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Students generally progress by promotion through a series of "grades" (級 ''[[kyū]]''), followed by a series of "degrees" (段 ''[[dan rank|dan]]''段), pursuant to formal testing procedures. Most aikido organisations use only white and black belts to distinguish rank, but some use {{Nihongo|various belt colors|段位|dan'i}}. Testing requirements vary, so a particular rank in one organization is not always comparable or interchangeable with the rank of another.<ref name="ADS"/>
Students generally progress by promotion through a series of "grades" (級 ''[[kyū]]''), followed by a series of "degrees" (段 ''[[dan rank|dan]]''段), pursuant to formal testing procedures. Most aikido organisations use only white and black belts to distinguish rank, but some use {{Nihongo|various belt colors|段位|dan'i}}. Testing requirements vary, so a particular rank in one organization is not always comparable or interchangeable with the rank of another.<ref name="ADS"/>


The uniform worn for practicing aikido (''[[aikidogi|aikidōgi]]'') is similar to the training uniform (''[[keikogi]]'') used in most other modern martial arts; simple trousers and a wraparound jacket, usually white. Both thick ("judo-style"), and thin ("[[karate]]-style") cotton tops are used. Most aikido systems also add a pair of wide pleated black or indigo trousers called a 袴 ''[[hakama]]''. In many styles its use is reserved for practitioners with black belt ranks, while others allow all practitioners or female practitioners to wear a ''hakama'' regardless of rank.<ref name="ADS"/>
The uniform worn for practicing aikido (''[[aikidogi|aikidōgi]]'') is similar to the training uniform (''[[keikogi]]'') used in most other modern martial arts; simple trousers and a wraparound jacket, usually white. Both thick ("judo-style"), and thin ("[[karate]]-style") cotton tops are used. Most aikido systems also add a pair of wide pleated black or indigo trousers called a ''[[hakama]]''. In many styles its use is reserved for practitioners with black belt ranks, while others allow all practitioners or female practitioners to wear a ''hakama'' regardless of rank.<ref name="ADS"/>


==Styles of aikido==
==Styles of aikido==

Revision as of 13:55, 24 May 2007

Aikido
合気道
An aikido throw being practiced. Nage maintains balance and structure to throw uke, while uke safely takes a forward roll (zenpō kaiten).
Country of originJapan Japan
CreatorMorihei Ueshiba
ParenthoodDaitō-ryū aiki-jūjutsu, sword and staff techniques
Olympic sportNo

Aikido (合気道, aikidō), translated as "the way of harmonious spirit", is a Japanese martial art developed by Morihei Ueshiba as a synthesis of his martial studies, philosophy, and religious beliefs. Ueshiba's goal was to create an art practitioners could use to defend themselves without injuring their attacker.

Aikido emphasizes joining with an attack and redirecting the attacker's energy, as opposed to meeting force with force, and consists primarily of body throws and joint-locking techniques. In addition to physical fitness and technique, mental training, controlled relaxation, and development of "spirit" (ki) are emphasized in aikido training.

Spirit of aikido

The word aikido is formed of three Japanese characters,

  • 合 - ai - joining
  • 気 - ki - spirit
  • 道 - dō - way

Aiki is a martial arts principle or tactic. It describes an idea of joining together in the midst of combat. This principle finds expressions in such lethal concepts as the "mutual strike/kill" (相撃ち, ai-uchi), but in aikido it generally describes the elevated notion of moving together rather than clashing. Emphasis is upon unifying with the rhythm and intent of the opponent in order to find the optimal position and timing with which to apply the technique.[1]

The techniques of aikido can, when applied judiciously, divert or immobilize rather than damage or kill. As a result, some consider aikido to be a practical symbol of meeting aggression (physical, verbal, etc.) with an effective but merciful response, and finding harmony in conflict. Ueshiba declared, "To control aggression without inflicting injury is the Art of Peace."[2]

History

File:Morihei-Ueshiba.jpg
Morihei Ueshiba

Aikido, as envisioned by its founder, is not only the synthesis of the founder's martial training, but also the expression of his personal philosophy of universal peace and reconciliation. Today, aikido continues its evolution from the koryū (old-style martial arts), to a wide variety of expressions by martial artists throughout the world.[3]

