Anatomical theater

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Anatomical theater (reconstruction) in the Boerhaave Museum (2010)

Anatomical theater (Latin Theatrum Anatomicum ; from Greek theatron , 'Schaubühne') refers to a room or lecture hall with a tribune-like arrangement of the audience and a clear view of a table on which anatomical demonstrations or sections (dissections) took place. The term was used as a term in the 18th and 19th centuries. The naming refers to the “stage” with the sectional table , from which the rows of seats for the audience rise up around, similar to an amphitheater .

origin

Public autopsies took place as early as the 14th century . These shows, staged theatrically for faculty members, students and members of the authorities, mostly simply took place in the open air, for example in cemeteries. Around 1484, however, these sections were often relocated to university buildings in order not to expose the audience to the weather. In 1540 a “temporary theatrum anatomicum” was created for an autopsy under the direction of Andreas Vesalius. It was not until the end of the 16th century that the ideas of the anatomist and professor of medicine Alexander (or Alessandro) Benedetti (* around 1450; † October 31, 1512) were implemented and anatomical “show stages” were permanently installed in the universities. However, it was not until the 18th century that these were equipped with satisfactory ventilation and heating systems as well as effective lighting.

At that time, not only the scientific interest was in the foreground. People also came because of the curiosity and the otherwise frowned upon, such as depicting nudity, sexuality, pain or death.

The duration of a section varies between records that tell of three days to testimonies that tell of several weeks. There were autopsies of both human bodies and dead animals.

architecture

The decisive criteria for the architecture and the construction of the anatomical theater were the perspective, the frame and the view. The arrangement of the room and the room conditions were just as important.

The anatomy room of the Middle Ages

In the Middle Ages there was no fixed theater architecture. Sections were very rare. So you used randomly available rooms and rearranged them according to the purpose. Sometimes the sections took place outdoors and under improvised conditions. In order to be able to complete the section , a desk for the lecturer and a long table for the corpse were sufficient. In addition, the anatomy subject was based predominantly on a purely theoretical teaching method that made no special demands on the space.

The modern anatomy room

At the beginning of the 14th century, the premises became more and more important for the public display and presentation of medical and scientific findings. Important changes (influenced by philosophy , religion , etc.) were driven forward and ultimately led to a fundamental change in the anatomy and the demands on the premises in the 16th century.

Alessandro Benedetti, a surgeon , wrote in 1502 about the paradigmatic design of an anatomy room. According to him, it is important to have a well-ventilated room and a circular seating arrangement. It should be prevented that the doctors are disturbed. An overseer who supervised and arranged everything was also necessary to keep mob out, among other things. The corpse is placed in the middle on a raised table. The time to start and finish had to be set so that the task would finish before the corpse decayed. A certain arrangement, i.e. dramaturgy , depended on the condition of the corpse.

“A temporary dissecting theater must be constructed in an ample, airy place with seats placed in a hollow semicircle, such as can be seen at Rome and Verona, of such a size as to accomondate the spectator and to prevent the crowd from disturbing the surgeons with the knives, completing the dissection. "

Theatrum anatomicum of the University of Padua today, constructed on the initiative of Girolamo Fabrizio

Examples of famous anatomical theaters

The two most famous anatomy rooms are in Padua (1594) and Bologna (1637). In the universities of these cities, makeshift wooden anatomical theaters were used as early as the 15th century. For the anatomy theater, the Roman understanding of Greek theater architecture (Roman-ancient amphitheater) was used. The amphitheatrical form of Benedictus is the spatial leitmotif of this type of space. An important reason for the establishment of anatomy theaters was the desire to create a dignified environment for the act of dissection. Initially, only ephemeral wooden structures were built in existing universities. The fact that the premises were constructed from wood was partly due to the fact that no other building material was available for such types of construction. On the other hand, the wood had the advantage that it absorbed the smell.

Most authors understand the anatomical theater to be a "room with rising stalls in order to be able to clearly show the audience a process to be demonstrated."

Anatomical theater in Padua after an engraving from 1654

Padua (1594)

The Padua model was based on practical-scientific conditions, so it was constructed more appropriately. It is considered the first permanently installed anatomical theater. The theater was temporarily built into the university. The room was elliptical and twelve feet high. The six rows of seats rose steeply, making it difficult to get to your seat. There was space for around 500 spectators. Functionality was the priority for this floor plan.

