Clipperton Island and Nambudiri: Difference between pages
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{{Infobox |
{{Infobox Ethnic group |
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|image = [[Image:Adi Shankara recoloured.jpg|180px]] |
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|native_name = Île de Clipperton |
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|caption = [[Adi Shankaracharya]] (centre) was a Namboothiri Brahmin who popularized [[Advaita Vedanta]] |
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|conventional_long_name = Clipperton Island |
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|group = Nambudiri Brahmin |
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|common_name = Clipperton |
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|pop = approx. '''250,000 (0.7% of Malayali population)''' |
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|image_flag = Flag of France.svg |
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|region1 = {{flagcountry|India}} |
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|image_coat = |
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|languages = [[Malayalam]] |
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|image_map = CarteLocal.gif |
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|religions = [[Hinduism]] |
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|national_motto = "Liberté, égalité, fraternité" |
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|related = [[Nair]]s, [[Samanta Kshatriya]]s, [[Pushpaka Brahmin]]s, [[Panch-Dravida|Pancha-Dravida Brahmins]]<br/> |
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|national_anthem = [[La Marseillaise]] |
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|official_languages = [[French language|French]] |
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|capital = none |
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|latd= |latm= |latNS= |longd= |longm= |longEW= |
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|largest_city = |
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|government_type = [[French overseas territory|French territory]] |
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|leader_title1 = [[president of France]] |
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|leader_name1 = [[Nicolas Sarkozy]] |
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|leader_title2 = |
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|leader_name2 = |
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|area_rank = |
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|area_magnitude = |
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|area_km2 = 8.9 |
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|area_sq_mi = 3.4 |
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|percent_water = |
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|population_estimate = 0 |
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|population_estimate_rank = n/a |
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|population_estimate_year = 2007 |
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|population_census = n/a |
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|population_census_year = n/a |
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|population_density_km2 = 0 |
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|population_density_sq_mi = 0 |
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|population_density_rank = n/a |
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|sovereignty_type = [[French overseas territory]] |
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|sovereignty_note = |
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|established_event1 = |
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|established_date1 = 1521 |
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|currency = [[Euro]] |
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|currency_code = EUR |
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|country_code = |
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|time_zone = |
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|utc_offset = |
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|time_zone_DST = |
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|DST_note = |
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|utc_offset_DST = -8 |
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|cctld = |
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|calling_code = |
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|footnotes =The whole area of 8.9 km² consists of the lagoon (7.2 km²) and the actual island (1.7 km²) - see {{cite web|url=http://www.clipperton.fr/incagen.html?geographie.htm~main|title=Clipperton - Territoire}} |
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}} |
}} |
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{{Hinduism small}} |
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The '''Nambudiri''' Brahmins ([[Malayalam]]: {{lang|ml|നമ്പൂതിരി}} ''{{lang|ml-Latn|nambũdiri}}'', also transliterated '''Namputiri''', '''Namboothiri''') are the upper class [[Brahmins]] of [[Kerala]], who are considered the most [[orthodoxy|orthodox]] Brahmins in India.<ref> [http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1B1-372990.html], ''encyclopedia.com'' </ref> Its members regard themselves as the true repositories of the ancient [[historical vedic religion|Vedic]] religion and of the traditional Hindu code<ref>"Nambūdiri." Encyclopædia Britannica. Ultimate Reference Suite. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2008.</ref>. They perform rituals in temples of Kerala based on Tantra Vidhi, a complex and ancient branch of [[Tantra|Tantric]] traditions found only in Kerala, and some ''Mahakshetras'' ("Great Temples") around India (which have a Nambudiri acting as the Head Priest). Namboothiris follow the conservative and ritualistic [[Śrauta]] traditions and the ancient [[Mimamsa|Purva Mimamsa]], unlike the majority of other Brahmins in India who follow the [[Vedanta]]. |
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{{Administrative divisions of France}} |
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'''Clipperton Island''' ([[French language|French]]: ''Île de Clipperton'' or ''Île de la Passion'') is a [[1 E6 m²|nine-square-kilometre]] coral [[atoll]] in the Eastern [[Pacific Ocean]], southwest of [[Mexico]] and west of [[Costa Rica]], at {{coord |10|18|N|109|13|W|display=inline,title}}. It has no permanent inhabitants. |
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Nambuthiri Brahmins have the sole right of conducting rituals in [[Kerala]] (also including [[Kanyakumari district|Kanyakumari]]). Some major ''Mahakshetras'' around India (including North India) have a Nambudiri priest as the Head Tantri. Only a Nambudiri can become the ''Rawal'', Head Priest, at [[Badrinath]] in [[Uttarakhand]],<ref>[www.vanamaliashram.org/Badrinath.html], ''vanamaliashram.org''</ref>and the Chief Priest at [[Mookambika|Mookambika Temple]] in [[Kollur]], [[Karnataka]], [[Pashupatinath Temple]] in [[Kathmandu]], [[Nepal]] and other Mahakshetras around India. The reason behind this practice is that these temples were founded and sanctified by the great Saint Philosopher [[Adi Shankaracharya]], who was born as a Nambudiri Brahmin. |
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It is an overseas possession of [[France]] administered by the [[Minister of Overseas France]]. |
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The Nambudiri Brahmins are renowned for their rigid orthodoxy and sense of caste and purity (''Shudham''). Although untouchability is now absent in India; in the past Nambudiris considered themselves polluted by even the touch of other Brahmins: ''Embraan Shudham'' (by the touch of Tulu Brahmins), ''Eda Shudham'' (touch of Tamil Brahmins such as Iyer, Iyengar, Pattar which required the Nambudiri to bathe before resuming activities). <ref> [http://namboothiri.com/articles/sudham.htm], ''namboothiri.com/articles/sudham'' </ref> Also the Nambudiris were one of the only Hindu communities in India where women were required to wear a veil (''Ghosha'') in public (a practice abandoned since the 1930s). Members of the community who did not abide by these regulations faced excommunication (''Brashtu''), the last case occurring in 1918.<ref>[http://namboothiri.com/articles/bhrashtu.htm http://namboothiri.com/articles/bhrashtu.htm]</ref> |
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== Natural conditions== |
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Clipperton Island lies about 945 km (587 mi, 510 nmi) from [[Socorro Island|Socorro island]] in the [[Revillagigedo Islands|Revillagigedo archipelago]], [[Mexico]], the nearest land. The ring-shaped island has completely enclosed its [[lagoon]] for approximately a century and is 12 km in circumference. The lagoon has some deep basins (−43 m, −22 m) and one deep spot ("Trou-Sans-Fond", meaning bottomless hole) with acidic water ([[sulphuric acid]]) at the bottom and is stagnant. The lagoon is devoid of fish. Clipperton Rock, at 29 m, is the highest point. It is a [[volcano|volcanic]] outcrop located in the southeast. |
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The Nambudiri caste follows a distinctive marriage alliance with the important warrior caste of the [[Nayars]]. Though the eldest son of a Nambudiri household customarily marries a Nambudiri woman, thus observing the typical caste practice of endogamy, the younger sons marry Nayar women and obey the matrilineal-descent system of the Nayars. In contrast to other Brahman castes in southern India, the Nambudiris place great emphasis on their priestly status and do not normally engage in profitable professions. They derive their wealth from their landholdings, previously having been one of the chief landowners of Kerala along with the Nayar (before the [[Land Reforms Ordinance]]).<ref>"Nambudiri." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 6 June 2008</ref> |
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The island has a tropical oceanic climate, with average temperatures of 20–32 °C (68–90 °F). The rainy season occurs May–October, and the island is subject to tropical storms. Surrounding ocean waters are warm, pushed by equatorial and counter-equatorial currents. |
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==Etymology== |
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Although 115 species of fish have been identified in the territorial waters of Clipperton, the only economic activity is [[tuna]] fishing. It has no other natural resources. |
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Malayalam ''{{lang|ml-Latn|nambũdiri}}'', Tamil ''{{lang|ml-Latn|nambũri}}'' is derived from ''nambuka'' "to trust" and ''tiri'' (from Sanskrit ''{{IAST|[[śrī]]}}'') "blessed". Popular etymology derives the name from Malayalam ''nambu'' "the Veda", ''ōthu'' "to teach" and ''tiri'' "holy".<ref>A. C. Burnell, H. Yule, ''A Glossary of Colloquial Anglo-Indian Words and Phrases: Hobson-Jobson'', Routledge (1996), ISBN 0700703217, s.v. "Nambooree".</ref> It is also believed that "''Namude Thamburan''" (Malayalam: Our Lord) was condensed, and the honorific title of "''thiri''" (to show Brahminhood) was added to form "Nambuthiri". |
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Female Nambudiri Brahmins have the surname '''Antharjanam''' which literally means ''"People inside the house"''. |
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===Vegetation=== |
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Clipperton is now almost a desert, as it was during the 19th century, but 80 percent of the island was covered with grassland after the Mexican occupation and the introduction of [[pig]]s at the beginning of the 20th century. |
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[[Image:Clipperton Island.png|thumb|200px|left|Satellite image of Clipperton Island]] |
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[[Image:Clippertonisland.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Coconut palms on Clipperton Island]] |
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==Origins== |
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When Snodgrass and Heller visited the island in 1898, they reported that "no land plant is native to the island." (Snodgrass and Heller 1902). Sachet (1962), however, points out that according to historical accounts from the island in 1711, 1825, and likely in 1839, the island had a low grassy and/or suffrutescent (partially woody) vegetation. Due to the elimination of pigs, which disturbed birds but also ate crabs, in 1958, the vegetation cover has progressively disappeared with the attacks of the millions of crabs (''[[Gecarcinus planatus]]''). Today there are only 674 [[coconut palm]]s (counted by C. Jost during the "Passion 2001" French mission) and five islets in the lagoon with little grass that these terrestrial crabs cannot reach. There also exists an [[August 24]], [[1909]], article from the [[San Francisco Chronicle]] speculating on the possibility that a group of palms on Clipperton was washed over by a [[tsunami]] caused by an earthquake. |