Aikido was created by Morihei Ueshiba (植芝 盛平 Ueshiba Morihei, 14 December 1883 – 26 April 1969), also known by aikido practitioners as Ōsensei ("Great Teacher").[4] Ueshiba developed aikido primarily during the late 1920s through the 1930s through the synthesis of the older martial arts that he had studied.[5] The core martial art from which aikido derives is Daitō-ryū aiki-jūjutsu, which Ueshiba studied directly with Takeda Sokaku (武田 惣角 Takeda Sōkaku, 1859–1943), the revivor of that art. Additionally, Ueshiba is known to have studied Tenjin Shin'yō-ryū with Tozawa Tokusaburō (戸沢 徳三郎, 1848–1912) in Tokyo in 1901, Gotōha Yagyu Shingan-ryū under Nakai Masakatsu (中井 正勝, fl. 1891–1908) in Sakai from 1903 to 1908, and judo with Kiyoichi Takagi (高木 喜代子 Takagi Kiyoichi, 1894–1972) in Tanabe in 1911.[6]

The art of Daitō-ryū is the primary technical influence on aikido. Along with empty-handed throwing and joint-locking techniques, Ueshiba incorporated training movements with weapons, such as those for the spear (yari), short staff (jō), and perhaps the bayonet (jūken). However, aikido derives much of its technical structure from the art of swordsmanship (kenjutsu).[1]

Ueshiba moved to Hokkaidō in 1912, and began studying under Takeda Sokaku in 1915. His official association with Daitō-ryū continued until 1937.[5] However, during the latter part of that period, Ueshiba had already begun to distance himself from Takeda and the Daitō-ryū. At that time, Ueshiba was referring to his martial art as "Aiki Budō". It is unclear exactly when Ueshiba began using the name "aikido", but it became the official name of the art in 1942, when the Greater Japan Martial Virtue Society (Dai Nippon Butoku Kai) was engaged in a government sponsored reorganization and centralization of Japanese martial arts.[3]

Onisaburo Deguchi

After Ueshiba left Hokkaidō in 1919, he met and was profoundly influenced by Onisaburo Deguchi (出口 王仁三郎 Deguchi Ōnisaburo, 1871–1948), the spiritual leader of the Ōmoto-kyō religion (a neo-Shinto movement) in Ayabe.[7] One of the primary features of Ōmoto-kyō is its emphasis on the attainment of utopia during one's life. This was a great influence on Ueshiba's philosophy of love and compassion in martial arts, especially for those seeking to harm others. Aikido demonstrates this philosophy in its emphasis upon mastering martial arts so that one may receive an attack and harmlessly redirect it. In an ideal resolution, not only is the receiver unharmed, but so is the attacker.[8]

In addition to the effect on his spiritual growth, the connection with Deguchi gave Ueshiba entry to elite political and military circles as a martial artist. As a result of this exposure he was able to attract not only financial backing but also gifted students. Several of these students would found their own styles of aikido (see infra, Styles).[9]

Aikido was first brought to the West in 1951 by Minoru Mochizuki (望月 稔 Mōchizuki Minoru, 1907–2003) with a visit to France where he introduced aikido techniques to judo students.[10] He was followed by Tadashi Abe (阿部 正 Abe Tadashi, 1926–1984) in 1952 who came as the official Aikikai Hombu representative, remaining in France for seven years. Kenji Tomiki (富木 謙治 Tomiki Kenji, 1900–1979) toured with a delegation of various martial arts through fifteen continental states of the United States in 1953.[9] Subsequently in that year, Koichi Tohei (藤平 光一 Tōhei Kōichi, born 1920) was sent by Aikikai Hombu to Hawaii, for a full year, where he set up several dojo. This was backed up by several further visits and is considered the formal introduction of aikido to the United States. The United Kingdom followed in 1955; Italy in 1964; Germany and Australia in 1965. Today there are aikido dojo available to train throughout the world.

Physical training

In aikido, as in virtually all Japanese martial arts, there are both physical and mental aspects of training. The physical training in aikido is diverse, covering both general physical fitness and conditioning, as well as specific techniques.[11] Because a substantial portion of any aikido curriculum consists of throws, the first thing most students learn is how to safely fall or roll.[12] The specific techniques for attack include both strikes and grabs; the techniques for defense consist of throws and pins. After basic techniques are learned, students study freestyle defense against multiple opponents, and in certain styles, techniques with weapons.