In the center and at the deepest point of the wooden installation was a demonstration table with the corpse to be dissected. The bottom row of seats surrounds the demonstration area. This arrangement is very reminiscent of the Greek theater. This makes the anatomy room very similar to a kind of ballroom. As there were no windows in this building, candles were used to illuminate the room. This had the disadvantage that the room became very heated and there was a lack of fresh air. The name of the architect of this form of theater is unknown.

Bologna (1637)

The Bologna model was based on a decorative idea and had a more representative function. This form of an anatomical theater was designed by the architect Antonio Levanti. The rectangular room offered much more equipment than in Padua. It was made from fir wood. The dissecting table was surrounded by armor and thus separated from the tiers. The table was partly rotatable and retractable. Due to the circular rows of seats around the dissection table, the arrangement of the room offered a better view for the audience than in Padua. It also had ancillary cabinets for preparation. This form of representative theater was only imitated once. Only the anatomical theater in Ferrara from 1731 is reminiscent of the Bologna model and its layout and furnishings.

Amsterdam (1691)

The anatomical theater is characterized by an arena stage, a border around the table and a dome with small windows.

Anatomical Theater of the University of Leiden , 1610

Suffering (1579)

Around 1700, Leiden assumed a leading role similar to that of Padua 100 years earlier. The decor is kept very sober. It has three rows to stand on. The special thing about the room in Leiden were the tall windows on the left and right, which provided the room with daylight. However, this solution did not turn out to be optimal, since the daylight provided backlighting and shadows, which made it difficult to see the corpse.

Upsala (1662)

Anatomical theater in the Gustavianum, Uppsala, built 1662–1663

The Theatrum anatomicum in Upsala was built by Olof Rudbeck . This anatomy room has an all-round gallery and steeply rising seats. The demonstration room is richly decorated. The domes of the cathedral were built in 1662 so that daylight could be used as lighting from above. The reconstruction of the theater rooms with built-in glass domes also emerged from the presentation of the ancient Roman theater rooms. This made it possible to do without side windows.

Copenhagen (1644)

In 1644 the “Theatrum Anatomicum” in the “Domus Anatomica” was set up, and in 1728 it was destroyed by fire. In Copenhagen, the anatomical theater was characterized on the one hand by the fact that the room and the tiers were sunk into the ground. On the other hand, the theater was a purpose-built structure, which was considered a great innovation. It also had two adjoining rooms that were used, among other things, to store materials and equipment.

The anatomical theater of the veterinary school in Berlin (approx. 1800)

Anatomical theater in Germany

Heidelberg (1391)

Two years after Heidelberg University was founded, a medical faculty was established in 1388. Since 1391 there was a "Theatrum Anatonicum" in a house on Dreikönigstrasse. In 1771 the company moved to another house. In 1805 the anatomical theater was added to the choir of the secularized Dominican monastery in Brunnengasse.

Jena (1629)

In 1629 Werner Rolfinck built the first anatomical theater in Jena and also carried out public dissections of the corpses, which caused a considerable stir. Another source gives 1654–55 as the year of origin.

Altdorf near Nuremberg (1657)

Moritz Hoffmann , who had studied in Padua, opened an anatomical theater at the University of Altdorf in 1657 . It was built like an amphitheater.

Nuremberg (1669)

First in the foundlings house, from 1671 in the refectory of the Katharinenkloster .

Bremen (1685)

Johann Friedrich von Cappeln (1646–1714) had a so-called anatomy chamber built as a professor of the medical faculty at the illustrious grammar school , which was opened on May 2, 1685 with a dissection.

Leipzig (1704)

On September 10, 1704, an anatomical theater was ceremoniously opened at the university's medical faculty in Leipzig by Johann Christian Schamberg on the first floor of the Paulinum . After it had become dilapidated, an extensive renovation took place in 1818.