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The ancient Sangam literature mentions Brahmins of [[Chera Dynasty|Chera]] Kingdom (which became Kerala) who may be Namboothiris as there is mention of Perinchellur(Taliparamba) village, which is one of the most important villages for Namboothiris, as a great Vedic village. There is no concrete evidence to suggest migration of Namboothiri Brahmins to Kerala. The only evidence of Brahmin migration to Kerala is the [[Embranthiri]]s who were originally [[Shivalli|Tulu Brahmins]]. |
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===Myth of origin=== |
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After the introduction of pigs by [[guano]] miners, the [[flora]] was able to re-establish itself as the pigs helped to keep the land crabs in check (Sachet 1962). During the period of settlement, the island's flora was multiplied by the introduction of alien species; coconut palms (''[[Cocos nucifera]]'') were introduced in the 1890s. |
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The Namboothiris' own tradition holds that [[Parashuraaman]] used his ''Parashu'' (Axe), to create new land for the Brahmins. Parashuraaman legend is first mentioned in Keralolpathy written in relatively modern period in 1600s (and also Kerala Mahatmiyam which is a part of Brahmanda purana written in Sanskrit). |
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The legend of Parasurama also exists amongst Brahmins throughout India. He is worshipped in [[Uttar Pradesh|UP]] and [[Bihar]] by [[Bhumihar|Bhumihar Brahmin]]s, [[Chitpawan]] [[Brahmin]]s in [[Maharashtra]] and [[Saraswat]] [[Brahmin]]s in [[Goa]]. These [[Brahmin]] sub[[castes]] also hold that they are those Brahmins who were the followers of Bhagwan Parashuram or Parashuraaman or they were created by him. Hence it has to be seen as a myth not exclusive to Namboothiris and Kerala alone. This legend is also present in KeralaMahatmyam (a Sanskrit text which is a part of Brahmanda Purana) as also in Keralaolpathy in Malayalam. |
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According to Sachet's visit in 1958, the vegetation is a sparse cover of spiny grass and low thickets, a creeping plant (''[[Ipomoea]]'' sp.), and stands of coconut palm. This low-lying herbaceous vegetation appears to be pioneer in nature, and the majority is believed to be composed of recently introduced species. Sachet suspected that ''[[Heliotropium curassavicum]]'' and possibly ''[[Portulaca oleracea]]'' are native (Sachet 1962). On the northwest side of the island, at least, the most abundant species are ''[[Cenchrus echinatus]]'', ''[[Sida rhombifolia]]'', and ''[[Corchorus aestuans]]''. These plants compose a shrub cover up to 30 cm in height and are intermixed with ''[[Eclipta]]'', ''[[Phyllanthus]]'', and ''[[Solanum]]'', as well as a taller plant, ''[[Brassica juncea]]''. An interesting feature was observed in that the vegetation is arranged in parallel rows of species; dense rows of taller species alternate with lower, more open vegetation. This was assumed to be a result of the phosphate mining method of digging trenches. |
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[[Image:Parshuramsaraswats.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Lord Parshuram with brahmin settlers commanding Lord Varuna to make the seas recede to make the Konkan.]] |
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According to this, the land area that Kerala Lord Parashurama created was of 160 "Katams" (a measure of area) in size. The land from Gokarna in the north to the River Chandragiri Puzha in modern Kasargod District of north Kerala is Tulu Nad where Lord Parasurama established 32 villages. South of Chandragiri river he established another 32 villages which are normally referred to as Namboothiri Gramams or villages. Although there are 32 Namboothiri villages spanning from Kasargod in north Kerala to the south, all the important Namboothiri villages both in number of Namboothiri population and importance with respect to Veda prominence and the like are located between river ChandragiriPuzha (Kasargod District) and River Karivannoor Puzha just south of [[Cherpu]] in Thrissur District. The Namboothiri Gramams between these two rivers are ten in number. They are Perinchellur([[Taliparamba]]), Payyannur, Alathur, Panniyur (Anakkara, Palghat District), Karikatt(Manjery) and Sukapuram(Edappal); both in Malappuram District, Perumanam or Peruvanam([[Cherpu]]) in Thrissur District and three more. The other 22 Gramams are located in southern parts of Thrissur District and Southern Districts of Kerala. Malayalam was not developed at the time of Adhi Shakaracharya. Hence the etymology could be taken from Tamil language which he know. There are two aspects in finding the etymology. Oneis that in Tamil'nam'means'our' and puthiri is from putham which means something of immensity. Namputhiri simply means our 'great people'. The other aspect is that the ancient Tamil Grammar of Tholkappiyam was from Kerala. In the section of Marabial, mention is made of the five elements of earth, water, fire, skies and space. These are even now called the five puthams or buhthams. These learned Namputhiris incorporated it from the Greek source{{Fact|date=January 2007}}. Hence they are called Namputhiris. |
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==Classes of Namboothiri== |
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==History== |
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There are five subdivisions within the Nambudiri caste: |
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[[Image:CarteLocal.gif|thumb|330px|left|Location of Clipperton Island and comparison of its [[Exclusive Economic Zone]] with the area of France proper (bottom left)]] |
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The Tampurakkal are the highest in status, the Adhyas, who are temple priests and who form an endogamous subcaste with the Tampurakkal, the Visistas, the Samanyas and the Jatimatras, who practice [[Ayurveda]].<ref>[[Encyclopedia Britannica]], s.v. "Nambudiri".</ref> |
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The original Namboothiris are classified into ten sects:{{Fact|date=December 2007}} |
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Clipperton's name comes from [[John Clipperton]], an [[England|English]] [[pirate]] and [[privateer]] who in 1704 fought the [[Spain|Spanish]] during the early 18th century and is said to have passed by the island. Some others say he used the island as a hidden base for his raids on shipping together with 21 companions, yet there is no text that ever proved the version. He was however the first one to describe and map the island. The legend might have helped keep his name alive to the present day. <ref>Büch, Boudewijn. ''Eilanden'' ('Islands'). Holland, 1991, IScBN 9041330860</ref> |
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These ten classes and their rights and duties are |
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:1. '''Aadu''': They are specialised in Yaagam, and have Yaagaadhikaaram or the right to perform Yaagam. |
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The name ''Île de la Passion'' ([[English language|English]]: ''Passion Island'') was officially given in 1711 by French discoverers Martin de Chassiron and Michel Du Bocage, commanding the French ships ''La Princesse'' and ''La Découverte'', who reached the island, drew the first map, and annexed it to France. The first scientific expedition took place in 1725 by the Frenchman M. Bocage, who lived on the island for several months. In 1858 it was formally claimed by France. |
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:2. '''Edu''' (a page in a book, symbolising knowledge): They have the right to acquire knowledge and teach Sanskrit, Vedam, Linguistics, Astronomy, Astrology, Architecture and so on. |
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:3. '''Bhiksha''' (alms, symbolising a saint or a samnyaasi): They have the right to become a saint (or samnyaasi). |
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:4. '''Picha''' (also means alms, in crude form): They are Othikkans, helping other Namboothiris to perform rituals. |
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:5. '''Othu''' (Spiritual hymns): This class of Namboothiris was basically teachers of Othu (Vedam). |
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:6. '''Saanthi''' (temple priesthood): These Namboothiris are priests in temples. |
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:7. '''Adukkala''' (kitchen, symbolising cooking): These Namboothiri families were specialists in large-scale cooking and catering. A family belonging to this group has to be consulted on all catering-related issues including for Yaagam. |
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:8. '''Arangu''' (stage): This special group of Namboothiris, called Chaathira Namboothiris, was a military group. Their evening entertainment was Panemkali (Sanghakkali). |
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:9. '''Panthi''' (dining structure): Namboothiris like Graamani, Thangal, Vaal-Nambi and Ashtavaidyans (all Mooss families except Vaidhyamadham) belong to this category. Vaidhyamadham, though an Ashtavaidyan, belongs to Aadu class, as they are the Vaidyans in the Yaagasaala (the hall where Yaagam is performed). Mooss families are not included in the above eight classes as these physicians perform surgery. Graamani Namboothiris, Thangal Namboothiris and Vaal Nambis are Namboothiris performing village administration and hence excluded from the above eight classes. |
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:10. '''Kadavu''' (bathing points in the pond): Elayath and Adikal are Namboothiris belonging to this category. In elite sub-class of Aadu class above, is a special group of Namboothiris known as "Ashtagrihathil Aadhyanmaar" (eight elite families). |
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===The Bhatta title=== |
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The [[American Guano Mining Company]], under the [[Guano Islands Act]] of 1856, claimed the island for the [[United States|United States of America]], with earlier claim disputes to island guano tracing back to the [[Oceanic Phosphate Company]] with Mexico in 1848-49. |
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Bhattathiripad and Bhattathiri are surnames of some Namboothiri families. They are titles gained due to their scholarship. The three types of bhattathiris are Saasthra Bhattathiris, Smaartha Bhattathiris and Bhaagavatha Bhattathiris. The Saasthra Bhattathiris are Namboothiris who were honoured by this title after receiving the "Bhatta" title from the Zamorin raja of Kozhikode after passing various examinations conducted during the famous "Pattathaanam", on their scholarship in Sanskrit, Vedam, Linguistics, Astronomy, Astrology, Architecture, Meemaamsa, Tharkam (logic) and so on. Many elite Namboothiris became Bhattathiripad in this way. |
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On [[November 17]], [[1858]], under Emperor [[Napoleon III]], the French annexed Clipperton as part of their South Sea colony [[Tahiti]]. [[Mexico]] reasserted its claim over the island, on [[December 13]], [[1897]], occupying and annexing it, and established a military outpost on the island; it appointed military governors from that time, including [[Ramón Arnaud]] (1906-15). The US again held it briefly during the [[Spanish American War]] of 1898. |
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The Smaartha Bhattathiris specialised in conducting trials and bringing out the evidences from the mouth of the culprit, if a Namboothiri (man or woman) committed sins in social life. |
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Bhaagavatha Bhattathiris specialize in oratory and recitation of "Puraanams" (epics) like Bhaagavatham. Many Namboothiris became Bhattathiris in this manner. |
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===Azhvanchery Thamprakkal=== |
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The [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Pacific Island Company]] acquired the rights in 1906 to Clipperton's guano deposits and, in conjunction with the Mexican government, built a mining settlement. That year, a lighthouse was erected under the orders of [[List of Presidents of Mexico|President]] [[Porfirio Díaz]], and a military garrison under Captain Arnaud of the Mexican army was sent to the island. By 1914, about 100 people – men, women, and children – were living on the island. Every two months, a ship from [[Acapulco]] sailed to Clipperton with provisions. However, with the escalation of fighting in the [[Mexican Revolution]], the atoll was no longer reachable by ship, and the island's inhabitants were left to their own devices. |
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The [[Azhvanchery Thamprakkal]] is considered the highest authority among the Namboothiris and for any important matter on caste, religion, society etc within [[Kerala]] his opinion was final. |