General fitness and training

Disarming an attacker using a "sword taking" (tachi-dori) technique.

Physical training goals pursued in conjunction with aikido include controlled relaxation, flexibility, and endurance, with less emphasis on weightlifting-style strength. In aikido technique, pushing or extending movements are much more common than pulling or contracting movements found in other arts, and this distinction can be applied to general fitness goals for the aikido practitioner.

Certain anaerobic fitness activities, such as weight-lifting, emphasize contractionary power, in which specific muscles or muscle groups are isolated and worked to improve tone, mass, and power. Aikido-related training instead emphasizes the use of coordinated whole-body movement and balance, more similar to yoga or pilates. For example, many dojo begin each class with warm-up exercises (準備体操, junbi taisō), which may include stretching and breakfalls.[13]

Aikido training is based primarily on pre-arranged forms (kata), practiced by two persons together rather than freestyle practice. The basic pattern is for the receiver of the technique (uke) to initiate an attack against the thrower (nage, also referred to as tori or shite depending on aikido style), who neutralises this attack with an aikido technique.

Both halves of the technique, that of uke and that of nage, are considered essential to aikido training. Both are studying aikido principles of blending and adaptation. Nage learns to blend with and control attacking energy, while uke learns to become calm and flexible in the disadvantageous, off-balance positions in which nage places them. This "receiving" of the technique is called ukemi.[14] Uke continuously seeks to regain balance and cover vulnerabilities (e.g. an exposed side), while nage uses position and timing to keep uke off-balance and vulnerable. In more advanced training, uke will sometimes apply reversal techniques (kaeshi-waza) to regain balance and pin or throw nage.

Ukemi (受身), literally meaning "receiving person", is the term used in aikido for protective techniques, such as parries or safe falls. One of the first skills taught to students beginning aikido is how to land when thrown so as to avoid injury.[14] Familiarity with different types of breakfalls allows sincere execution of techniques that could otherwise be prohibitively dangerous. In applying a technique, it is the responsibility of nage to prevent injury to uke by employing a speed and force of application that is commensurate with their partner's proficiency in ukemi.[14] Injuries (especially those to the joints), when they do occur in aikido, are often the result of nage misjudging the ability of uke to receive the throw or pin.[15][16]

Techniques

Students learn the various attacks from which an aikido technique can be practiced. Although attacks are not studied as thoroughly as in striking-based arts, honest attacks (a strong strike or an immobilizing grab) are needed to study correct and effective application of technique.[1]

Many of the strikes (打ち, uchi) of aikido are often said to resemble blows from a sword or other grasped object, which may suggest origins in techniques intended for armed combat.[1] Other techniques which appear to explicitly be punches (tsuki), are also practiced as thrusts with a knife or sword. Kicks are generally reserved for upper-level variations; reasons cited include that falls from kicks are especially dangerous, and that kicks (high kicks in particular) were uncommon during the types of combat prevalent in feudal Japan. Some basic strikes include:

  • Shōmen'uchi (front-face-strike) a vertical knife-hand strike to the head.
  • Yokomen'uchi (side-face-strike) a diagonal knife-hand strike to the side of the head or neck.
  • Mune-tsuki (or chūdan-tsuki) (chest-thrust) a punch to the torso. Specific targets include the chest, abdomen, and solar plexus.
  • Ganmen-tsuki (or jōdan-tsuki) (face-thrust) a punch to the face.

Beginners in particular often practice techniques from grabs, both because they are safer and because it is easier to feel the energy and lines of force of a hold than a strike. Some grabs are historically derived from being held while trying to draw a weapon; a technique could then be used to free oneself and immobilize or strike the grabbing person. The following are examples of some basic grabs:

  • Katate-dori (single-hand-grab) one hand grabs one wrist.
  • Morote-dori (both-hands-grab) both hands grab one wrist.
  • Ryōte-dori (both-hands-grab) both hands grab both wrists. (sometimes called ryōkatate-dori)
  • Kata-dori (shoulder-grab) a shoulder grab. (both-shoulders-grab is ryōkata-dori)
  • Mune-dori (chest-grab) grabbing the (clothing of the) chest.
Diagram of ikkyō, or "first technique". Yonkyō has a similar mechanism of action, although the upper hand grips the forearm rather than the elbow.