Former Theatrum anatomicum in Würzburg

Wurzburg (1726)

Under the direction of the anatomy professor Johann Simon Bauermüller , the garden pavilion in the botanical garden of the Würzburg Juliusspital, built between 1705 and 1714 (by Joseph Greissing ) , was transformed into a building used as the Theatrum anatomicum from 1727 to 1853 by Albert von Kölliker and Rudolf Virchow , among others 1786 to 1788 by Carl Caspar von Siebold was expanded structurally. The building, which was destroyed in 1945, was rebuilt as a ballroom in 1958.

Berlin (1789/90)

In 1787 King Friedrich Wilhelm II ordered a veterinary school to be set up in Berlin because " the damage caused by the lack of good horse and cattle doctors was of the most sad consequences for the country and the cavalry ". The anatomical theater of the veterinary school was built in 1789/90 by Carl Gotthard Langhans as an early classical building based on Andrea Palladio's Rotonda .

Equipment

From the 18th century onwards, space requirements increased. In addition to the public demonstration room, the anatomical theater's premises also included a private work room, a collection room and an “anatomical kitchen”. The kitchens were mainly used for bone preparation, bone cleaning and cooking.

The materials used became more and more diverse. Razor blades, knives, and small saws were the most important tools used in dissection.

The decoration

In Bologna, for example, there were numerous wooden sculptures of Hippocrates and famous anatomists on the walls and ceiling, which indicates that the theater was also a place where the great pioneers of this discipline were honored. In addition, the room in Bologna was decorated with wood paneling and choir stalls.

In many pictures the words “momento mori” are shown, which is what the confrontation with death brought with it, that is, with the body as a transitory body. One should be aware that one day one will die.

Leiden had an all-round gallery of portraits of mythical and historical heroes. Another special feature were the showcases and preparations that were put on display.

The Theatrum anatomicum in Amsterdam gets its unique decorative character from a magnificent chandelier that hangs over the dissecting table.

organization

The sections were usually organized by students in different positions and hierarchies: a rector (a selected student position), two consiliarii (presidents of the "student nations") and two massarii (senior students who, among other things, were responsible for the acquisition of corpses and instruments were responsible).

The events mainly took place in the winter months and lasted about six weeks.

The public anatomical demonstrations had a solemn character, especially in the 16th century: They were academic events and were surrounded by a ritual, solemn setting, because dealing with death had to be carried out in a sacred atmosphere and atonement had to be made. Gabriele Falloppio describes this with the word “fixed”. (Latin festus: solemn, festive, "religious and secular celebrations that are outside the daily routine of a human culture.") This indicates the spectacular nature of these demonstrations. For example, in Bologna, sections were held in a particularly solemn setting: funzione dell'anatomia. Sections also took place here during the carnival season because they had a solemn character and reminded of the transience of man. The visitors had to wear masks and the events were accompanied by jokes, among other things. It is interesting to analyze the cultural status of a society: How does a community stage how to deal with death and the inexplicable?

method

At the beginning of the 16th century, the public anatomical demonstrations had an introductory function: for the new students they were regarded as introductions to the study. Because of this, and because these performances were held in front of a large number of people, Jacopo Berengario (professorship in Bologna) called them anatomia communi (Latin common, common / common). Thus, the first anatomical presentations only offer general anatomical knowledge and not a representation of very specific examinations on the human body (such as diseases).

Historia corporis humani

For example, Benedetti noted in his book "Anatomica, sive historia corporis humani", published in Venice in 1498, that the corpse should have a normal, general structure, it should neither be too thin nor too thick. Certain features, characteristics and abnormalities of the body were not searched for.

In the first anatomical theaters of the 16th century, however, what was seen played a smaller role than what was spoken. For Alessandro Benedetti, for example, the process of dissection was less important. The anatomist (lecturer, doctores extraordinarii), who read from Mondino's Anathomia (1316, texts based on the writings of Galen), was the focus of the sections and played a more essential role than the corpse. His words were the basis of anatomical teaching, a fact that reflected the culture of medical humanism during the Renaissance. A demonstrator (doctores ordinarii) showed the dissector the parts of the body that the anatomist was reading and that needed to be cut. The demonstrator demonstrated what the lecturer was saying by showing. The word “declaret” is used for this. Sometimes the roles of lecturer and demonstrator were performed by the same person. The dissections were not made by the anatomists, but by a surgeon, surgeon or barber, for example. It was acted exactly according to the scripture read out and not according to sight and observation.

