tun, Jun-Chen (军 臣,), the new chief of the Wusun, ordered Liejiaomi to attack the Yuezhi living in the Ili and Tschüi river basins . This time they were successful.

After the Wusun had expelled the Yuezhi, Liejiaomi is said to have established a state on its territory after the name of their tribe. Through the Wusun, the Xiongnu could control the connection route to the Iranian highlands . Although the Wusun formally ended their dependence on the Xiongnu after Jun-Chen's death (不肯 復 事 匈奴, no longer wanted to pay homage to the Xiongnu), in reality they remained vassals of the Xiongnu for a long time. In the meantime, the Wusun have even become the most powerful people in Xiyu . There were diplomatic relations between the Wusun and the Western Han. At the time of the Han Xuandi , the Wusun split into two tribes. In the 5th century, they were destroyed by the Rouran .

The Ili river basin

Before the Han period

Before the Wusun moved west to the Ili River, they had already had their own tribal area. In the period between 109 and 91 BC Chr. Shiji written chronicle there are reports:

  • Shiji - The Western States reports: "When I ( Zhang Qian ) was living with the Xiongnu, I heard that the king of the Wusun calls himself Kunmo, it is a small state west of Xiongnu". (臣 居 匈奴 中 ， 聞 烏孫 王 號 昆莫 ， 昆莫 之 父 ， 匈奴 西邊 小 國 也).
  • Shiji - Book on Zhang Qian and Li Guangli reports: "The emperor questioned Zhang Qian several times about the peoples in the west. Zhang Qian had lost his leanings at that time. He replied, 'When I was staying with the Xiongnu, I heard that the King of Wusun called himself Kunmo. The father of the current Kunmo Nantoumi previously lived next to Yuezhi in areas between Qilian Shan and Dunhuang . It is a small state. '"(天子 數 問 騫 大 大 夏 之 屬。 騫 既 失 侯 ， 因 曰： 『臣 居 匈奴 中 ， 聞 烏孫 王 號 昆莫。 昆莫 父 難 兜 靡 本 與 大月氏 俱 在 祁連 祁連 、 焞 煌 間 ， 小 國 也。』).

This means that before the time of the Western Han Dynasty, the Wusun already owned a tribal area in the Hexi Corridor. Presumably they were nomadic in what is now Guyuan , Ningxia, before the time of the Western Zhou Dynasty . Gradually, the focus of their settlement shifted to the west.

Path of the Wusun's western migration

The term "Wusun" first appeared in Shiji. Some Chinese researchers are therefore of the opinion that they called themselves "Kun" (昆) before. In the texts before the Qin Dynasty, they were called "Kunyi" or "Hunyi" (written 昆 戎, 緄 戎 or 混 夷). For example in Mengzi's book : 文王 事混 夷 .

The Wusun were later attacked by the Yuezhi, the Wusun suffered a heavy defeat and their chief Nantoumi was killed. Most researchers are - despite ambiguities - of the opinion that Nantoumi was killed by the Yuezhi.

The Wusun tribal area is also controversial. Although most researchers are of the opinion that it was in the Hexi Corridor, the Japanese sinologist Matsuda Hisao places it on the northern edge of the Tianshan Mountains. He quotes another Japanese sinologist that in the event of a contradiction between Shiji and Han Shu, preference should be given to the former, as it would be closer in time. For this he cites sources:

  • Once Tongdian of Du You : " Beshbalik (today Jimsar ) is located northwest of Liusha, was the home of the Wusun in the Western Han period, in the Eastern Han period it became the kingdom of the Jushi (車 師), was traditionally the residential area of ​​the Hu . " (庭 州 在 流沙 之 西北 ， 前 漢 烏孫 之 舊 壤 ， 後 漢 車 師 後 王 之 地 ， 歷代 為 胡虜 所 居).
  • And the Older Book of Tang - Geography: "North of the Liusha was the home of the Wusun in the Western Han period. Length 5000 Li (about 2500 km), during the Eastern Han period Jushi kingdom. The old royal city has five cities, so it becomes also called 'City of Five Cities'. " (流沙 州 北 ， 前 漢 烏孫 舊 地 ， 方 五 千里。 後 漢 車 師 後 王 庭。 胡 故 故 庭 有 五 城 ， 俗 號 『五 城 之 城』).

Hisao believes that the one of the five cities mentioned here is Beshbalik. Therefore the original area of ​​the Wusun is not limited to Jimsar, but extends between Jimsar and Ürümqi .

Ancestral legend of the Wusun

The wolf and the crow played a special role among the Wusun. Liejiaomi was said to be an infant when his father was killed. It was released in the wild. Crows gave him meat to eat and wolves gave him milk. The Xiongnu chief Mao-tun was very surprised at this phenomenon, believed that Liejiaomi was a god and took him as a foster child. After Liejiaomi grew up, he asked Mao-tun for help in avenging his father.