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===Embranthiri=== |
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By 1915, most of the inhabitants had died, and the last settlers wanted to leave on the [[United States Navy|US Navy]] warship ''Lexington'', which had reached the atoll in late 1915. However, the Mexican military governor declared that evacuation was not necessary. |
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At present, the only known migration of Brahmins to Kerala is that of [[Shivalli|Tulu Brahmins]], The Tulu Brahmins brought to North Kerala (today's Kasaragod & Kannur Districts) during the 17th century, many of whom were resettled between today's Kottayam & Trivandrum Districts, and the later immigrants from Tulu and Chola regions constitute the Saagara, Samudra, Thonnoorukaar, and Thukalasseri Bhattathiris. Many of them were known as Embraanthiris. Many of them have, for practical purposes assimilated into the original Namboothiri community - practising rituals in the Namboothiri style, considered as equals, and even called Namboothiris, especially after the Temple-Entry Proclamation of the [[Travancore]] king in early 1900s. |
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However, neither they nor those who retained the Embraanthiri surnames may participate in rituals along with original Namboothiris. There is no ritual to convert others into Namboothiri community. So, practically, original Namboothiris do not accept these Embranthiris to participate in their ritual. Those Tulu Brahmins who are called Embranthiries still speak Tulu and are considered as Tulu Brahmins. The Malayalam speaking Embranthiris who have the Namboothiri surnames of "Namboothiri" and "Potty" are now considered Namboothiries but as secondary citizens. However there are very few Embranthiris who have assimilated to Namboothiri community fully and are now considered equal to original Namboothiries. In south Kerala, many old Namboothiri families keep the surname of Potty. (E.g the Thanthri family of Taazhman).In earlier times, males of there families were used to affix 'ru' to the end of their names (E.g Kantharu Sankararu). This practice is still continued by some families. The ending 'ru' is a honorific suffix in the Dravidian languages. |
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By 1917, all but one of the males on the island had died, some in a failed attempt to sail to the mainland and fetch help. The lighthouse keeper, Victoriano Álvarez, found himself the last man on Clipperton island, along with 15 women and children. Álvarez promptly proclaimed himself king and began a rampage of rape and murder, before being killed by one of the recipients of his attentions, the widow of garrison commander Captain [[Ramón Arnaud]]. On [[July 18]], [[1917]], almost immediately following Álvarez's death, four women and six children, the last survivors, were picked up by the US Navy gunship ''[[USS Yorktown (1888)|USS Yorktown]]''. |
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==Gothras and Pravaras== |
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Ownership of Clipperton was then disputed between [[France]] and [[Mexico]]. France approached the [[Holy See|Vatican]] for a decision on ownership and, in 1930, the Vatican assigned the arbitration to the King of Italy, [[Victor Emmanuel III of Italy|Victor Emmanuel]], who on [[January 28]], [[1931]], declared Clipperton a French possession. The French rebuilt the [[lighthouse]] and settled a military outpost on the island, which remained for seven years before being abandoned. In 1935 France took possession; it has since been administered by the French colonial high commissioner for French Polynesia. |
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Each Namboothiri male (or unmarried female) is identified by his/her respective paternal family name. A married female adopts her husband's family name. Each family is affiliated to a [[Gothra]] and Pravara. The Gothra name demonstrates the family's traditional style of knowledge acquisition and expertise in ancient theories. Based on the fact that cross-breeding of excellent but different species yields better quality, marriage from a family belonging to the same Gothra was and is still banned for Namboothiris. Looking from another angle, Namboothiris believe that marriage from the same Gothra has a better chance of generating mentally retarded or physically handicapped children or at least children of less intellectual capacity. Each Gothra has several sub-classes known as Pravara. If by mistake, a boy marries a girl of same Gothra, he is not allowed to have sex with her. He has to treat her like he treats his mother. |
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[[Image:LST-563 broached.jpg|thumb|left|[[Tank landing ship]] [[USS LST-563]] beached on Clipperton in 1944.]] |
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In the late 1930s, Clipperton was visited twice by President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], who wanted it to become a US possession for use as an airbase for [[Pacific Ocean]] operations. In 1944, he ordered the US Navy to occupy the island (until 1945) in one of the most secret US operations of [[World War II]]. [[Richard E. Byrd|Rear Admiral Byrd]] undertook several expeditions to the island to assess its potential as an airbase. |
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Common gothra (and their pravara in brackets) among Namboothiris are Bharadwaajam (Amgirasam, Bhaarhaspathyam, Bharadwaajam), Kousikam (Viswaamithram, Akhamarshanam, Kousikam ), Vaatsam ( Bhaargavam, Chyavanam, Aapthavaanam, Ourvam, Jaamadagnyam ), Koundinyam (Vaasishtam, Maithraavarunam, Koundinyam), Kaasyapam (Kaasyapam, Aavatsaaram, Naidruvam), Vaasishtam (Vaasishtam, Indrapradamam, Aabharaswath), Jaamadagnyam (Bhaargavam, Chyavanam, Aapthavaanam, Ourvam, Jaamadagnyam), Viswaamithram (Viswaamithram, Devaraatha Oudalam), Gouthamam (Amgirasam, Aayasyam, Gouthamam ), Athri (Aathreyam, Archanaanasam, Syavaaswam). |
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The island has been abandoned since [[World War II|WW II]]; since then it has only been visited by sport fishermen, regularly scheduled patrols by the French Navy, and Mexican [[tuna]] and [[shark]] fishermen. There have been infrequent scientific and [[amateur radio]] expeditions, and in 1978 [[Jacques-Yves Cousteau]] visited with his team of divers and a survivor from the 1917 evacuation to film a [[television]] special called ''Clipperton: The Island that Time Forgot.'' It was filmed less than a year after Cousteau's oldest son Phillipe died and is considered Cousteau's darkest film, a thematic exploration of death.<ref>Simon Rogerson, [http://www.divemagazine.co.uk/news/article.asp?UAN=2934&v=5&sp=332382698484330872538 "Cousteau and the Pit"], ''Dive magazine'', July 19, 2006.</ref> |
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Eight more Gothras also exist among Namboothiris, as branches of the Gothras listed above. They are Kutsam, Mudgalam, Aamgirasam, Gaargyam, Naidruvam, Saandilyam, Dhaananjayam, and Samkhyaayanam. |
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==Vedic tradition== |
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In 1962, the independence of Algeria threatened further French nuclear testing at [[Algeria]]n sites. The French Ministry of Defence considered Clipperton as a possible replacement test site; however, due to the island's hostile climate and remote location, this was eventually ruled out. |
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{{main|Shrauta}} |
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[[Image:Thrivikraman.jpg|thumb|270px|right|Late Paara Thrivikraman Namboothiri, Priest of [[Guruvayoor Temple]] holding the keys of the Sanctum. Image from 1960's]] |
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Namboothiries belong to three different Vedic groups, those who follow [[Yajur Veda]], those who follow [[Rig Veda]] and those who follow the [[Sama Veda]]. However there are Namboothiries who are barred from chanting of Vedas. These Veda-less Brahmins lost their right to chant Vedas due to some violations of the [[Dharma sutra]] rules at some point of time.{{Fact|date=July 2008}} |
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The Yajur Vedic Namboothiries follow the [[Black Yajur Veda]]. |
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Each Veda is divided in to ''[[Samhita]]'', ''[[Brahmana]]'' and ''[[Aranyaka]]''. The Namboothiries follow the Taittiriya Samhita. |
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The French explored reopening the lagoon and developing a harbour for trade and tourism during the 1970s. An automatic weather installation was completed on [[April 7]], [[1980]]. The data collected by this station are transmitted directly by satellite to [[Brittany]]. |
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Namboothiries divides the Black (Krishna) Yajur Veda in to Samhita and Sakha (Bramhana and Aranyaka part). Samhita consists of |
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[[Image:Carteactuelle.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Map of Clipperton Island]] |
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about 48 modules known as Parchams. Sakha consists of 36 Parchams. Each Parchams have sub-modules known as Anuvakam (Sanskrit) or Oath (Malayalam). Hence the Namboothiri name Oath for Vedas. |
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Sree Rudram is a parcham with eleven Anuvakas(Oaths) dedicated to Lord Rudra (Shiva). Another important Parchams are Chama koottam(Chamakam), Arunam and Aswamedham. All these Parchams are important to Namboothiri Yajur Vedi Bramhanas. The collection of the last three Anuvakas(Oaths) of the last Parcham (named Valli) of Sakha is known as the Tythireeya Upanishad. All the ten major Upanishads belongs to the three Vedas mentioned above. Majority of Namboothiries are Rig Vedic and are spread throughout Kerala. Then comes the Yajur Vedic ones, whose prime settlements are Perinchellur or [[Taliparamba]] of Kannur district and Perumanam ([[Cherpu]]) of Thrissur district. Less important ones are Irinjalakuda (Thrissur Dt) and Karikatt (Malappuram Dt). Samavedic Namboothiries form a minority and are located in pockets of Kottayam District and in Panjaal near Wadakkancherry division of Thrissur District. |
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===Vedic chanting=== |
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In 1981, the Academy of Sciences for Overseas Territories recommended that the island have its own economic infrastructure, with an airstrip and a fishing port in the [[lagoon]]. This meant opening up the lagoon by creating a passage in the atoll rim. For this purpose, an agreement whereby the island became state property was signed with the French government, represented by the High Commissioner for French Polynesia. On [[October 13]], [[1986]], a meeting took place regarding the establishment of a permanent base for fishing on or near Clipperton, between the high commissioner for the republic in [[French Polynesia]], representing the state, and the survey firm for the development and exploitation of the island (SEDEIC). Taking into account the economic constraints, the distance, and the small size of the atoll, no plan, apart from studies, was undertaken to carry out this project. The plans for development of Clipperton were abandoned. |
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{{main|Patha}} |
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Namboothiris, who are entitled to recite Vedams, have evolved a rich and diversified culture of Vedam recitation, following the Seeksha rules while chanting the Vedas. Most of Yajur Vedic Namboothiris (especially Boudhaayanas) follows the Seeksha of Vasishtha (Sage Vasishtha). The Veda chanting way divides all words in to Udatha (High Pitch), Anudatha (Low Pitch) and Swarita. Their recitation is quite different from traditional vedam recitations in other parts of India. This is due to a variety of features, such as the pronunciation of Sanskrit in Kerala. An Important feature is nasalization, a feature of Malayalam in general which seems to be relatively ancient (In Sanskrit it was called "anunaasika athiprasaram"). The methods of chanting by Namboothiris is thought to be one of the oldest forms in existence, and this has been confirmed by various linguists and scholars. The reason for the uncorrupted Vedic chanting by Namboothiris may also be connected with the isolated development of the Namboothiri tradition, which was not exposed to contact with other traditions. |
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Some Vedic scholars are called "ghanapaathins". It means they have learnt the chanting of the scripture up to the advanced stage called "Ghana". "Paathin" means one who has learnt the "paatha". Ghanapaathins chant the Ghana by intoning a few words of a mantra in different ways, back and forth. The sonority natural to Vedic chanting is enhanced in Ghana. Similarly, in the other methods of chanting like karma, jata, sikha, mala, and so on the intonation is nothing less than stately. ''The chief purpose of such methods is to ensure that even not even a syllable of Vedic chanting is altered to the slightest extent''. |