The hierarchy in the context of the anatomical performances shows that these were of a formal character and were opportunities for the academic personalities involved to consolidate their power and prestige and to demonstrate their authority to the audience. Having control over what was happening and making it known was essential in a public display.

William Heckscher says in his book “Rembrandt's Anatomy of Dr. Nicolaas Tulp “, that because of the role played, these events would have looked like stylized spectacles.

This hierarchization, but also the spatial and temporal limitation, made the theatrical aspect of the anatomical performances clear.

reception

At the beginning of the 16th century, mainly students and professors, but also artists who wanted to expand their knowledge of anatomical proportions, took part in the anatomical demonstrations. The reports show that in the first half of the 16th century the events were attended more by members of the faculties. Because the anatomy was able to show his authority and power and become better known at the events, invitations were sent to important academic personalities, representatives of public life and members of the nobility. While participation in the anatomical demonstrations was relatively limited in German-speaking countries, from the mid-16th century in Italy there were reports of the participation of members of the lower classes in such events.

Proof that the anatomical theater in its beginnings did not necessarily have a didactic character is also the fact that the places with the best inspection of the corpses were not reserved for students, but for academics and the higher state authorities. In addition, the critics reported more about the anatomist's rhetorical skills than about the section itself. Because haptic perception was separated from optical perception and because vision was restricted, it was difficult to make connections between what was read and what was seen and thus to acquire anatomical knowledge. As in the theater, the audience formed a community and had to buy tickets. The entrance fee was mainly used to cover organizational costs.

There were also dissenting voices among the broad mass of the people who spoke out against the dismemberment and dissection of bodies because of the Christian belief in the resurrection. That is why the bodies of those sentenced to death and suicides were used for the anatomical theater. Because of the great demand, corpses were also traded.

Andreas Vesalius, the Vesal revolution

In his writings De humani corporis fabrica , Andreas Vesalius proposes a new character for the anatomical performances and thus changes the relationship between the corpse and the audience. He orients his practice on the original writings of Galen, who believes that the medical practitioner must trust what he has seen and not what he has read. Nevertheless, Vesal also reveals where Galen was wrong. With him a new understanding of science emerged.

According to him, the private, intimate conducting of the dissection is more important because, due to its non-public nature, its only role is to teach and disseminate anatomical knowledge and experience. He believes that various illnesses and very specific topics could be treated at such private events, while the public dissections could only show general information on the human body because the audience was different (not just an academic audience as with the private dissections ).

Vesalius is known for placing more emphasis on pointing, seeing, acting, touching and examining the corpse and less on what was said and the given text. This changes the character of the public demonstrations and the focus on the anatomist's ability to dissect the corpse is withdrawn. Thus the demands on the anatomist grow. More emphasis was placed on examining the human body than on the given text and what was spoken. By the end of the century, medical students had dissections.

The distance between the audience and the actors should disappear, the student should be free to touch the corpse, to act and to move around the room. Because this distance was broken, the performances gained clarity. Thus the anatomical performances lost their formal character and became more convincing, more eloquent. The improvisation took the place of the given hierarchical roles.

today

Today the evidence of anatomical theater can be found mainly in buildings that have been converted into museums, such as in Padua, Tartu or Bologna. However, despite intensive research, there are still uncertainties about the course of such an exhibition. For example, it is still unclear how precisely the role of the speaker was defined.

Gunther von Hagens offers a new form of anatomical representation with his Body Worlds exhibitions. Here he skins and prepares the corpses so that they seem to stop moving. This reinforces the impression that one can “look into the body” and see how it works in everyday life. However, this is precisely a point of criticism for many people. In addition, it is often said that this is not treating human remains with respect, as the bodies are exposed in a certain way.