A wolf raising an abandoned child also appears later in the ancestral legend of the Turks . But there is a difference between the two legends: while the wolf of the Wusun only saves the ancestor and keeps him alive, with the Turks the wolf himself is the ancestor.

Around 161 to 160 BC. With the help of the Xiongnu, Liejiaomi expelled the Yuezhi on the Ili River and settled his own people there. However, the Canadian sinologist Edwin G. Pulleyblank doubts the reason for the Wusun attack on the Yuezhi, which was blood revenge. He says that this is just a dramatization of the author of the Han Shu and is fictitious. He states that the Wusun themselves had already accepted members of the Sak and Yuezhi tribes. After the Wusun moved west, Xiongnu took the original Wusun tribal area in the Hexi Corridor and installed their own kings there. To avoid name conflicts, Liejiaomi changed the name of his people to Wusun.

The area of ​​the Western Han at the time of the second century BC (dark red), that of the Wusun is on the northwest corner

Diplomatic relations with Han China

139 BC BC Zhang Qian was sent to the Yuezhi to forge an alliance between China and the Yuezhi against the Xiongnu. However, an alliance did not materialize. Then Han Wudi began in 133 BC. With the battle of Mayi a unilateral attack on the Xiongnu. After the Han Army was already successful south of the Yellow River, they began to advance west. Until 119 BC The area between Lanzhou and Lop Nor was free of Xiongnu. In the same year, Zhang Qian Han advised Wudi to form an alliance with the growing Wusun to break "the right arm of the Xiongnu." He advised the emperor to bribe the Wusun with money and to settle them in their former, eastern tribal area, as well as to give their chief a princess as wife, so that they could be related to the Han dynasty, in order to use them against the Xiongnu. Three years later, Zhang Qian received the order from Emperor Han Wudi to go to Wusun as envoy to persuade them to resettle in the Hexi Corridor and join Han in fighting the Xiongnu.

At that time the split in Wusun was already taking place. The designated successor of Liejiaomi died early, so that he appointed another son, Junxumi (軍 須 靡), as his successor. This, however, caused dissatisfaction among his other sons. The son Dalu in particular became dangerous for the new successor, as he was also in charge of the army. To protect himself and Junxumi, he had his men split up, gave Junxumi about ten thousand men, and took ten thousand men for himself, and they moved on. This planted the seeds for the division of the Wusun. When Zhang Qian went to see him, he made an alliance with Han. He said that he was old himself and that his power was divided. His people didn't know how strong Han actually was, but they were afraid of the Xiongnu, so they wouldn't move back east.

Instead, he sent some ambassadors to Han with Zhang Qian. When the ambassadors saw the strength of the Han, an alliance with the Han became more and more favored. When the Xiongnu found out about the contact, they prepared an attack on Wusun. Liejiaomi knew that Han was establishing intense diplomatic ties in Xiyu at the time , so he proposed marriage and sought support from Han at the same time. 108 BC A princess from the imperial family (the daughter of the king of Jiangdu) was married to Liejiaomi. When the Xiongnu heard of the marriage, a woman from their tribe was also married to Liejiaomi. Liejiaomi took a wife from Han and from Xiongnu at the same time, which clearly shows his policy of appeasement on both sides. Liejiaomi died shortly afterwards, and Junxumi succeeded him. The Han princess died in 105 BC. However, another princess, Princess Jieyou (解憂 公主, this time a daughter of King Chu), was immediately married to Junxumi in order to maintain the relationship. After the death of Junxumi, Princess Jieyou married his brother and successor Wenguimi according to the custom of the Wusun. Princess Jieyou lived much longer than her predecessor and was also much more active in politics.

Alliance with China

74 BC The Wusun were attacked by the Xiongnu and the Jushi at the same time. Princess Jieyou wrote a letter to the Han court asking for help. At that time, Emperor Han Zhaodi had just passed away, so the Han did not send any help. After the accession of Han ruler Xuandi to the throne, both the Wusun king and Princess Jieyou asked for help again. Han ordered five generals with about 150,000 horsemen to join the Wusun in attacking the Xiongnu. 71 BC BC Wusun king Wenguimi attacked the royal train of one of the Xiongnu kings with 50,000 horsemen and won a great victory. The Xiongnu did not recover from this blow and slowly left Xiyu. The Wusun became the strongest regional power. Wenguimi decided to formally break off relations with Xiongnu and enter into an alliance with Han. 64 BC BC Wenguimi wrote to Han that he wanted to succeed a son of Princess Jieyou and asked a Han princess as his wife to renew the relationship. At the same time, he assured that he would break off the relationship with Xiongnu (願以 漢 外 孫元貴 靡 為 嗣 ， 得 令 復 尚漢公 主 ， 結婚 結婚 重 親 ， 叛 絕 匈奴). The Han ruler Xuandi agreed to the proposal, thus sealing the alliance between the Han and the Wusun. However, by this time the Xiongnu were already so weakened that the Han could keep them in check with their own strength, the reason for a marriage and alliance policy no longer existed.