The following are a sample of the basic or widely practiced throws and pins. The precise terminology for some may vary between organisations and styles, so what follows are the terms used by the Aikikai Foundation. Note that despite the names of the first five techniques listed, they are not universally taught in numeric order.[17]

  • First technique (一教, ikkyō) a control using one hand on the elbow and one on near the wrist which leverages uke to the ground. This grip also applies pressure into the ulnar nerve on the medial side of the arm.
  • Second technique (二教, nikyō) an adductive wristlock that torques the arm and applies painful nerve pressure.
  • Third technique (三教, sankyō) a pronating technique that directs upward-spiraling tension throughout the arm, elbow and shoulder.
  • Fourth technique (四教, yonkyō) a shoulder control similar to ikkyō, but with both hands gripping the forearm. The knuckles (from the palm side) are applied to the recipient's radial nerve against the periosteum of the forearm bone.
  • Fifth technique (五教, gokyō) a variant of ikkyō in which the hand gripping the wrist is inverted. Common in tantō and other weapon take-aways.
  • Four-direction throw (四方投げ, shihōnage) The hand is folded back past the shoulder, locking the shoulder joint.
  • Forearm return (小手返し, kotegaeshi) a supinating wristlock-throw that stretches the extensor digitorum.
  • Breath throw (呼吸投げ, kokyūnage) a term for various types of flowing "timing throws".
  • Entering throw (入身投げ, iriminage) throws in which nage moves through the space occupied by uke. The classic form superficially resembles a "clothesline" technique.
  • Heaven-an-earth throw (天地投げ, tenchinage) beginning with ryōte-dori; moving forward, nage sweeps one hand low ("earth") and the other high ("heaven"), which unbalances uke so that he or she easily topples over.
  • Hip throw (腰投げ, koshinage) aikido's version of the hip throw. Nage drops his or her hips lower than those of uke, then flips uke over the resultant fulcrum.
  • Shaped-like-"ten" throw (十字投げ, jūjinage) a throw that locks the arms against each other. (The kanji for "10" is a cross-shape: 十)
  • Rotation throw (回転投げ, kaitennage) nage sweeps the arm back until it locks the shoulder joint, then uses forward pressure to throw.

Weapons training in aikido traditionally includes the short staff (jō), wooden sword (bokken), and knife (tantō). Today, some schools also incorporate firearms-disarming techniques. Both weapon-taking and weapon-retention are sometimes taught, to integrate armed and unarmed aspects, although some schools of aikido do not train with weapons at all. Others, others, such as the Iwama style of Morihiro Saito (斉藤 守弘 Saitō Morihiro, 1928–2002), usually spend substantial time with bokken and jō, practised under the names aiki-ken, and aiki-jō, respectively.. The founder developed much of empty handed aikido from traditional sword and staff movements, so the practice of these movements is generally for the purpose of giving insight into the origin of techniques and movements, as well as vital practice of these basic building blocks.[18]

Implementations

Diagram showing omote and ura applications of ikkyō.

Aikido makes use of body movement (tai sabaki) to blend with uke. For example, an "entering" (入身, irimi) technique consists of movements inward towards uke, while a "turning" (転換, tenkan) technique uses a pivoting motion.[19] Additionally, an "inside" (内, uchi) technique takes place in front of uke, whereas an "outside" (外, soto) technique takes place to his side; a "front" (表, omote) technique is applied with motion to the front of uke, and a "rear" (裏, ura) version is applied with motion towards the rear of uke, usually by incorporating a turning or pivoting motion. Finally, most techniques can be performed while in a seated posture (seiza). Seated techniques are called suwari-waza.[20]

Thus, from fewer than twenty basic techniques, there are thousands of possible implementations. For instance, ikkyō can be applied to an opponent moving forward with a strike (perhaps with an ura type of movement to redirect the incoming force), or to an opponent who has already struck and is now moving back to reestablish distance (perhaps an omote-waza version). Specific aikido kata are typically referred to with the formula "attack-technique(-modifier)". For instance, katate-dori ikkyō refers to any ikkyō technique executed when uke is holding one wrist. This could be further specified as katate-dori ikkyō omote, referring to any forward-moving ikkyō technique from that grab.