literature

  • Helmar Schramm (ed.): Traces of the avant-garde. Theatrum anatomicum. Early modern times and modern times in a cultural comparison, De Gruyter, Berlin 2011, ISBN 978-3-11-024578-3 .
  • He himself died in the anatomical theater . In: Doctors newspaper , February 28, 2007 ( dpa )
  • Michael Bergeest: Education between Commerz and Emancipation: Adult education in the Hamburg region of the 18th and 19th centuries , Waxmann Verlag GmbH, Münster 1995, ISBN 3-89325-313-0 , p. 115, ( books.google.de ).
  • Konrad Rückbrod: The anatomical theater - archetype of the modern lecture hall . In: Merck Medical Monthly Mirror , 1973.
  • Gottfried Richter: Das Anatomische Theater , (Dr. Emil) Ebering Verlag, Berlin, 1936.
  • Adolph Leopold Richter : History of the medical essence of the Royal Prussian Army to the present . Ferdinand Encke Verlag, Erlangen 1860, p. 110, Textarchiv - Internet Archive
  • Johann Stephan Pütter , Friedrich Saalfeld: Attempt of an academic scholarly story from the Georg Augustus University in Göttingen . Volume 4. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1838, p. 144, Textarchiv - Internet Archive
  • Johann Andreas Demian: Description or statistics and topography of the Grand Duchy of Hesse . Volume 2. August LeRour, Mainz 1826, p. 259, Textarchiv - Internet Archive
  • WC Praetorius: Description of the royal. Danish freyen border and trading town Altona and the neighboring Danish area . F. Bachmann (Verlag), Hamburg 1792, p. 193, Textarchiv - Internet Archive
  • Christoph Schweikardt: Anatomical theater. In: Werner E. Gerabek u. a. (Ed.): Encyclopedia of medical history. De Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2005, ISBN 3-11-015714-4 , p. 61.

Foreign language

  • Norm Friesen u. a .: The Anatomy Lecture Then and Now. Educational Philosophy and Theory, Taylor & Francis Online, 2013.
  • Cynthia Klestinec: Theaters of Anatomy. Students, Teachers, and Traditions of Dissection in Renaissance Venice . The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 2011, ISBN 978-1-4214-0142-3 .
  • Giovanna Ferrari: Public Anatomy Lessons and the Carneval: the Anatomy Theater of Bologna. In: Past and Present, No. 117, November 1987, Oxford University Press on behalf of Past and Present Society, pp. 50-70.
  • Luke Wilson: William Harvey's Prelectiones: the Performance of the Body in the Renaissance Theater of Anatomy , Representations, n ° 17, University of California Press, 1987.
  • William Brockbank: Old Anatomical Theaters and What Took Place Therein [archive], Medical History, n ° 12, Cambridge University Press, 1968.
  • Levi Robert Lind : Studies in Pre-Vesalian Anatomy. Biography, Translation, Documents. Philadelphia 1975, particularly pp. 69-137.