Vassal of China

Internal quarrels and divisions weakened the Xiongnu further. Parts of it capitulated to the Han. The Han army also managed to beat the Jushi, who were friendly to the Xiongnu, so that the Xiongnu were no longer in the camp to control Xiyu. The Han replaced the Xiongnu as the protector of the region. 59 BC The Han ruler Xuandi set up a military governor in the region in order to observe the situation among the Wusun, among other things.

60 BC Wenguimi died, but his designated successor Yuanguimi could not assert himself, instead the Wusun set up Nimi, who is related to the Xiongnu. The Han were very dissatisfied with this and the marriage policy was ended. Princess Jieyou took on the task of influencing internal politics in the sense of the Han. Together with the Han emissary, she tried to murder Nimi. This was the first time the Han intervened directly in the Wusun's internal politics. Although the murder failed, it plunged the Wusun into unrest.

53 BC BC, a son of Wenguimi rebelled with another Xiongnu woman Niaojiutu (烏 就 屠) against Nimi and killed him. The Han sent an army to hold the usurper accountable. The Han governor managed to persuade Niaojiutu to surrender. The Han appointed Yuanguimi as the great king and Niaojiutu as the minor king. Land and people are also divided among the kings: the great king received 60,000 households, the minor king 40,000. But on the whole, the petty king was more popular among the people.

After the death of the Great King Yuanguimi, his son Xingmi followed him. Xingmi was considered weak and the Han went to great lengths to support him. This gave the Han even greater influence over the Wusun. The Han sent a delegation of over a hundred people to congratulate the new great king; on the advice of the governor of the Xiyu, they also generously distributed titles, insignia and gifts among the dignitaries of the Wusun in order to gain them for the new great king. Nevertheless, the governor suggested a little later that the new great king be deposed because of inability. The Han emperor rejected the proposal.

There were constant quarrels between the two kings and their followers. Han Shu reported that "Han went to great lengths to calm the quarrels, but there was not a single quiet year." (漢 用 憂 勞 ， 且 無 寧 歲). 18 or 17 BC BC Mozhenjiang (末 振 將) became a minor king. The great king at that time enjoyed a high reputation among the people, Mozhenjiang feared for his position and had the great king murdered. The Han installed the great king's uncle as his successor and slew the new minor king as well as his son and designated successor. His younger brother fled to the Kangju and often attacked the Wusun from there. All attacks were repulsed with Chinese help.

Although the Han interfered intensely in Wusun politics, the country was not incorporated into Han territory.

Downfall

After the establishment of the Eastern Han, contemporary accounts of the Wusun became fewer and fewer. Han Shu - The Western Region reported that at the time of Emperors Han Mingdis and Han Zhangdis there were still two kings, but that the Wusun were already in decline (兩 昆 彌 皆 弱).

Until the end of the 4th century there was contact between the Wusun and China and the Wusun paid annual tribute to the Wei dynasty .

Around 147 to 167 the Wusun of Xianbei and around 318 by the Tuoba were severely beaten several times. However, they probably did not move south to the Pamir plateau, but withdrew into the Tianshan Mountains.

At the beginning of the Jin Dynasty , a new dependent power called Chumuhun arose within a small area of ​​the Wusun . To the west of it the large Wusun area continued to exist. The Wusun also paid tribute to the Northern Wei Dynasty . After the Northern Wei united northern China and fortified its position, they wanted to dispute Rouran for Xiyu. In 437 envoys were sent to the region who also passed through the Wusun area and were treated with respect by the Wusun king.

Even before 437, the Wusun were often attacked by Rouran from the Mongolian plateau . Rouran and Chumuhun were probably allies too. Probably between 402 and 414 the Wusun had to retreat into the Tianshan massif. At the beginning or middle of the 5th century they moved south towards the Pamir, were assimilated by the Saks, lost their independence and disappeared from the records.

etymology

There are several theories about the origin of the name 'Wusun'.

The most widely accepted theory derives 'Wusun' from a Chinese transcription of a Turkic language. The originally Turkic word possibly meant "unity" or "connectedness". According to this theory, the word comes from a combination of the two parts "Udi" and "sun". In the Turkic language, "udi" means to condense or go with, and "sun" acts as a lens. "Udi sun" becomes "Uyi sun" and "Uysun", rewritten in the Chinese script 烏孫, Latinized Wusun. By and large, the name is meant to mean unity or union.

There are Chinese historians who have a different opinion. According to this theory, the name is understood according to the meaning of the characters. Wu (烏) means black and comes from a black totem .

The sinologist Victor H. Mair compared Wusun with "aśvin" from Sanskrit and "ašva" from the Lithuanian language , both of which mean mare. He hypothesized that the Wusun used a Centum language within the Indo-European languages . The name would therefore mean "The Horse People". This thesis is not supported by all sinologists.

Anthropology and archeology

Russian archaeologists found six deceased human remains from the region around Semirech'e , which date from the first centuries before and after our era. It is assumed that these belong to the Wusun. The remains are classified as predominantly European from an anthropological point of view , but have slightly tendentious East Asian influences, which can be traced back to a mixture with Mongolian peoples of Inner Asia . According to Chinese archaeologists, the excavated skeletons are more of a short-headed European and Central Asian type.