Atemi (当て身) are strikes (or feints) employed during an aikido technique. Some view atemi as attacks against "vital points" meant to cause damage in and of themselves. For instance, Gōzō Shioda (塩田 剛三 Shioda Gōzō, 1915–1994) described using atemi in a brawl to quickly down a gang's leader.[21] Others consider atemi, especially to the face, to be methods of distraction meant to enable other techniques. A strike, whether or not it is blocked, can startle the target and break his or her concentration. The target may also become unbalanced in attempting to avoid the blow, for example by jerking the head back, which may allow for an easier throw.[20]

Many sayings about atemi are attributed to Morihei Ueshiba, who considered them an essential element of technique.[22]

File:Embukai01.jpg
Technique performed against two attackers.

One feature of aikido is training to defend oneself against multiple attackers. Freestyle (randori, or jiyūwaza) practice with multiple attackers is a key part of most curriculae and is required for the higher level ranks. Randori exercises a person's ability to intuitively perform techniques in an unstructured environment. Strategic choice of techniques, based upon how they reposition the student relative to other attackers, is important in randori training. For instance, an ura technique might be used to neutralise the current attacker while turning to face attackers approaching from behind.

In Shodokan Aikido, randori differs in that it is not performed with multiple persons with defined roles of defender and attacker, but between two people, where both participants attack, defend, and counter at will. In this respect it resembles judo randori.[23]

Mental training

Aikido training is mental as well as physical, emphasizing the ability to relax the mind and body even under the stress of dangerous situations.[24] This is necessary in order to enable the practitioner to perform the bold enter-and-blend movements that underlie aikido techniques, wherein an attack is met with confidence and directness.[25] Morihei Ueshiba once remarked that one "must be willing to receive 99% of an opponent's attack and stare death in the face" in order to execute techniques without hesitation.[2] As a martial art concerned not only with fighting proficiency but also with the betterment of daily life, this mental aspect is of key importance to aikido practitioners.[26]

Ki

This was the logogram for ki until 1946, when it was changed to 気.

The study of ki is a critical component of aikido, and its study defies categorization as either "physical" or "mental" training, as it encompasses both. The original kanji for ki was 氣 (shown left), and is a symbolic representation of a lid covering a pot full of rice; the "nourishing vapors" contained within are ki.[27]

The character "ki" is used in everyday Japanese terms, such as "health" (元気, genki), or "shyness" (内気, uchiki). Ki is most often understood as unified physical and mental intention. Gōzō Shioda's Yoshinkan Aikido, considered one of the 'hard styles', largely follows Ueshiba's teachings from before World War II, and surmises that the secret to ki lies in timing and the application of the whole body's strength to a single point.[21] In later years, Ueshiba's application of ki in Aikido took on a softer, more gentle feel, and many of his later students teach about ki from this perspective. Koichi Tohei's Ki Society centers almost exclusively around the study of the empirical (albeit subjective) experience of ki. Students are even ranked separately in aikido techniques and ki development.


Uniforms and ranking

Students generally progress by promotion through a series of "grades" (級 kyū), followed by a series of "degrees" (段 dan段), pursuant to formal testing procedures. Most aikido organisations use only white and black belts to distinguish rank, but some use various belt colors (段位, dan'i). Testing requirements vary, so a particular rank in one organization is not always comparable or interchangeable with the rank of another.[1]

The uniform worn for practicing aikido (aikidōgi) is similar to the training uniform (keikogi) used in most other modern martial arts; simple trousers and a wraparound jacket, usually white. Both thick ("judo-style"), and thin ("karate-style") cotton tops are used. Most aikido systems also add a pair of wide pleated black or indigo trousers called a hakama. In many styles its use is reserved for practitioners with black belt ranks, while others allow all practitioners or female practitioners to wear a hakama regardless of rank.[1]

Styles of aikido

Aikido has many styles, mostly formed by Morihei Ueshiba's major students. Independent styles began after the Second World War and proliferated with the death of the founder in 1969. Today, the major styles of aikido are each run by a separate governing organization, have their own headquarters (honbu dōjō) in Japan, and have an international breadth.[9] The biggest aikido organisation is the Aikikai. Other prominent aikido organisations/styles are Yoshinkan, Yoseikan, Shodokan or Tomiki aikido, and Ki-aikido.