Web links

Commons : Anatomical theaters  - collection of images, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Christoph Schweikardt: Anatomical theater. In: Werner E. Gerabek u. a. (Ed.): Encyclopedia of medical history. De Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2005, ISBN 3-11-015714-4 , p. 61.
  2. ^ Anatomy building in Göttingen. In: Centralblatt der Bauverwaltung , June 3, 1882, p. 189, accessed on December 10, 2012
  3. ↑ In Meyers 1905 still lemmatized as “… a stage-like lecture hall for anatomical lectures (see anatomy)”, not lemmatized in the current online edition.
  4. ^ Luke Wilson: William Harvey's Prelectiones: the Performance of the Body in the Renaissance Theater of Anatomy , Representations, n ° 17, University of California Press, 1987.
  5. ^ Sigrid Oehler-Klein: Benedetti, Alessandro. In: Werner E. Gerabek , Bernhard D. Haage, Gundolf Keil , Wolfgang Wegner (eds.): Enzyklopädie Medizingeschichte. De Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2005, ISBN 3-11-015714-4 , p. 163 f.
  6. ^ Robert Jütte: The discovery of the "inner" man 1500-1800 . In: Richard van Dülmen (Hrsg.): Invention of humans. Dreams of Creation and Body Images 1500–2000 . Böhlau Verlag, Vienna 1998, ISBN 3-205-98873-6 , p. 247f.
  7. ↑ Rafael Mandressi: Le Regard de l'anatomiste . Dissection et invention du corps en Occident, in: Éditions du Seuil, Paris 2003, o. S., ISBN 978-2-02-054099-5
  8. ↑ a b Gottfried Richter: The Anatomical Theater . (Dr. Emil) Ebering Verlag, Berlin, 1936.
  9. ↑ a b Norm Friesen u. a .: The Anatomy Lecture Then and Now. Educational Philosophy and Theory, Taylor & Francis Online, 2013.
  10. ↑ Cynthia Klestinec: Theaters of Anatomy . Students, Teachers, and Traditions of Dissection in Renaissance Venice, Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press 2011.
  11. ↑ Cynthia Klestinec: Theaters of Anatomy. Students, Teachers, and Traditions of Dissection in Renaissance Venice . The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 2011., p. 28.
  12. ^ Christoph Schweikardt: Anatomical theater. (2005), p. 61.
  13. ^ G. Ferrari: Public anatomy lessons and the carnival: the anatomy theater of Bologna. In: Past and Present. Volume 117, 1987, pp. 50-106.
  14. ↑ a b c Helmar Schramm (Ed.): Traces of the avant-garde. Theatrum anatomicum. Early modern times and modern times in a cultural comparison, De Gruyter, Berlin 2011, ISBN 978-3-11-024578-3 .
  15. ↑ Rückbrod Konrad, "The Anatomical Theater - Archetype of the Modern Lecture Hall". Medical monthly mirror Merck (1973) p. 48
  16. ↑ Gottfried Richter: The Anatomical Theater (Dr. Emil) Ebering Verlag, Berlin, 1936, p. 37ff.
  17. ↑ Gottfried Richter: The Anatomical Theater . (Dr. Emil) Ebering Verlag, Berlin, 1936, p. 53ff.
  18. ^ Waag's Theatrum Anatomicum.
  19. ↑ Gottfried Richter: The Anatomical Theater . (Dr. Emil) Ebering Verlag, Berlin, 1936, p. 42ff.
  20. ^ Giovanna Ferrari: Public Anatomy Lessons and the Carneval: the Anatomy Theater of Bologna . In: Past and Present , No. 117, November 1987, p. 50 ff.
  21. ↑ Britta Scholz: 2.7.2 Copenhagen . In: The Christianeum in Altona 1730-1773: University concept of King Christian VI . Books on Demand , Norderstedt, ISBN 978-3-8370-2736-5 , p. 33, digitizedhttp: //vorlage_digitalisat.test/1%3Dhttps%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.de%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5WxQ2Np_BW0C%26pg%3DPA33%26dq%3Dfalse%23v%3Donepage%26q%26f%3Dfalse~ IA% 3D ~ MDZ% 3D% 0A ~ SZ% 3D ~ double-sided% 3D ~ LT% 3D ~ PUR% 3D
  22. ↑ See Ferrari, Giovanna.
  23. ↑ History of the institute. In: Institute for Anatomy and Cell Biology. Heidelberg University, May 18, 2014, accessed on January 24, 2017 .
  24. ^ Claus Priesner:  Rolfink, Werner. In: New German Biography (NDB). Volume 22, Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 2005, ISBN 3-428-11203-2 , p. 9 f. ( Digitized version ).
  25. ↑ Adolf Meyer: Nature research and natural science in old Hamburg: memorial sheets in honor of the 90th meeting of the Society of German Natural Scientists and Doctors in Hamburg (September 1928), State and University Library Hamburg (ed.), Society of German Natural Scientists and Doctors , 1928, p 20.