The knowledge from the ancient Chinese texts is again a contradicting matter. Written records of Han Shu and Shiji from the earlier Han Dynasty did not mention any unusual appearance among the Wusun. The first description of the Wusun can be found in the so-called Book of Prophecy ( Jiaoshi Yilin ) from the time of the Western Han Dynasty . In it, the women of the Wusun are described as "ugly and dark-skinned people with deep circles under the eyes". Chinese researchers give the aforementioned dark-colored skin a South Asian origin. However, this very brief and derogatory mention cannot be regarded as a reliable source for determining ethnic characteristics.

From a later report by Yan Shigu from the Tang dynasty (7th century), the Wusun are mentioned along with another neighboring nomadic people called the Rong ( Xirong ). It says that the outward appearance of the Wusun was the strangest. They are described as people with green eyes and red hair who would resemble macaques . In addition, they are referred to as red-haired and "horse-headed" barbarians. The most vicious demons in Chinese mythology would now be depicted as red haired. One and a half thousand years later, when the first northern European colonialists went to China, they would be immediately "recognized" as the red-haired devils. Kunmo, the king of the Wusun, is also described in the same Chinese sources as red-haired and blue / green-eyed.

geography

Today's Manas County
Kyrgyzstan with the Issyk Kul

The Wusun tribal area is located on the northern edge of the Tianshan Mountains. At their weddings they occupied the entire river basin of the Ili River and the area west of the Tianshan. The Königsort was south of Lake Issyk Kul and was called "Chi Gutschen" - the town of Red Valley (Chinese:赤谷; pinyin: chìgǔ ). The area comprised the northwest of what is now the Uyghur Autonomous Region of Xinjiang , the southeast of Kazakhstan, and the east and center of Kyrgyzstan . Xinjiang Tuzhi (新疆 圖 志, map book of Xinjiang, a contemporary geography book) reports that the Manasi He is the eastern border of the Wusun to Han China (漢 為 烏 訾 離 與 烏孫 東 境).

Aksu today
Kazakhstan with Lake Balkhash

To the south, the Wusun bordered peoples who lived in the Tarim Basin . The Tianshan Mountains north of Karashahr , Kuqa , Aksu and Uqturpan belonged to the Wusun.

Han Shu - The Western Area reports that the Wusun area bordered the Kangju in the northwest and the Dayuan in the west (西北 與 康居 、 西 與 大宛). Xiyu Tuzhi (西域 圖 志, map book for Xiyu) reports that the eastern border of the Kangju lies on the western coast of the Balkhash Sea , while Dayuan can be found in Ferghana Valley and Kokand .

Tacheng today, formerly Tarbagatai

Archaeological investigations of the former Soviet Union had discovered large numbers of Wusun graves on the north bank of the Ili River. This means that the Wusun lived on both sides of the river. Xiyu Tuzhi reported the Tarbagatai Mountains as the border between Xiongnu and Wusun (塔爾巴 噶爾 ， 當屬 漢 匈奴 、 烏孫 交界 處). During the turmoil around 53 BC The later small king Niaojiutu gathered his people in the "Northern Mountains" and threatened to attack the Wusun with the Xiongnu from his mother's family (曾 與 諸 翕 侯 俱 去 ， 居 居 北山 中 ， 揚言 母 家 匈奴 兵 來). The "northern mountains " mentioned here correspond to the Tarbagatai mountains . It forms the border between the Xiongnu and the Wusun, to the north of which is the Xiongnu area.

Matsuda Hisao is of the opinion that the Wusun did not live on the northern edge of Tianshan, but in the middle of it. Accordingly, the power of the Wusun did not extend to the area west of the Issyk Kul, Tschüi and upper reaches of the Ili.

There was a side branch of the Silk Road running in an east-west direction , which led through the northern edge of the Tianshan and the southern edge of the Djungary . This path crossed the area of ​​the Wusun and Kangju. During the Han period, the Xiongnu controlled the route, which is why very few Chinese used it. Only later did the Chinese increasingly use this route.

population

The Wusun were a strong regional power in Xiyu. Han Shu-Xiyu reported that 120,000 households, 630,000 people inhabited the country. The strength of the army should have been 188,800 men (烏孫 國 ， 大 昆 彌 治 赤 穀城 ， 去 長安 八千 九百 里。 戶 十二 十二 萬 ， 口 六十 三萬 ， 勝 兵 十八萬 八千 八百人 …… 最為 疆 國). Modern research found a similar number. Thus the numbers of households and population as well as military strength are greater than the sums of the surrounding peoples. Scientists estimate that when Han Pingdi ascended the throne (1 BC), around 252,000 lived a nomadic life in present-day Xinjiang, which corresponds to around 40% of the Wusun.