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In 1988, five Mexican fishermen became lost at sea after a storm that occurred during their trip along the coast of [[Costa Rica]]. They drifted as far as to see Clipperton, but were unable to reach it.<ref>Arias, Ron. ''Five against the sea: A true story of courage and survival'', 1989</ref> |
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There two special schools for the teaching of Rigvedam, one at [[Thrissur]] and the other at [[Thirunavaya]], in [[Malappuram]] district. The Thirunavaya School was formed by several Namboothiris and financed by [[Zamorin|Saamoothiri Raja]] of [[Malabar]]. The Thrissur school was supported by the [[Perumpadapu Swaroopam]] (Raja of Cochin). There are differences in the style of recitation of the two Rigvedic schools. The Thrissur school (Brahmaswam Madhom) has a few students even now, while the Thirunavaya school is not fully functioning. Fortunately, a few of its students are being taught at home. The Thrissur school recently started admitting children of families, which originally followed Thirunavaya style. In the Yajurvedam, there are also two traditions that differ slightly in style of recitation, the Peruvanam School tradition and the Irinjalakuda School tradition. Now mostly, the Yajurvedam and Saamavedam are being taught in homes. |
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The Mexican and French oceanographic expedition SURPACLIP (UNAM Mexico and UNC Nouméa) made extensive studies in 1997 on and around the island. In 2001, French geographer Ch. Jost extended the 1997 studies through his French "Passion 2001" expedition, explaining the evolution of the ecosystem, and releasing several papers, a video film, and a website [http://clipperton.fr]. In 2003 [http://www.milbrandcinema.com/ Lance Milbrand] stayed on the island for 41 days on a [[National Geographic Society]] expedition, recording his adventure in video, photos, and a written diary (links below). |
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===Yajna=== |
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In 2005, Clipperton's [[ecosystem]] was extensively studied for four months by a scientific mission organized by [[Jean-Louis Étienne]], which was to make a complete inventory of mineral, plant, and animal species found on the atoll, study algae as deep as 100 m below sea level, study pollution, etc. |
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Being [[Śrauta]] Brahmins, Namboothiris perform mostly two types of yajnas: [[Agnistoma]], generally known as [[Somayajna]], and [[Atiratra]] ([[Agnicayana]]), popularly known as Agni. While performing of Somayajna makes a Namboothiri a complete (Nityam) Brahman, Atiratra is only optional. |
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The three types of Atiratra [[Vedic altar|altars]] constructed by Namboothiris are six-tipped, five-tipped and Peetthan. The six-tipped Agnichayanam and five-tipped are the most common and Namboothiris still practice them. The Peetthan (square bird) has not been constructed for some 150 years.{{Fact|date=July 2008}} |
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On [[February 21]], [[2007]], the administration of Clipperton was transferred from the [[High Commissioner]] of the Republic in [[French Polynesia]] to the Minister of Overseas France. [http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Fr_minor.html] |
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The Yajnamana (master / leader) is the person who actually performs Yagna. Not all Namboothiris are permitted to perform Yanjna. Only Namboothiris of Aadu class can perform Yajna. The Yajnamana has to be a male Namboothiri having several pre-requisites and qualifications. |
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After yajna, the Threthaagnis (the three spiritual fires attained through Yaagam) are shown (Kaachi) at and invoked back to the Arani. Once the Threthaagni is invoked back to Arani, the remaining fire in the Yaagasala has conceptually become forest fire with no spiritual content. Also, the Yaagasala has lost its divine nature. The Yaagasaala is set fire to with this fire. |
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The Threthaagni is taken to the Yajamaanan's residence (Illam) and placed in an appropriate location like Vadukkini or Padinjaatti (two rooms in a Namboothiri Illam). The Somayaaga (or Athiraathra) is now over and the Yajamaanan now becomes a Somayaaji (or Akkithiri) and his wife (wives), Paththanaadi. |
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It is using this Threthaagni that the Somayaaji (or Akkithiri) and Paththanaadi perform the rituals, viz., Agnihothram, twice daily, and other rituals through out their married life. |
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===Temple rituals=== |
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A recreational scuba diving expedition by the liveaboard scuba diving vessel [[M/V Nautilus Explorer]] dove the reefs around Clipperton from [[April 15]] to [[April 20]], [[2007]] to observe the marine life and compare against life reported during the Connie Limbaugh (Scripps) expeditions in 1956 and 1958. |
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Namboothiris follow vedic tradition for their spiritual life and [[Smartha]] tradition for their social life. They follow the concept of "Sankaranarayanan" (combination of [[Shaivism]] and [[Vaishnavism]]), unlike other brahmins. Namboothiris do poojas in temples based on Tantra Vidhi. Tantra Vidhi clearly describes the Moola (Basic) mantra of the Gods and Goddesses and their form, and weapons they hold on their arms etc. It begins with chanting of Punyaha Mantra which is in the Samhita part of Vedas. Many Mantras from Tythireeya Samhita of [[Yajur Veda]] , [[Rig Veda]] and [[Sama Veda]] Mantras are used in special poojas and Kalasam, Panchagavyam, Sreebhootavali and Navakam rituals done by Namboothiris in Temples. |
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== |
===Tantram=== |
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Tantra Vidhi forbids use of utensils made of iron/steel in temples. Only utensils made of earthen pot, bronze, silver and gold are used. Also Namboothiris perform poojas in a very Satwik way consisting of Jala, Gandhah , Pushpa, Deepa, Dhoopa tradition. Use of meat and alcohol is strictly forbidden. Offerings to God are mostly payasams, rice, puffed rice, coconut and Kadali Banana fruit. Flowers used for Pooja are different for different Gods and Goddesses. The clothing used for many Gods' and Goddesses' are: |
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*[[Islands controlled by France in the Indian and Pacific oceans]] |
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Satwik Durga - Green, White. Flower- Tulasi, Sandalpaste. |
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Kali- Red. Flower- Red Flowers. |
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Vishnu/Krishna -Yellow. |
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Sastha (Ayyappa) -Black, Blue. |
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Shiva - None. |
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The daily rituals in Kerala temples are traditionally performed by Namboothiris, and often by Embranthiri migrants from the neighbouring Karnataka, but not by Tamil Brahmins. Even among Namboothiris, only certain designated families deserve to become "Thanthris". Thanthris have to perform the incredible task of transferring ("Aavaahanam") the aura ("Chaithanyam") of God and energizing the idol. There have been numerous books on this topics, written by Namboothiris. The treatises may be divided into three categories - Aagamams (Shaivam), Samhithas (Vaishnavam) and Thanthrams (Saaktheyam). Aagamams include Nigamam versions too. The former are Shivan's advice to Parvathy, while Nigamams are spoken by Parvathy to Sivan. Other classifications are regional, like Vishnukraanthaa, Rathhakraanthaa and Aswaakraanthaa, and also like Yaamalams and Daamarams. Usually, all branches of knowledge are dealt with in Thanthra Granthams. |
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==Sources and external links== |
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* {{fr icon}} [http://www.outre-mer.gouv.fr/outremer/front?id=outremer/decouvrir_outre_mer/clipperton_1049905838308 Official site] |
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In Shiva temples Namboothiris perform Abhishekam chanting the Sree Rudram which is one of the forty eight modules of Tythireeya Samhita of Yajur Veda. In other temples Bhagya Sooktam, Purusha Sooktam, Narayana Sooktam are chanted. Namboothiries also perform Othoottu in temples were entire Samhita part of Vedas are chanted. |
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* {{fr icon}} [http://www.clipperton.fr 80 pages from C. Jost, CNRS, researcher's site] |
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* {{fr icon}} [http://www.jeanlouisetienne.com/clipperton/default.cfm Site of Jean-Louis Étienne's expedition] |
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==Marriage== |
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*[http://www.infoplease.com/spot/desertisland3.html Clipperton Island at Infoplease] |
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The Namboothiri women are called ''Antherjanam'', the literal meaning being "people inside the house." The travel of Namboothiri girls were limited to the temples or to the house of their immediate relatives, but that too had to be accompanied by a maid servant. |
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*{{wikitravelpar|Clipperton Island}} |
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*[http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Fr_minor.html WorldStatesmen- France- Minor possessions] |
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The Namboothiri believed that the girl, during infancy, childhood and youth, is under the wings of gods Soman, Gandharvan and Agni respectively. God Viswavasa protects her virginity. Hence the bridegroom has to thank Viswavasa for protecting her till marriage and then marry her in the presence of Agni. Namboothiri marriage is a four day long ritual. |
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*[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/08/photogalleries/clipperton/photo2.html Lance Milbrand's castaway photo album at NationalGeographic.com] |
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*[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/08/0828_030829_milbrandjournal1.html Lance Milbrand's Clipperton diary at NationalGeographic.com] |
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====Sambandham==== |
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*[http://diver.net/chris/2007.04.10-25/ Chris Grossman's pictures from the 2007 ''Nautilus Explorer'' expedition to Clipperton Island] |
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{{main|Sambandham}} |
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*[http://www.clipperton2008.org/ The 2008 Amateur Radio "DXpedition"] |
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*[http://www.divemagazine.co.uk/news/article.asp?UAN=2934&v=5&sp=332382698484330872538 "Cousteau and the Pit"], Simon Rogerson, ''Dive magazine'', July 19, 2006. |
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Until 1933, only the eldest brother in a Namboothiri family was entitled to legitimate marriage within the Namboothiri caste. His younger brothers were supposed to practice pure ''[[Brahmachari| Brahmacharyam]]'' by being unmarried and to dedicate themselves towards the study and preservation of the [[Veda]]s and rituals. Apart from this, those younger brothers, who opted to marry within the caste were [[excommunicate]]d from the family. Except for a few intelligent and studious ones,{{Fact|date=August 2008}} most younger brothers turned to more lucrative and worldly affairs like [[Sambandham]]. |
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''[[Sambandham]]'' was the system of marriage amongst the [[Malayala Kshatriya|Kshatriya]],[[Nair]] and [[Ambalavasi]] communities in Kerala. Namboothiris entered into [[Sambandham]]s with [[Nair]], [[Malayala Kshatriya|Kshatriya]] and [[Ambalavasi]] women. Since these castes followed the matriarchal system of family and inheritance, known as [[Marumakkathayam]] and [[Tharavadu]] respectively, the issue of Sambandhams with Namboothiris were considered as members of their mother's [[Tharavadu]] and caste. Thus the father had no legal duties towards the child. |
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Sambandham was beneficial for both the groups involved.{{Fact|date=August 2008}} For the Namboothiris is prevented disintegration and division of property. For the [[matriarchal]] castes, particularly the Royal [[Malayala Kshatriya|Kshatriya]] families and the [[Nair]]s, Sambandham was a matter of prestige. Thus Sambandham as a system was encouraged by both, the Namboothiris and the [[Marumakkathayam]] [[savarna]] castes. |