  26. ↑ Christoph Gottlieb von Murr : Description of the most distinguished peculiarities of the HR Reichsfreyen city of Nuernberg and the high school in Altdorf , Johann Eberhard Zeh, Nuremberg 1 [7] 78, p. 657 ( digitized version )
  27. ↑ Christoph Gottlieb von Murr: Description of the most distinguished peculiarities of the HR Reichsfreyen city of Nuernberg, in its districts and the University of Altdorf , 2nd edition, Wolf Penkerische Buchhandlung, Nuremberg 1801, p. 384 ( digitized version )
  28. ↑ Medical associations in Bremen (ed.): Biographical sketches of deceased Bremen doctors and naturalists. Johan Georg Heyse, Bremen 1844 p. 140 ( digitized version ).
  29. ^ Carl Rabl : History of anatomy at the University of Leipzig . Johann Ambrosius Barth, Leipzig 1909, p. 12 ( Textarchiv - Internet Archive ).
  30. ↑ Ludwig Cerutti : III. Description of the anatom. Theater in Leipzig. In: Description of the pathological specimens of the anatomical theater in Leipzig . Carl Cnobloch, Leipzig 1819, p. 287 ( digitized version ) and Carl Rabl: History of the anatomy at the University of Leipzig . Johann Ambrosius Barth, Leipzig 1909, p. 79.
  31. ↑ Stefan Kummer : Architecture and fine arts from the beginnings of the Renaissance to the end of the Baroque. In: Ulrich Wagner (Hrsg.): History of the city of Würzburg. 4 volumes; Volume 2: From the Peasants' War in 1525 to the transition to the Kingdom of Bavaria in 1814. Theiss, Stuttgart 2004, ISBN 3-8062-1477-8 , pp. 576–678 and 942–952, here: pp. 638 f.
  32. ^ The garden pavilion, Virchow's workplace in Würzburg from 1849–1853. University of Würzburg
  33. ^ Andreas Mettenleiter : The anatomical sculptures by Johann Peter Wagner on the facade of the Julius Hospital garden pavilion in Würzburg. In: Würzburg medical history reports. Volume 18, 1999, pp. 95-109.
  34. ^ Karl Kaspar Siebold: Talk of the advantages that the state gains through public anatomical courses. At the festive inauguration of the new anatomical theater in the Julius Spital zu Wirzburg on July 9, 1788. Nuremberg (Grattenauer) 1788.
  35. ^ Theodor Heinrich Schiebler: Anatomy in Würzburg (from 1593 to the present). In: Four Hundred Years of the University of Würzburg. A commemorative publication. Edited by Peter Baumgart, Degener & Co., Neustadt an der Aisch 1982, pp. 985-1004; here: pp. 987-989
  36. ↑ The garden pavilion. Juliusspital Foundation
  37. ^ Heinz Otremba: Rudolf Virchow. Founder of cellular pathology. A documentation. Echter-Verlag, Würzburg 1991, p. 18.
  38. ^ Richard Schneider (Ed.): Berlin around 1900 . Nicolaische Verlagsbuchhandlung, Berlin 2004, ISBN 3-89479-164-0 , p. 168
  39. ↑ Gottfried Richter: The Anatomical Theater . (Dr. Emil) Ebering Verlag, Berlin 1936, p. 65.
  40. ↑ Brockbank, William: “Old Anatomical Theaters and What Took Place Therein [archive]”, Medical History, n ° 12, 1968.
  41. ↑ See Brockbank, William.
  42. ^ Wilson Luke: William Harvey's Prelectiones: the Performance of the Body in the Renaissance Theater of Anatomy, Representations, n ° 17, 1987.
  43. ↑ Cynthia Klestinec: Theaters of Anatomy . Students, Teachers, and Traditions of Dissection in Renaissance Venice '. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press 2011, p. 19.
  44. ↑ Cynthia Klestinec: Theaters of Anatomy . Students, Teachers, and Traditions of Dissection in Renaissance Venice '. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press 2011, p. 20.
  45. ↑ enzyklo.de accessed on January 23, 2015
  46. ↑ Cynthia Klestinec: Theaters of Anatomy . Students, Teachers, and Traditions of Dissection in Renaissance Venice '. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2011, pp. 17, 24.
  47. ↑ Robert Jütte: The discovery of the "inner" man 1500-1800 . In: Richard van Dülmen (Hrsg.): Invention of humans. Dreams of Creation and Body Images 1500–2000 . Böhlau Verlag, Vienna 1998, ISBN 3-205-98873-6 , pp. 241-258, 244.
  48. ↑ Cynthia Klestinec: Theaters of Anatomy . Students, Teachers, and Traditions of Dissection in Renaissance Venice '. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 2011, pp. 21, 23.