Further information: List of aikido styles
See also: List of aikidōka

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f Westbrook, Adele (1970). Aikido and the Dynamic Sphere. Tokyo, Japan: Charles E. Tuttle Company. pp. 16–96. ISBN 978-0804800044. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  2. ^ a b Ueshiba, Morihei (1992). The Art of Peace. Boston, Massachusetts: Shambhala Publications, Inc. ISBN 978-0877738510. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  3. ^ a b Pranin, Stanley (2006). "Aikido". Encyclopedia of Aikido. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  4. ^ Pranin, Stanley (2007). "O-Sensei". Encyclopedia of Aikido. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  5. ^ a b Stevens, John (1984). Aikido: The Way of Harmony. Boston, Massachusetts: Shambhala. pp. 3–17. ISBN 978-0394714264. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthor= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  6. ^ Pranin, Stanley (2006). "Ueshiba, Morihei". Encyclopedia of Aikido. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  7. ^ Pranin, Stanley. "Morihei Ueshiba and Onisaburo Deguchi". Encyclopedia of Aikido.
  8. ^ Omoto-kyo teachings
  9. ^ a b c Shishida, Fumiaki. "Aikido". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |Journal= ignored (|journal= suggested) (help)
  10. ^ Pranin, Stanley (2006). "Mochizuki, Minoru". Encyclopedia of Aikido.
  11. ^ Homma, Gaku (1990). Aikido for Life. Berkeley, California: North Atlantic Books. p. 20. ISBN 978-1556430787.
  12. ^ Homma, Gaku (1990). Aikido for Life. Berkeley, California: North Atlantic Books. pp. 43–45. ISBN 978-1556430787.
  13. ^ Pranin, Stanley (2006). "Jumbi Taiso". Encyclopedia of Aikido. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  14. ^ a b c Homma, Gaku (1990). Aikido for Life. Berkeley, California: North Atlantic Books. pp. 20–30. ISBN 978-1556430787.
  15. ^ Aikido and injuries: special report by Fumiaki Shishida Aiki News 1989;80 (April); partial English translation of article in Nihon Budo Gakkai Gakujutsushi (Scientific Journal of Japanese Martial Arts Studies) 1988;21(1)
  16. ^ Pranin, Stanley (1983). "Aikido and Injuries". Encyclopedia of Aikido. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  17. ^ Shifflett, C.M. (1999). Aikido Exercises for Teaching and Training. Berkeley, California: North Atlantic Books. ISBN 978-1556433146.
  18. ^ Ratti, Oscar (1973). Secrets of the Samurai: The Martial Arts of Feudal Japan. Edison, New Jersey: Castle Books. pp. 23, 356–359. ISBN 978-0785810735. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  19. ^ Amdur, Ellis. "Irimi". Aikido Journal.
  20. ^ a b Shioda, Gōzō (1968). Dynamic Aikido. Kodansha International. pp. 52–55. ISBN 978-0870113017.
  21. ^ a b Shioda, Gōzō (2000). Aikido Shugyo: Harmony in Confrontation. Shindokan Books. ISBN 978-0968779125. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  22. ^ Scott, Nathan (2000). "Teachings of Ueshiba Morihei Sensei". Retrieved 2007-02-01.
  23. ^ Shishido, Fumiaki (2002). Aikido: Tradition and the Competitive Edge. Shodokan Publishing USA. ISBN 978-0964708327. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  24. ^ Hyams, Joe (1979). Zen in the Martial Arts. New York: Bantam Books. pp. 53–57. ISBN 767-8300450. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: checksum (help)
  25. ^ Homma, Gaku (1990). Aikido for Life. Berkeley, California: North Atlantic Books. pp. 1–9. ISBN 978-1556430787.
  26. ^ Heckler, Richard (1985). Aikido and the New Warrior. Berkeley, California: North Atlantic Books. pp. 51–57. ISBN 978-0938190516.
  27. ^ YeYoung, Bing F. "The Conceptual Scheme of Chinese Philosophical Thinking - Qi". Literati Tradition. Retrieved 2007-02-12.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Aikido.
  • AikiWeb Aikido Information — a comprehensive site on aikido, with essays, forums, gallery, reviews, columns, wiki and other information.
  • AikidoFAQ — an informational aikido website, including articles, tips, and multimedia.
  • Aikido Journal Website — an extensive source of aikido historical information.

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