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The rituals in Sambandham are not sanctified according to Vedic rites, since [[Sambandham]] is not supported by blessings from God through [[Mantra]]s and advises to the bride, through '''"Veli Othu"''', a part of Rigveda which is considered legitimate marriage. This is why Sambandham was considered a unsolemnised marriage. However [[Sambandham]] did have a [[Hindu]] religious aspect to it as the actual ritual included the necessity of the presence of [[Agni]] or sacred fire in the form of a simple lamp as also a piece of red silk, the colour of matrimony. Thus it was considered a form of marital alliance which was held legal and the children of such alliances were considered legitimate. Thus the children of a Namboothiri, from his "Veli" Namboothiri wife as also from his [[Nair]] Sambandham wife were considered legitimate. The only difference was that while the issue of the former, being Namboothiris, succeeded their fathers while the latter had no right of succession to their patrimony being inferior in terms of caste as also due to the existing law of [[Marumakkathayam]]. |
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Till the early ages of the common era there was no practise of [[Sambandham]] and the practise might have started and encouraged by the [[Malayala Kshatriyas]] of Kerala in the later ages when Kshatriyas of Kerala who fought amongst themselves found it difficult to establish marriage relationships among themselves. Sambandhams, besides, gave the Namboothiris a position of importance in the politics of [[Kerala]]. By marrying girls from powerful [[Malayala Kshatriya|Kshatriya]] Royal houses and [[Nair]] families they secured a hold over both, the royalty and the nobility of the land, which benefitted their establishment in [[Kerala]]. Thus, till recently the princesses of the [[Cochin Royal Family]] were espoused only by Namboothiris while the princes consorted with [[Nair]] ladies known as [[Panapillai Amma|Nethyar Amma]]s. |
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The practise of Sambandham badly affected the Nambudiri community. Though it avoided partition of property and Temples administered, it prevented the family size from increasing. Newer Namboothiri families also didn't rise due to this practise. Namboothiri population became dependent on the number of houses (Illams) already existent while the population of [[Nair]] and other [[savarna]] castes steadily increased and Namboothiri population remained stagnant due to [[Sambandham]]. This led to a steady decrease in the percentage of Namboothiri population in Kerala. Today there are only an estimated 200,000 to 300,000 Namboothiries world wide. |
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With the spread of western education by the late 19th century modern thought within [[Kerala]] moved towards the end of Sambandham connections between the Namboothiris and [[Nairs]]. With the passage of legislation in 1933 in the [[Madras Presidency]] district of [[Malabar]] and previously in the [[princely state]]s of [[Travancore]] and [[Kingdom of Cochin|Cochin]], by which [[Sambandham]] was considered equal to "Veli" or legitimate marriage, thereby giving right of succession to the non Namboothiri children of Namboothiri men to their paternal estate, within a short period of less than a decade, the Sambandham system of informal marriage which bound the Namboothiris and [[Nair]]s together came to an end. |
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==Caste system== |
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The caste system enforced by certain sections of the Namboothiris in Kerala was one of the most rigid in whole India. Elayath and Moosad were liberal and progressive in their attitude and mingled with non-Brahmin communities and fought against the rigidity of caste system.The rules of untouchability across various levels of castes, and sub castes also. They considered all other castes as Shudra, and they practiced untouchability and "aiyitham" with their own lower subsects and with Tamil, Konkani and other Brahmins and their own blood related Nair cousins. the regulation on the language used, the regulations on the dress, the regulations on the place of dwelling and also on the construction of the houses were either extreme form of caste rules or unheard of in other parts of India. |
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[[Vivekananda]], a Hindu monk, famously declared Kerala "a lunatic asylum of castes" after observing the strange caste practices in the society. |
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==Social reforms== |
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The influence of [[communism]] during the start of 20th century made drastic effects on this otherwise orthodox community. The Land Reforms Act, also caused a heavy blow on this community along with their [[Nair]] cousins, as large ancestral estates were taken away from them. |
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'''Namboothiri Yogakshema Mahaasabha''', an association of Namboothiris founded in 1908, took a decision in 1919 and agitated for marriage of all Namboothiris within the community. Sabha declared the marriages of younger brothers from within the community as official, irrespective of whether the elder brothers were married or not. The aim was embodied in the '''Madras Namboothiri Act of 1933'''. In the same year, the '''Madras Marumakkathayam Act''' was passed, by which [[Sambandham]] was considered as a regular marriage, conferring on the children the same rights of inheritance and property as held by children whose parents were both Namboothiris. The declaration and these Acts led to a sudden decline in the number of Sambandham marriages, and this unethical practice ended shortly (in about ten years). Following these acts, Namboothiri land was increasingly partitioned and property dispersed. |
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The stoppage of Sambandham led to a liberation of Namboothiri wives and girls. They were the major sufferers due to unavailability of Namboothiri boys for marriage because of the above mentioned social taboos, and lot of these girls were married to the same Namboothiri and polygamy was the norm of the day{{Fact|date=January 2008}}. |
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==References== |
==References== |
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{{reflist}} |
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*Jost, C. and S. Andrefouët, 2006, Review of long term natural and human perturbations and current status of Clipperton Atoll, a remote island of the Eastern Pacific, ''Pacific Conservation Biology,'' Surrey Beatty & Sons Pty Ltd, Chipping Norton, NSW, Australia, 12 : 3 |
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*Jost, C., 2005g, Risques environnementaux et enjeux à Clipperton (Pacifique français). ''Revue européenne Cybergeo,'' 314, 01 juillet 2005, cartes et fig., 15 p. http://193.55.107.45/eurogeo2.htm |
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*Marjatta Parpola, ''Kerala Brahmins in Transition: A Study of a Namputiri Family'', Studia Orientalia, vol. 91. Helsinki, Finnish *Oriental Society (2000); review: Rich Freeman, American Oriental Society (2004). |
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*Jost, C., 2005f, Bibliographie de l’île de Clipperton, île de La Passion (1711-2005). Paris, ''Journal de la Société des Océanistes,'' 120-121, juin-déc. 2005, texte et 411 réf., p.181-197. |
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*Nambutiris By Fred Fawcett , published by Asian Educational Services New Delhi* Madras*2001 |
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*Dickinson, Edwin D. ''The Clipperton Island Case''. ''American Journal of International Law,'' Vol. 27, No. 1., pp. 130-133. |
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*[[Travancore]] State Manual by T.K. Velu Pillai (1940) |
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*Allen, G. R. and D. R. Robertson. 1996. ''An annotated checklist of the fishes of Clipperton Atoll, tropical eastern Pacific''. Retrieved (2001) from: <http://www.ots.ac.cr/rbt/revistas/45-2/allen.htm>. |
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*IFRECOR. 1998. Clipperton. Retrieved (2001) from: <http://www.reefbase.org/Summaries/pdf/Clipperton1998.pdf>. |
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==See also== |
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*Pitman, R. L. and J. R. Jehl, 1998. Geographic variation and reassessment of species limits in the "masked" boobies of the eastern Pacific Ocean. ''Wilson Bulletin'' 110:155-170. |
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* [[List of Namboothiris]] |
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*Restrepo, Laura. ''La Isla de la Pasión.'' (A version of the tragic events which took place in Clipperton put in the form of a novel) |
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* [[Brahmins]] |
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*Sachet, M. H. 1962. Flora and vegetation of Clipperton Island. ''Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences.'' 4th ser., v.31, no.10. The Academy, San Francisco. |
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* [[Pushpaka Brahmin]] |
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* Skaggs, Jimmy. 1989. ''Clipperton. A History of the Island the World Forgot''. Walker and Company. New York. |
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* [[Forward Castes]] |
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*Snodgrass, R. E. and E. Heller. 1902. ''The birds of Clipperton and Cocos Islands; Papers from the Hopkins Stanford Galapagos expedition 1898-1899''. The Academy, Washington, DC. |
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* [[Caste system in Kerala]] |
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* Tamburini Francesco, La controversia tra Francia e Messico sulla sovranità dell’isola di Clipperton e l’arbitrato di Vittorio Emanuele III (1909-1931), in “Ricordo di Alberto Aquarone, Studi di Storia", Pisa, Edizioni Plus, 2008 |
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* [[Nair]] |
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*UNEP/IUCN. 1988. ''Coral Reefs of the World''. Volume 3: Central and Western Pacific. UNEP Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN/UNEP, Gland, Switzerland, Cambridge, UK, and Nairobi, Kenya. |
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* [[Kshatriya]] |
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<references /> |
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==External links== |
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{{Countries of North America}} |
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*[http://www.namboothiri.com Namboothiri Websites Trust] |
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{{French overseas departments and territories}} |
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*[http://www.agni.ws Arena for Global Namboothiri's Interaction] |
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{{Outlying territories of European countries}} |
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*[http://www.yogakshemasabha.com/ Yogakshema Sabha] |
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{{EU Dependencies}} |
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[[Category:Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands]] |
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[[Category:Uninhabited islands]] |
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[[Category:Pacific Ocean atolls]] |
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[[Category:Islands claimed under the Guano Islands Act]] |
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Revision as of 04:49, 10 October 2008
| File:Adi Shankara recoloured.jpg Adi Shankaracharya (centre) was a Namboothiri Brahmin who popularized Advaita Vedanta | |
| Total population | |
|---|---|
| approx. 250,000 (0.7% of Malayali population) | |
| Regions with significant populations | |
| Languages | |
| Malayalam | |
| Religion | |
| Hinduism | |
| Related ethnic groups | |
| Nairs, Samanta Kshatriyas, Pushpaka Brahmins, Pancha-Dravida Brahmins |
| Part of a series on |
| Hinduism |
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The Nambudiri Brahmins (Malayalam: നമ്പൂതിരി nambũdiri, also transliterated Namputiri, Namboothiri) are the upper class Brahmins of Kerala, who are considered the most orthodox Brahmins in India.[1] Its members regard themselves as the true repositories of the ancient Vedic religion and of the traditional Hindu code[2]. They perform rituals in temples of Kerala based on Tantra Vidhi, a complex and ancient branch of Tantric traditions found only in Kerala, and some Mahakshetras ("Great Temples") around India (which have a Nambudiri acting as the Head Priest). Namboothiris follow the conservative and ritualistic Śrauta traditions and the ancient Purva Mimamsa, unlike the majority of other Brahmins in India who follow the Vedanta.