  49. ↑ See Benedetti, Alessandro, Anatomica. sive historia corporis humani, 1502, chapter 1, cited above. based on: Cynthia Klestinec: Theaters of Anatomy. Students, Teachers, and Traditions of Dissection in Renaissance Venice . The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 2011, p. 23.
  50. ↑ Cf. Benedetti, Alessandro, Anatomica, sive historia corporis humani
  51. ↑ Cynthia Klestinec: Theaters of Anatomy. Students, Teachers, and Traditions of Dissection in Renaissance Venice . The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 2011, pp. 26, 28.
  52. ↑ Cynthia Klestinec: Theaters of Anatomy. Students, Teachers, and Traditions of Dissection in Renaissance Venice . The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 2011, pp. 18, 20 f.
  53. ↑ a b c d Robert Jütte: The discovery of the “inner” man 1500–1800 . In: Richard van Dülmen (Hrsg.): Invention of humans. Dreams of Creation and Body Images 1500–2000 , Böhlau Verlag, Vienna 1998, ISBN 3-205-98873-6 , p. 244
  54. ^ Andrea Carlino: Books of the Body. Anatomical Ritual and Renaissance Learning . The University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1999, pp. 115-119.
  55. ↑ See Heckscher, William, Rembrandt's Anatomy of Dr. Nicolaa's tulip. An iconological study, New York University Press: Washington Square 1958, p. 46.
  56. ↑ Cynthia Klestinec: Theaters of Anatomy. Students, Teachers, and Traditions of Dissection in Renaissance Venice . The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 2011, p. 24.
  57. ↑ Cynthia Klestinec: Theaters of Anatomy. Students, Teachers, and Traditions of Dissection in Renaissance Venice . The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 2011, pp. 29, 30.
  58. ^ Robert Jütte: The discovery of the "inner" man 1500-1800 . In: Richard van Dülmen (Hrsg.): Invention of humans. Dreams of Creation and Body Images 1500–2000 . Böhlau Verlag, Vienna 1998, ISBN 3-205-98873-6 , pp. 248, 250.
  59. ↑ Cynthia Klestinec: Theaters of Anatomy. Students, Teachers, and Traditions of Dissection in Renaissance Venice . The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 2011, pp. 28, 30.
  60. ^ Karen Ingham: Tissue to text. Ars moriendi and the theater of anatomy . In: Performance Research Journal , Volume 15, No. 1, CPR (Center for Performance Research): Aberystwyth, March 2010, pp. 48-57, p. 50.
  61. ↑ Hartmut Böhme: The body as a stage. On the proto-history of anatomy. In: Bernhard Siegert (Ed.) U. a .: stages of knowledge. Interferences between science and art , Dahlem University Press, Berlin 2003, pp. 110-139, 126.
  62. ^ Robert Jütte: The discovery of the "inner" man 1500-1800 . In: Richard van Dülmen (Hrsg.): Invention of humans. Dreams of Creation and Body Images 1500–2000 . Böhlau Verlag, Vienna 1998, ISBN 3-205-98873-6 , pp. 249, 251.
  63. ^ Robert Jütte: The discovery of the "inner" man 1500-1800 . In: Richard van Dülmen (Hrsg.): Invention of humans. Dreams of Creation and Body Images 1500–2000 . Böhlau Verlag, Vienna 1998, ISBN 3-205-98873-6 , p. 251 f.
  64. ↑ See Galen on anatomical procedures. Translation of the surviving books with introduction and notes by Charles Singer., Oxford University Press: London 1956.
  65. ↑ Cf. O'Malley, Charles Donald, Andreas Vesalius of Brussels 1514-1564, University of California Press: London 1964, p. 343.
  66. ^ Robert Jütte: The discovery of the "inner" man 1500-1800 . In: Richard van Dülmen (Hrsg.): Invention of humans. Dreams of Creation and Body Images 1500–2000 . Böhlau Verlag, Vienna 1998, ISBN 3-205-98873-6 , p. 245.
  67. ↑ Cynthia Klestinec: Theaters of Anatomy. Students, Teachers, and Traditions of Dissection in Renaissance Venice . The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 2011, p. 18.
  68. ↑ Cynthia Klestinec: Theaters of Anatomy. Students, Teachers, and Traditions of Dissection in Renaissance Venice . The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 2011, pp. 29-42.
  69. ↑ See Cunningham, Andrew: The End of the Sacred Ritual of Anatomy . In: Canadian Bulletin of Medical History , n ° 18, 2001, o. P.