There are three theses about the ancestry of the Wusun: on the one hand they are viewed as a branch of a European lineage, on the other hand they are more likely to be attributed to the East Asian peoples, the third thesis sees them as a mixture of both regions of origin. Most researchers support the first hypothesis, some Chinese scientists tend to the third hypothesis, a conclusion cannot yet be reached.

In the late 19th century, Russian research began studying the wusun. Some researchers suggested that the Wusun are a Turkic speaking people. In the 1930s, most of the Soviet researchers, represented by AN Bernshtam, took the view that the Wusun were an Indo-European people. The Soviet archaeologist GA Kushaev and the head of the archaeological excavation at the Ili KA Akishev reported in their joint work that 80 percent of the Wusun skulls discovered on the Ili River and Issyk Kul show European characteristics. These scientists believe that the Wusun are identical to the Issedonen of Herodotus.

The sinologist Jarl Charpentier believes that the Wusun are ancestors of the Sarmatians . WM Mcgovern is also of the opinion that the Wusun belong to the European population and speak an Iranian language . The Canadian sinologist Edwin George Pulleyblank believed that the Yuezhi spoke a Tocharian language ; however, the Wusun had some titles in common with the Yuezhi, so it is likely that they both used a related language. Tohru Haneda said that the Wusun spoke a Turkic language, but that did not mean that they were also a Turkic people. She Taishan of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences also believed that the Wusun were more closely related to the Europeans. She's thesis was that the Isedones of Herodotus were Saks, while the Assi were the name of the Sak chiefs. She believed that the Asii had the same "Yun". According to his guess, the Asii were probably made in 177 or 176 BC. They were driven out of the Ili river basin by the Yuezhi and only then immigrated to Hexi, where they became known as Wusun.

Material culture

The Wusun is used in archeology from around the 3rd century BC. Until the 5th century. Chr. In AD. Tianshan and zhetysu spread younger Iron Age culture assigned to the elderly, the Saken assigned Beschsatyr Issyk-culture replaced. It was finally overlaid by its culture in the Seven Rivers land with the establishment of the first Turkish khaganate in the 6th century; in Tianshan it was followed by the Kenkol culture from around the birth of Christ .

Various bronze goods were taken over from the Sakian culture, but iron processing also gained in importance in the Wusun culture. Iron weapons in particular characterize the early days of the Wusun culture. In addition, the Wusun finds also contain gold sheet work with figural decoration that reveals Western influence. In ceramics, one can distinguish between bowls , rounded cups, handle vessels and vase-like vessels. They are usually unadorned, with grooves, ridges and applications of paint occasionally used as decoration.

The dead were buried in rectangular grave pits with stone or wooden fixtures, lying on their backs; the graves were partially covered with flat stone kurgan . Settlements of the Wusun culture are known, but so far not intensively researched. In the few excavated settlements, partly ground-level rectangular buildings with stone foundations and partly pit houses were found. Bone finds from graves of the Wusun culture show that the population originally belonged to a European lineage, which over time increasingly mixed with East Asians.

Animal bone finds show that animal husbandry played an important role in the economy of the Wusun culture; the cultivation of wheat, millet and perhaps even rice has been documented since the birth of Christ.

Descendants

There is a thesis that Wusun groups migrated towards southern Russia, where they reappeared as Alans (U-sun = U-lun, since s and l changed in this language?).

Another thesis deals with whether the Wusun and the Arschi (the wrong Tocharer ) from Karachar / Tarimbecken are identical (Orsun or Arschi = Wusun?).