Nambuthiri Brahmins have the sole right of conducting rituals in Kerala (also including Kanyakumari). Some major Mahakshetras around India (including North India) have a Nambudiri priest as the Head Tantri. Only a Nambudiri can become the Rawal, Head Priest, at Badrinath in Uttarakhand,[3]and the Chief Priest at Mookambika Temple in Kollur, Karnataka, Pashupatinath Temple in Kathmandu, Nepal and other Mahakshetras around India. The reason behind this practice is that these temples were founded and sanctified by the great Saint Philosopher Adi Shankaracharya, who was born as a Nambudiri Brahmin.
The Nambudiri Brahmins are renowned for their rigid orthodoxy and sense of caste and purity (Shudham). Although untouchability is now absent in India; in the past Nambudiris considered themselves polluted by even the touch of other Brahmins: Embraan Shudham (by the touch of Tulu Brahmins), Eda Shudham (touch of Tamil Brahmins such as Iyer, Iyengar, Pattar which required the Nambudiri to bathe before resuming activities). [4] Also the Nambudiris were one of the only Hindu communities in India where women were required to wear a veil (Ghosha) in public (a practice abandoned since the 1930s). Members of the community who did not abide by these regulations faced excommunication (Brashtu), the last case occurring in 1918.[5]
The Nambudiri caste follows a distinctive marriage alliance with the important warrior caste of the Nayars. Though the eldest son of a Nambudiri household customarily marries a Nambudiri woman, thus observing the typical caste practice of endogamy, the younger sons marry Nayar women and obey the matrilineal-descent system of the Nayars. In contrast to other Brahman castes in southern India, the Nambudiris place great emphasis on their priestly status and do not normally engage in profitable professions. They derive their wealth from their landholdings, previously having been one of the chief landowners of Kerala along with the Nayar (before the Land Reforms Ordinance).[6]
Etymology
Malayalam nambũdiri, Tamil nambũri is derived from nambuka "to trust" and tiri (from Sanskrit śrī) "blessed". Popular etymology derives the name from Malayalam nambu "the Veda", ōthu "to teach" and tiri "holy".[7] It is also believed that "Namude Thamburan" (Malayalam: Our Lord) was condensed, and the honorific title of "thiri" (to show Brahminhood) was added to form "Nambuthiri".
Female Nambudiri Brahmins have the surname Antharjanam which literally means "People inside the house".
Origins
The ancient Sangam literature mentions Brahmins of Chera Kingdom (which became Kerala) who may be Namboothiris as there is mention of Perinchellur(Taliparamba) village, which is one of the most important villages for Namboothiris, as a great Vedic village. There is no concrete evidence to suggest migration of Namboothiri Brahmins to Kerala. The only evidence of Brahmin migration to Kerala is the Embranthiris who were originally Tulu Brahmins.
Myth of origin
The Namboothiris' own tradition holds that Parashuraaman used his Parashu (Axe), to create new land for the Brahmins. Parashuraaman legend is first mentioned in Keralolpathy written in relatively modern period in 1600s (and also Kerala Mahatmiyam which is a part of Brahmanda purana written in Sanskrit).
The legend of Parasurama also exists amongst Brahmins throughout India. He is worshipped in UP and Bihar by Bhumihar Brahmins, Chitpawan Brahmins in Maharashtra and Saraswat Brahmins in Goa. These Brahmin subcastes also hold that they are those Brahmins who were the followers of Bhagwan Parashuram or Parashuraaman or they were created by him. Hence it has to be seen as a myth not exclusive to Namboothiris and Kerala alone. This legend is also present in KeralaMahatmyam (a Sanskrit text which is a part of Brahmanda Purana) as also in Keralaolpathy in Malayalam.
According to this, the land area that Kerala Lord Parashurama created was of 160 "Katams" (a measure of area) in size. The land from Gokarna in the north to the River Chandragiri Puzha in modern Kasargod District of north Kerala is Tulu Nad where Lord Parasurama established 32 villages. South of Chandragiri river he established another 32 villages which are normally referred to as Namboothiri Gramams or villages. Although there are 32 Namboothiri villages spanning from Kasargod in north Kerala to the south, all the important Namboothiri villages both in number of Namboothiri population and importance with respect to Veda prominence and the like are located between river ChandragiriPuzha (Kasargod District) and River Karivannoor Puzha just south of Cherpu in Thrissur District. The Namboothiri Gramams between these two rivers are ten in number. They are Perinchellur(Taliparamba), Payyannur, Alathur, Panniyur (Anakkara, Palghat District), Karikatt(Manjery) and Sukapuram(Edappal); both in Malappuram District, Perumanam or Peruvanam(Cherpu) in Thrissur District and three more. The other 22 Gramams are located in southern parts of Thrissur District and Southern Districts of Kerala. Malayalam was not developed at the time of Adhi Shakaracharya. Hence the etymology could be taken from Tamil language which he know. There are two aspects in finding the etymology. Oneis that in Tamil'nam'means'our' and puthiri is from putham which means something of immensity. Namputhiri simply means our 'great people'. The other aspect is that the ancient Tamil Grammar of Tholkappiyam was from Kerala. In the section of Marabial, mention is made of the five elements of earth, water, fire, skies and space. These are even now called the five puthams or buhthams. These learned Namputhiris incorporated it from the Greek source[citation needed]. Hence they are called Namputhiris.
Classes of Namboothiri
There are five subdivisions within the Nambudiri caste: The Tampurakkal are the highest in status, the Adhyas, who are temple priests and who form an endogamous subcaste with the Tampurakkal, the Visistas, the Samanyas and the Jatimatras, who practice Ayurveda.[8]
The original Namboothiris are classified into ten sects:[citation needed] These ten classes and their rights and duties are
- 1. Aadu: They are specialised in Yaagam, and have Yaagaadhikaaram or the right to perform Yaagam.
- 2. Edu (a page in a book, symbolising knowledge): They have the right to acquire knowledge and teach Sanskrit, Vedam, Linguistics, Astronomy, Astrology, Architecture and so on.
- 3. Bhiksha (alms, symbolising a saint or a samnyaasi): They have the right to become a saint (or samnyaasi).
- 4. Picha (also means alms, in crude form): They are Othikkans, helping other Namboothiris to perform rituals.
- 5. Othu (Spiritual hymns): This class of Namboothiris was basically teachers of Othu (Vedam).
- 6. Saanthi (temple priesthood): These Namboothiris are priests in temples.
- 7. Adukkala (kitchen, symbolising cooking): These Namboothiri families were specialists in large-scale cooking and catering. A family belonging to this group has to be consulted on all catering-related issues including for Yaagam.
- 8. Arangu (stage): This special group of Namboothiris, called Chaathira Namboothiris, was a military group. Their evening entertainment was Panemkali (Sanghakkali).
- 9. Panthi (dining structure): Namboothiris like Graamani, Thangal, Vaal-Nambi and Ashtavaidyans (all Mooss families except Vaidhyamadham) belong to this category. Vaidhyamadham, though an Ashtavaidyan, belongs to Aadu class, as they are the Vaidyans in the Yaagasaala (the hall where Yaagam is performed). Mooss families are not included in the above eight classes as these physicians perform surgery. Graamani Namboothiris, Thangal Namboothiris and Vaal Nambis are Namboothiris performing village administration and hence excluded from the above eight classes.
- 10. Kadavu (bathing points in the pond): Elayath and Adikal are Namboothiris belonging to this category. In elite sub-class of Aadu class above, is a special group of Namboothiris known as "Ashtagrihathil Aadhyanmaar" (eight elite families).
The Bhatta title
Bhattathiripad and Bhattathiri are surnames of some Namboothiri families. They are titles gained due to their scholarship. The three types of bhattathiris are Saasthra Bhattathiris, Smaartha Bhattathiris and Bhaagavatha Bhattathiris. The Saasthra Bhattathiris are Namboothiris who were honoured by this title after receiving the "Bhatta" title from the Zamorin raja of Kozhikode after passing various examinations conducted during the famous "Pattathaanam", on their scholarship in Sanskrit, Vedam, Linguistics, Astronomy, Astrology, Architecture, Meemaamsa, Tharkam (logic) and so on. Many elite Namboothiris became Bhattathiripad in this way. The Smaartha Bhattathiris specialised in conducting trials and bringing out the evidences from the mouth of the culprit, if a Namboothiri (man or woman) committed sins in social life. Bhaagavatha Bhattathiris specialize in oratory and recitation of "Puraanams" (epics) like Bhaagavatham. Many Namboothiris became Bhattathiris in this manner.
Azhvanchery Thamprakkal
The Azhvanchery Thamprakkal is considered the highest authority among the Namboothiris and for any important matter on caste, religion, society etc within Kerala his opinion was final.
Embranthiri
At present, the only known migration of Brahmins to Kerala is that of Tulu Brahmins, The Tulu Brahmins brought to North Kerala (today's Kasaragod & Kannur Districts) during the 17th century, many of whom were resettled between today's Kottayam & Trivandrum Districts, and the later immigrants from Tulu and Chola regions constitute the Saagara, Samudra, Thonnoorukaar, and Thukalasseri Bhattathiris. Many of them were known as Embraanthiris. Many of them have, for practical purposes assimilated into the original Namboothiri community - practising rituals in the Namboothiri style, considered as equals, and even called Namboothiris, especially after the Temple-Entry Proclamation of the Travancore king in early 1900s.
However, neither they nor those who retained the Embraanthiri surnames may participate in rituals along with original Namboothiris. There is no ritual to convert others into Namboothiri community. So, practically, original Namboothiris do not accept these Embranthiris to participate in their ritual. Those Tulu Brahmins who are called Embranthiries still speak Tulu and are considered as Tulu Brahmins. The Malayalam speaking Embranthiris who have the Namboothiri surnames of "Namboothiri" and "Potty" are now considered Namboothiries but as secondary citizens. However there are very few Embranthiris who have assimilated to Namboothiri community fully and are now considered equal to original Namboothiries. In south Kerala, many old Namboothiri families keep the surname of Potty. (E.g the Thanthri family of Taazhman).In earlier times, males of there families were used to affix 'ru' to the end of their names (E.g Kantharu Sankararu). This practice is still continued by some families. The ending 'ru' is a honorific suffix in the Dravidian languages.
Gothras and Pravaras
Each Namboothiri male (or unmarried female) is identified by his/her respective paternal family name. A married female adopts her husband's family name. Each family is affiliated to a Gothra and Pravara. The Gothra name demonstrates the family's traditional style of knowledge acquisition and expertise in ancient theories. Based on the fact that cross-breeding of excellent but different species yields better quality, marriage from a family belonging to the same Gothra was and is still banned for Namboothiris. Looking from another angle, Namboothiris believe that marriage from the same Gothra has a better chance of generating mentally retarded or physically handicapped children or at least children of less intellectual capacity. Each Gothra has several sub-classes known as Pravara. If by mistake, a boy marries a girl of same Gothra, he is not allowed to have sex with her. He has to treat her like he treats his mother.
Common gothra (and their pravara in brackets) among Namboothiris are Bharadwaajam (Amgirasam, Bhaarhaspathyam, Bharadwaajam), Kousikam (Viswaamithram, Akhamarshanam, Kousikam ), Vaatsam ( Bhaargavam, Chyavanam, Aapthavaanam, Ourvam, Jaamadagnyam ), Koundinyam (Vaasishtam, Maithraavarunam, Koundinyam), Kaasyapam (Kaasyapam, Aavatsaaram, Naidruvam), Vaasishtam (Vaasishtam, Indrapradamam, Aabharaswath), Jaamadagnyam (Bhaargavam, Chyavanam, Aapthavaanam, Ourvam, Jaamadagnyam), Viswaamithram (Viswaamithram, Devaraatha Oudalam), Gouthamam (Amgirasam, Aayasyam, Gouthamam ), Athri (Aathreyam, Archanaanasam, Syavaaswam). Eight more Gothras also exist among Namboothiris, as branches of the Gothras listed above. They are Kutsam, Mudgalam, Aamgirasam, Gaargyam, Naidruvam, Saandilyam, Dhaananjayam, and Samkhyaayanam.
Vedic tradition
Namboothiries belong to three different Vedic groups, those who follow Yajur Veda, those who follow Rig Veda and those who follow the Sama Veda. However there are Namboothiries who are barred from chanting of Vedas. These Veda-less Brahmins lost their right to chant Vedas due to some violations of the Dharma sutra rules at some point of time.[citation needed] The Yajur Vedic Namboothiries follow the Black Yajur Veda.
Each Veda is divided in to Samhita, Brahmana and Aranyaka. The Namboothiries follow the Taittiriya Samhita.
Namboothiries divides the Black (Krishna) Yajur Veda in to Samhita and Sakha (Bramhana and Aranyaka part). Samhita consists of about 48 modules known as Parchams. Sakha consists of 36 Parchams. Each Parchams have sub-modules known as Anuvakam (Sanskrit) or Oath (Malayalam). Hence the Namboothiri name Oath for Vedas. Sree Rudram is a parcham with eleven Anuvakas(Oaths) dedicated to Lord Rudra (Shiva). Another important Parchams are Chama koottam(Chamakam), Arunam and Aswamedham. All these Parchams are important to Namboothiri Yajur Vedi Bramhanas. The collection of the last three Anuvakas(Oaths) of the last Parcham (named Valli) of Sakha is known as the Tythireeya Upanishad. All the ten major Upanishads belongs to the three Vedas mentioned above. Majority of Namboothiries are Rig Vedic and are spread throughout Kerala. Then comes the Yajur Vedic ones, whose prime settlements are Perinchellur or Taliparamba of Kannur district and Perumanam (Cherpu) of Thrissur district. Less important ones are Irinjalakuda (Thrissur Dt) and Karikatt (Malappuram Dt). Samavedic Namboothiries form a minority and are located in pockets of Kottayam District and in Panjaal near Wadakkancherry division of Thrissur District.
Vedic chanting
Namboothiris, who are entitled to recite Vedams, have evolved a rich and diversified culture of Vedam recitation, following the Seeksha rules while chanting the Vedas. Most of Yajur Vedic Namboothiris (especially Boudhaayanas) follows the Seeksha of Vasishtha (Sage Vasishtha). The Veda chanting way divides all words in to Udatha (High Pitch), Anudatha (Low Pitch) and Swarita. Their recitation is quite different from traditional vedam recitations in other parts of India. This is due to a variety of features, such as the pronunciation of Sanskrit in Kerala. An Important feature is nasalization, a feature of Malayalam in general which seems to be relatively ancient (In Sanskrit it was called "anunaasika athiprasaram"). The methods of chanting by Namboothiris is thought to be one of the oldest forms in existence, and this has been confirmed by various linguists and scholars. The reason for the uncorrupted Vedic chanting by Namboothiris may also be connected with the isolated development of the Namboothiri tradition, which was not exposed to contact with other traditions.
Some Vedic scholars are called "ghanapaathins". It means they have learnt the chanting of the scripture up to the advanced stage called "Ghana". "Paathin" means one who has learnt the "paatha". Ghanapaathins chant the Ghana by intoning a few words of a mantra in different ways, back and forth. The sonority natural to Vedic chanting is enhanced in Ghana. Similarly, in the other methods of chanting like karma, jata, sikha, mala, and so on the intonation is nothing less than stately. The chief purpose of such methods is to ensure that even not even a syllable of Vedic chanting is altered to the slightest extent.
There two special schools for the teaching of Rigvedam, one at Thrissur and the other at Thirunavaya, in Malappuram district. The Thirunavaya School was formed by several Namboothiris and financed by Saamoothiri Raja of Malabar. The Thrissur school was supported by the Perumpadapu Swaroopam (Raja of Cochin). There are differences in the style of recitation of the two Rigvedic schools. The Thrissur school (Brahmaswam Madhom) has a few students even now, while the Thirunavaya school is not fully functioning. Fortunately, a few of its students are being taught at home. The Thrissur school recently started admitting children of families, which originally followed Thirunavaya style. In the Yajurvedam, there are also two traditions that differ slightly in style of recitation, the Peruvanam School tradition and the Irinjalakuda School tradition. Now mostly, the Yajurvedam and Saamavedam are being taught in homes.
Yajna
Being Śrauta Brahmins, Namboothiris perform mostly two types of yajnas: Agnistoma, generally known as Somayajna, and Atiratra (Agnicayana), popularly known as Agni. While performing of Somayajna makes a Namboothiri a complete (Nityam) Brahman, Atiratra is only optional.
The three types of Atiratra altars constructed by Namboothiris are six-tipped, five-tipped and Peetthan. The six-tipped Agnichayanam and five-tipped are the most common and Namboothiris still practice them. The Peetthan (square bird) has not been constructed for some 150 years.[citation needed] The Yajnamana (master / leader) is the person who actually performs Yagna. Not all Namboothiris are permitted to perform Yanjna. Only Namboothiris of Aadu class can perform Yajna. The Yajnamana has to be a male Namboothiri having several pre-requisites and qualifications. After yajna, the Threthaagnis (the three spiritual fires attained through Yaagam) are shown (Kaachi) at and invoked back to the Arani. Once the Threthaagni is invoked back to Arani, the remaining fire in the Yaagasala has conceptually become forest fire with no spiritual content. Also, the Yaagasala has lost its divine nature. The Yaagasaala is set fire to with this fire. The Threthaagni is taken to the Yajamaanan's residence (Illam) and placed in an appropriate location like Vadukkini or Padinjaatti (two rooms in a Namboothiri Illam). The Somayaaga (or Athiraathra) is now over and the Yajamaanan now becomes a Somayaaji (or Akkithiri) and his wife (wives), Paththanaadi. It is using this Threthaagni that the Somayaaji (or Akkithiri) and Paththanaadi perform the rituals, viz., Agnihothram, twice daily, and other rituals through out their married life.