Remarks

  1. ^ Sinor, Denis (March 1, 1990). The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia, Volume 1 . Cambridge University Press. ISBN0521243041.
  2. ↑ Baumer, Christoph (December 11, 2012). The History of Central Asia: The Age of the Steppe Warriors . IBTauris. ISBN978-1780760605.
  3. ^ So, Francis KH (2009). "In Search of the Lost Indo-Europeans in Chinese Dynastic History". In Findeisen, Raoul David; Isay, Gad C .; Katz-Goehr, Amira (eds.). At Home in Many Worlds: Reading, Writing and Translating from Chinese and Jewish Cultures: Essays in Honor of Irene Eber . Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 131-138. ISBN978-3447061353.
  4. ↑ 漢書 · 西域 傳 (Han Shu - The western area): 「烏孫 國 …… 不 田作 種樹 ， 隨 畜 逐 水草 ， 與 匈奴 同 俗」 (The state of Wusun ... without agriculture and forestry, wander with their animals and follow water and grass, custom like Xiongnu); 魏書 · 西域 傳 (Book of Wei - The Western Area): 「烏孫 國 …… 無 城郭 ， 隨 畜牧 逐 水草」 (The state of Wusun ... has no cities, wander with their cattle and follow water and grass)
  5. ↑ 史記 · 大宛 列傳 (Shiji - The Western States): 「烏孫 …… 行 國 ， 隨 畜 ， 與 匈奴 同 俗」 (Wusun ... is a wandering state, follow their cattle, custom similar to Xiongnu)
  6. ↑ a b c 王明哲, 王炳華 (Mingzhe Wang & Binhua Wang): 蘇聯 的 烏孫 考古 情況 簡述 (Short report on Soviet Wusun research) . In: 烏孫 研究 (Wusun Research) , 1st edition, 新疆 人民出版社 (People's Publishing House Xinjiang), Ürümqi 1983.
  7. ↑ International Conference on the Bronze Age and Iron Age Peoples [1998]: The role of agro-pastoralism in the evolution of steppe culture in the Semirechye area of ​​southern Kazakhstan during the Saka / Wusun period (600 BC-AD 400) . In: V. Meir, AH Zhimin & E. Kuzmina (Eds.): Bronze and early Iron Age archeology of eastern Central Asia ( English ), 1st edition, Institute for the Study of Man in collaboration with the University of Pennsylvania Museum Publications , Washington, DC, ISBN 0-941694-63-1 , pp. 264-279.
  8. ↑ a b c 錢 伯 泉 (Boquan Qian), 烏孫 和 月氏 在 河西 的 故地 及其 西遷 的 經過 (Wusun and Yuezhi in Hexi and their westward migration), 敦煌 研究 (Dunhuang research). 1994, No. 4, pp. 104-112
  9. ↑ a b 余 太 山 等 (Taishan She et al.): 余 太 山 (Taishan She) (Ed.): 西域 通史 (History of the Western Territories) , 1st edition, 中州 古籍 出版社 (Mittelland Publishing House for old books), Zhengzhou 1996 .
  10. ↑ 史記 • 大宛 列傳 第六 十三 (Shiji - Book 63: The Western States): 「自 烏孫 以 西至 安息 ， 以近 匈奴 ， 匈奴 困 困 月氏 也 ， 匈奴 使 持 單于 一 信 ， 則 國 國 傳送食 ， 不敢 留 苦 」(From Wusun to the Parthians, all peoples depend on Xiongnu. Xiongnu held Yuezhi in check. When the king of the Xiongnu sent out a letter, all states provided food for the postman; none dared to deliver it hinder)
  11. ↑ a b 漢書 • 西域 傳 第六 十六 (Han Shu - The Western Area)
  12. ↑ a b c d e f g h i 王明哲, 王炳華 (Mingzhe Wang & Binhua Wang): 從 文獻 與 考古 資料 論 烏孫 歷史 的 幾個 重大 問題 (Important questions about the history of the Wusun that emerge from the contemporary Documents and archaeological studies) . In: 烏孫 研究 (Wusun Research) , 1st edition, 新疆 人民出版社 (People's Publishing House Xinjiang), Ürümqi 1983, pp. 1–42.
  13. ↑ 王炳華 (Binhua Wang): 烏孫 王 難 兜 靡 死於 大月氏 考 (evidence of the killing of Wusun chief Nantoumi by Yuezhi) . In: 絲綢之路 考古 硏 究 (Archaeological Research on the Silk Road) , 1st edition, 新疆 人民出版社 (People's Publishing House Xinjiang), Ürümqi 1993.
  14. ↑ Matsuda Hisao: 古代 天山 歷史 地理學 研究 (Research on the History and Geography of Ancient Tianshan) , 1st Edition, 中央 民族 學院 出版社 (Central Folk Institute Publishing House), Beijing 1987, pp. 31-36.
  15. ↑ Shiji - The Western States: 而 昆莫 生 棄 於 野。 烏 嗛 肉 蜚 其 上 ， 狼 狼 乳 之 之。 單于 怪 以為 神 ， 而 收 長 之