Temple rituals
Namboothiris follow vedic tradition for their spiritual life and Smartha tradition for their social life. They follow the concept of "Sankaranarayanan" (combination of Shaivism and Vaishnavism), unlike other brahmins. Namboothiris do poojas in temples based on Tantra Vidhi. Tantra Vidhi clearly describes the Moola (Basic) mantra of the Gods and Goddesses and their form, and weapons they hold on their arms etc. It begins with chanting of Punyaha Mantra which is in the Samhita part of Vedas. Many Mantras from Tythireeya Samhita of Yajur Veda , Rig Veda and Sama Veda Mantras are used in special poojas and Kalasam, Panchagavyam, Sreebhootavali and Navakam rituals done by Namboothiris in Temples.
Tantram
Tantra Vidhi forbids use of utensils made of iron/steel in temples. Only utensils made of earthen pot, bronze, silver and gold are used. Also Namboothiris perform poojas in a very Satwik way consisting of Jala, Gandhah , Pushpa, Deepa, Dhoopa tradition. Use of meat and alcohol is strictly forbidden. Offerings to God are mostly payasams, rice, puffed rice, coconut and Kadali Banana fruit. Flowers used for Pooja are different for different Gods and Goddesses. The clothing used for many Gods' and Goddesses' are: Satwik Durga - Green, White. Flower- Tulasi, Sandalpaste. Kali- Red. Flower- Red Flowers. Vishnu/Krishna -Yellow. Sastha (Ayyappa) -Black, Blue. Shiva - None.
The daily rituals in Kerala temples are traditionally performed by Namboothiris, and often by Embranthiri migrants from the neighbouring Karnataka, but not by Tamil Brahmins. Even among Namboothiris, only certain designated families deserve to become "Thanthris". Thanthris have to perform the incredible task of transferring ("Aavaahanam") the aura ("Chaithanyam") of God and energizing the idol. There have been numerous books on this topics, written by Namboothiris. The treatises may be divided into three categories - Aagamams (Shaivam), Samhithas (Vaishnavam) and Thanthrams (Saaktheyam). Aagamams include Nigamam versions too. The former are Shivan's advice to Parvathy, while Nigamams are spoken by Parvathy to Sivan. Other classifications are regional, like Vishnukraanthaa, Rathhakraanthaa and Aswaakraanthaa, and also like Yaamalams and Daamarams. Usually, all branches of knowledge are dealt with in Thanthra Granthams.
In Shiva temples Namboothiris perform Abhishekam chanting the Sree Rudram which is one of the forty eight modules of Tythireeya Samhita of Yajur Veda. In other temples Bhagya Sooktam, Purusha Sooktam, Narayana Sooktam are chanted. Namboothiries also perform Othoottu in temples were entire Samhita part of Vedas are chanted.
Marriage
The Namboothiri women are called Antherjanam, the literal meaning being "people inside the house." The travel of Namboothiri girls were limited to the temples or to the house of their immediate relatives, but that too had to be accompanied by a maid servant.
The Namboothiri believed that the girl, during infancy, childhood and youth, is under the wings of gods Soman, Gandharvan and Agni respectively. God Viswavasa protects her virginity. Hence the bridegroom has to thank Viswavasa for protecting her till marriage and then marry her in the presence of Agni. Namboothiri marriage is a four day long ritual.
Sambandham
Until 1933, only the eldest brother in a Namboothiri family was entitled to legitimate marriage within the Namboothiri caste. His younger brothers were supposed to practice pure Brahmacharyam by being unmarried and to dedicate themselves towards the study and preservation of the Vedas and rituals. Apart from this, those younger brothers, who opted to marry within the caste were excommunicated from the family. Except for a few intelligent and studious ones,[citation needed] most younger brothers turned to more lucrative and worldly affairs like Sambandham.
Sambandham was the system of marriage amongst the Kshatriya,Nair and Ambalavasi communities in Kerala. Namboothiris entered into Sambandhams with Nair, Kshatriya and Ambalavasi women. Since these castes followed the matriarchal system of family and inheritance, known as Marumakkathayam and Tharavadu respectively, the issue of Sambandhams with Namboothiris were considered as members of their mother's Tharavadu and caste. Thus the father had no legal duties towards the child.
Sambandham was beneficial for both the groups involved.[citation needed] For the Namboothiris is prevented disintegration and division of property. For the matriarchal castes, particularly the Royal Kshatriya families and the Nairs, Sambandham was a matter of prestige. Thus Sambandham as a system was encouraged by both, the Namboothiris and the Marumakkathayam savarna castes.
The rituals in Sambandham are not sanctified according to Vedic rites, since Sambandham is not supported by blessings from God through Mantras and advises to the bride, through "Veli Othu", a part of Rigveda which is considered legitimate marriage. This is why Sambandham was considered a unsolemnised marriage. However Sambandham did have a Hindu religious aspect to it as the actual ritual included the necessity of the presence of Agni or sacred fire in the form of a simple lamp as also a piece of red silk, the colour of matrimony. Thus it was considered a form of marital alliance which was held legal and the children of such alliances were considered legitimate. Thus the children of a Namboothiri, from his "Veli" Namboothiri wife as also from his Nair Sambandham wife were considered legitimate. The only difference was that while the issue of the former, being Namboothiris, succeeded their fathers while the latter had no right of succession to their patrimony being inferior in terms of caste as also due to the existing law of Marumakkathayam.
Till the early ages of the common era there was no practise of Sambandham and the practise might have started and encouraged by the Malayala Kshatriyas of Kerala in the later ages when Kshatriyas of Kerala who fought amongst themselves found it difficult to establish marriage relationships among themselves. Sambandhams, besides, gave the Namboothiris a position of importance in the politics of Kerala. By marrying girls from powerful Kshatriya Royal houses and Nair families they secured a hold over both, the royalty and the nobility of the land, which benefitted their establishment in Kerala. Thus, till recently the princesses of the Cochin Royal Family were espoused only by Namboothiris while the princes consorted with Nair ladies known as Nethyar Ammas.
The practise of Sambandham badly affected the Nambudiri community. Though it avoided partition of property and Temples administered, it prevented the family size from increasing. Newer Namboothiri families also didn't rise due to this practise. Namboothiri population became dependent on the number of houses (Illams) already existent while the population of Nair and other savarna castes steadily increased and Namboothiri population remained stagnant due to Sambandham. This led to a steady decrease in the percentage of Namboothiri population in Kerala. Today there are only an estimated 200,000 to 300,000 Namboothiries world wide.
With the spread of western education by the late 19th century modern thought within Kerala moved towards the end of Sambandham connections between the Namboothiris and Nairs. With the passage of legislation in 1933 in the Madras Presidency district of Malabar and previously in the princely states of Travancore and Cochin, by which Sambandham was considered equal to "Veli" or legitimate marriage, thereby giving right of succession to the non Namboothiri children of Namboothiri men to their paternal estate, within a short period of less than a decade, the Sambandham system of informal marriage which bound the Namboothiris and Nairs together came to an end.
Caste system
The caste system enforced by certain sections of the Namboothiris in Kerala was one of the most rigid in whole India. Elayath and Moosad were liberal and progressive in their attitude and mingled with non-Brahmin communities and fought against the rigidity of caste system.The rules of untouchability across various levels of castes, and sub castes also. They considered all other castes as Shudra, and they practiced untouchability and "aiyitham" with their own lower subsects and with Tamil, Konkani and other Brahmins and their own blood related Nair cousins. the regulation on the language used, the regulations on the dress, the regulations on the place of dwelling and also on the construction of the houses were either extreme form of caste rules or unheard of in other parts of India.
Vivekananda, a Hindu monk, famously declared Kerala "a lunatic asylum of castes" after observing the strange caste practices in the society.
Social reforms
The influence of communism during the start of 20th century made drastic effects on this otherwise orthodox community. The Land Reforms Act, also caused a heavy blow on this community along with their Nair cousins, as large ancestral estates were taken away from them.
Namboothiri Yogakshema Mahaasabha, an association of Namboothiris founded in 1908, took a decision in 1919 and agitated for marriage of all Namboothiris within the community. Sabha declared the marriages of younger brothers from within the community as official, irrespective of whether the elder brothers were married or not. The aim was embodied in the Madras Namboothiri Act of 1933. In the same year, the Madras Marumakkathayam Act was passed, by which Sambandham was considered as a regular marriage, conferring on the children the same rights of inheritance and property as held by children whose parents were both Namboothiris. The declaration and these Acts led to a sudden decline in the number of Sambandham marriages, and this unethical practice ended shortly (in about ten years). Following these acts, Namboothiri land was increasingly partitioned and property dispersed.
The stoppage of Sambandham led to a liberation of Namboothiri wives and girls. They were the major sufferers due to unavailability of Namboothiri boys for marriage because of the above mentioned social taboos, and lot of these girls were married to the same Namboothiri and polygamy was the norm of the day[citation needed].
References
- ^ [1], encyclopedia.com
- ^ "Nambūdiri." Encyclopædia Britannica. Ultimate Reference Suite. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2008.
- ^ [www.vanamaliashram.org/Badrinath.html], vanamaliashram.org
- ^ [2], namboothiri.com/articles/sudham
- ^ http://namboothiri.com/articles/bhrashtu.htm
- ^ "Nambudiri." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 6 June 2008
- ^ A. C. Burnell, H. Yule, A Glossary of Colloquial Anglo-Indian Words and Phrases: Hobson-Jobson, Routledge (1996), ISBN 0700703217, s.v. "Nambooree".
- ^ Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. "Nambudiri".
- Marjatta Parpola, Kerala Brahmins in Transition: A Study of a Namputiri Family, Studia Orientalia, vol. 91. Helsinki, Finnish *Oriental Society (2000); review: Rich Freeman, American Oriental Society (2004).
- Nambutiris By Fred Fawcett , published by Asian Educational Services New Delhi* Madras*2001
- Travancore State Manual by T.K. Velu Pillai (1940)