  16. ↑ Han Shu: 昆莫 既 健 ， 自 請 單于 報 父 怨 ， 遂 西 攻破 大月氏。 大月氏 復 西 走 ， 徒 徒 大 夏 地。 昆莫 略 其 眾 ， 因 留居 ， 兵 稍強 ，會 單于 死 ， 不肯 復 朝 事 匈奴 (After Kunmo grew up, he asked the Chanyu to avenge his father. So he attacked the Yuezhi in the west, drove them west, took their land, and settled his own people there and became even stronger. After the Chanyu died, he stopped paying tribute to the Xiongnu.)
  17. ↑ Denis Sinor The legendary Origin of the Türks , in Egle Victoria Zygas, Peter Voorheis Folklorica: Festschrift for Felix J. Oinas , Indiana 1982, pp. 237-240
  18. ^ Edwin G. Pulleyblank: X. The Wu-sun and Sakas and the Yüeh-Chih migration . In: Central Asia and non-Chinese peoples of ancient China ( English ), 1st edition, Ashgate Publishing, Aldershot, Hampshire; Burlington, VT 2002, ISBN 0-86078-859-8 , p. 159.
  19. ↑ Shiji - The Western States: 而 金城 、 河 西西 並 南山 至 鹽 澤 空無 匈奴
  20. ↑ Zizhi Tongjian, Book 12, the Book of the Han: 烏孫 王 昆莫 本 為 匈奴 臣 ， 後 兵 稍強 ， 不肯 復 朝 事 匈奴 匈奴 ， 匈奴 攻 不勝 而 遠 之 …… 聽 則 是 斷 匈奴 右臂 也 (The King of the Wusun Kunmo was formerly a vassal of the Xiongnu. Later his army became stronger, since then he no longer wanted to be dependent on Xiongnu.)
  21. ↑ Han Shu - The Western Area: 可 厚 賂 招 ， 令 東 居 故地 ， 妻 以 公主 ， 與 為 昆弟 ， 以 制 匈奴
  22. ↑ Han Shu - The Western Area: 烏 孫遠漢 ， 未知 其 大小 ， 又 近 匈奴 ， 服 屬 日久 ， 其 大臣 皆不 欲 徙, 昆莫 年老 國 分 ， 不能 專制
  23. ↑ a b c d 余 太 山 等 (Taishan She et al.): 漢代 西域 (Xiyu in Han times) . In: 余 太 山 (Taishan She) (Ed.): 西域 通史 (Xiyu Tongshi, History of the Western Territories) , 1st edition, 中州 古籍, Zhengzhou 1996.
  24. ^ A b c William Montgomery Mcgovern: The Early empires of Central Asia , 1st edition, University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill 1939.
  25. ↑ Han Shu - Xiongnu: 校尉 常 惠 與 烏孫 兵至 右 谷 蠡 庭 ， 獲 單于 父 行 及 嫂 ﹑ 居次 ﹑ ﹑ 名 王 ﹑ 犁 汙 都尉 都尉 ﹑ 千 長 ﹑ 將 以下 三萬 九千 萬餘 級 ， 虜 馬牛羊 驢 执 橐 锓 七十 餘 萬。 漢 封 惠 為 長 羅 侯。 然 匈奴 民 红 死傷 而去 者, 及 畜產 遠 移 死亡 不可數 勝。 於是 匈奴 遂 衰耗 ， 怨 烏孫. (Wusun Army attacked the royal train, took Chanyu's father, wife, ministers, advisers, generals and so on a total of 39,000 people, captured horses, cattle, sheep about 700,000. Han appointed Wusun king margrave. Dead of Xiongnu and dead cattle countless. Since then, the Xiongnu have been battered and hate Wusun.)
  26. ↑ Han Shu - The Western Region: 都 護 督察 烏孫 、 康居 諸 外國 ， 動靜 有 變 以 聞。 可 安 輯 ， 安 輯 之 ； 可 擊 ， 擊 之 (The governor watches border states like Wusun and Kangju for changes If they can be calmed down, let him calm them down, if they can be attacked, let him attack them)
  27. ↑ Han Shu: The Western Region: 然 眾 心 皆 附小 昆 彌
  28. ↑ Chronicles of the Three Kingdoms - Books of the Wei - marginal peoples: 魏興 ， 西域 雖 不能 盡 至 ， 其 大 國 龜茲 、 于 寘 、 康居 、 、 烏孫 、 疏勒 、 月氏 、 鄯善 、 車 師 之 屬 ， 無歲 不 奉 朝貢 ， 略 如 漢 氏 故事. (As Wei got stronger, she could not control the western area, but the larger states like Wusun and so on paid annual tribute just as they did to Han.)
  29. ↑ a b 薛 宗正 (ZongZheng Xue), 柔然 汗國 的 興亡 ── 兼 論 丁零 、 鐵勒 系 族群 的 西遷 與 崛起 (Uplift and fall of the Rouran), 西域 研究 (Xiyu research). 1995, Volume 3, pp. 37-46.
  30. ↑ 錢 伯 泉 (Boquan Qian), 烏孫 的 種族 及其 遷徙 (The Wusun people and their migration), 西域 研究 (Xiyu research). 1997, 4th issue, pp. 28-39.
  31. ↑ Zizhi Tongjian: 龜茲 、 疏勒 、 烏孫 、 悅 般 、 渴 槃 阤 、 鄯善 、 焉耆 、 車 師 、 粟 持 九 國 入 貢 於 魏. ((In the year 435) the Wusun and other states paid tribute to Wei)
  32. ↑ History of the Northern Dynasties - West: 太 延 中 …… 琬 過 九 国 ， 北 行 至 烏孫 國 國。 其 王 得 魏 賜 ， 拜受 甚 悅. (In the year 437 ... went through nine states. North to Wusun. Their king received gifts from Wei and was happy about them.)
  33. ↑ The Book of Wei - The West: 烏孫 國 …… 居 赤 穀城, 在 龜兹 西北, 去 代 一 萬 八百 里。 其 國 數 為 蠕蠕 所 侵, 西 徙 葱嶺 山 中 …… 太 延 三年, 遣使 者 董 琬 等 使其 國, 後 每 使 朝貢. (Wusun, ... was slowly attacked, wandering west to the Pamir plateau ... 437, an embassy was sent to warn that tribute payments were due.)
  34. ↑ 王明哲, 王炳華 (Mingzhe Wang & Binhua Wang): Writings on Wusun in Han Shu . In: 烏孫 研究 (Wusun Research) , 1st edition, 新疆 人民出版社 (People's Publishing House Xinjiang), Ürümqi 1983.
  35. ^ Mayor, Adrienne (September 22, 2014). The Amazons: Lives and Legends of Warrior Women across the Ancient World . Princeton University Press. p. 421. ISBN 1-4008-6513-1 . Retrieved February 13,2015.
  36. ^ A b Edwin G. Pulleyblank: XII. Why Tocharians? . In: Central Asia and non-Chinese peoples of ancient China ( English ), 1st edition, Ashgate Publishing, Aldershot, Hampshire; Burlington, VT 2002, ISBN 0-86078-859-8 , pp. 426-427.
  37. ↑ Mallory and Mair (2000), pp. 93 f.
  38. ↑ O.Ismagulov, population of Kazakhstan from Bronze Epoch to Present (paleoanthropological research), Academy of Sciences Kazakh SSR, 1970, p 54
  39. ↑ SKULLS OF USUN TIME (3rd c. BC - 4th c. AD)
  40. ↑ «焦氏 易 林 - Jiaoshi Yilin» Original text: 烏孫 氏 女 ， 深 目 黑 醜 ； 嗜欲 不同 ， 過時 無 偶.
  41. ↑ Jiaoshi Yilin, vol. 6 [1]
  42. ↑ Wang Mingzhe et al. (1983). Research on Wusun, Urumqi: Xinjiang People's Press, p. 43.
  43. ↑ Chen Liankai (1999). Outlines on China's Ethnicities. China Financial and Economic Publishing House. P. 380 f.
  44. ↑ Book of Han , with commentary by Yan Shigu , original text: 烏孫 於 西域 諸 戎 其 形 最 異。 今 之 胡人青 眼 、 赤 須 ， 狀 類 彌猴 者 ， 本 其 種 也.
  45. ^ Egon Eickstedt (Freiherr von), Rassenkunde und Rassengeschichte der Menschheit, F. Enke, 1934, p. 273
  46. ↑ Murat Ocak, The Turks: Early ages, Wu-Suns / Prof. Dr. Sergei A. Yatsenko, Yeni Türkiye, 2002, pp. 244-249.
  47. ↑ Kazakhstan 2016 Data - Facts - Background. ( botschaft-kaz.de PDF of the Kazakh embassy in Germany), p. 30.
  48. ↑ a b c 蘇 北海 (Beihai Su): 漢代 烏孫 居 地 考 (Wusun during the Han period) . In: Historical geography of shiyuh , 1st edition, Xinjiang University, Ürümqi 1988.
  49. ↑ Han Shu - The Western Region: 姑 墨 國 …… 北 與 烏孫 接 ； 龜茲 國 …… 北 與 烏孫 接 ； 焉耆 國 …… 北 與 烏孫 接 ； 捐 毒 國 …… 北 與 烏孫 接； 溫宿 國 …… 北 至 烏孫 赤 穀 六百 一 十裏
  50. ↑ Matsuda Hisao: 古代 天山 歷史 地理學 研究 (Research on the History and Geography of Ancient Tianshan) , 1st Edition, 中央 民族 學院 出版社 (Central Folk Institute Publishing House), Beijing 1987, p. 39.
  51. ↑ 殷 晴 (Qing Yin): 魏晋 南北朝 时期 社会经济 的 波动 (Economic changes during the time of the Wei, Jin and North-South dynasties) . In: 絲綢之路 與 西域 經濟 ── 十二 世紀 前 新疆 開發 史稿 (The Silk Road and the economy in Xiyu - texts before the 12th century) . 中華書局 (China Verlag), 北京 2007.
  52. ↑ 王明哲, 王炳華 (Mingzhe Wang & Binhua Wang): 烏孫 研究 (Wusun Research) , 1st edition, 新疆 人民出版社 (People's Publishing House Xinjiang), Ürümqi 1983.
  53. ↑ 殷 晴 (Qing Yin): Development during the Han period . In: 絲綢之路 與 西域 經濟 ── 十二 世紀 前 新疆 開發 史稿 (The Silk Road and the economy in Xiyu - texts before the 12th century) . 中華書局 (China Verlag), Beijing 2007.
  54. ^ René Grousset: The empire of the steppes: a history of central Asia . Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, NJ 1970, ISBN 0-8135-1304-9 .
  55. ↑ Tohru Haneda: 西域 文化史 (Cultural History of the Xiyu) , 1st edition, 新疆 人民出版社 (People's Publishing House Xinjiang), Ürümqi 1981.
  56. ↑ 余 太 山 (Taishan She): 鳥 孫 (Wusun) . In: 王生平, 范明禮 (Shengping Wang, Mingli Fan) (Eds.): 塞 種 史 研究 (Research into the history of peoples in Xiyu) , 1st edition, 中國 社會 科學 出版社 (Publishing house of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences), Beijing 1992年, pp. 138-141.

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