Ayahuasca

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Ayahuasca preparation

Ayahuasca , Yagé [ jaˈhe ], Yajé [ jaˈhe ], Natem , Cipó , Daime , Hoasca (and others) are names for a psychedelic plant brew from the liana Banisteriopsis caapi and N , N -dimethyltryptamine- containing leaves of the coffee shrub plant Psychotria viridis . In some cases the term ayahuasca only refers to the liana Banisteriopsis caapi . The brew contains harmane alkaloids , which act as monoamine oxidase inhibitors and thus slow down the breakdown of the hallucinogen N , N -dimethyltryptamine (DMT). The members of various Amazon ethnicities use ayahuasca in ritual religious ceremonies to put themselves into a trance state. The use is widespread in the Amazonian Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, in the Orinoco Delta from Venezuela to the Pacific coast of Colombia and Ecuador. In addition, various Ayahuasca religions emerged in Brazil in the 20th century, including União do Vegetal , Barquinha and Santo Daime , which are frequented by the middle class in the cities and are now also present internationally. Religious use is legally guaranteed in Brazil and legalized in the USA by a decision of the Supreme Court since 2006.

properties

Preparation of ayahuasca in the Napo region of Ecuador
Boiling the Ayahuasca in the Napo region of Ecuador
Ready brew

Ayahuasca is, depending on the preparation, a putrid-bitter or sweet-tasting drink. The color is usually brownish, but this can change with the addition of ingredients. The drink is a watery extract from the liana Banisteriopsis caapi with the addition of DMT-containing plants. Typical herbal admixtures are Psychotria viridis (Chacruna), Psychotria carthagenensis and Diplopterys cabrerana (Chaliponga).

Chemical ingredients

The following chemical ingredients can be found in Ayahuasca, depending on the admixture, in different proportions: dimethyltryptamine , 5-MeO-DMT , harmine , harmaline , tetrahydroharmine , bufotenine , N- methyltryptamine , harmalol , harmol, 2-methyl-1,2,3 , 4-tetrahydro-β-carboline (2-MTHBC), DMT-NO, d 4 -5-MeO-DMT, harmine- N -oxide, harminamide, harmic acid, methyl harminate, harmalic acid, 6-methoxytryptamine, banistenoside A, banistenoside B , Acetyl norharmine, ketotetrahydronorharmine, tetrahydronorharmine, shihunine and dihydroshihunine.

Analytics

The ingredients of the Ayahuasca preparations can be determined qualitatively and quantitatively in various test materials by coupling HPLC or gas chromatography with mass spectrometry after appropriate sample preparation . When using gas chromatography, headspace analysis can also be used .

use

Use in a cultural context

The indigenous peoples of the Amazon basin and Mestizos ("mixed race") use Ayahuasca in ritual and religious ceremonies in order to get into a qualitatively altered state of wakefulness. They believe, among other things, to meet spirits and ancestors, to look into the future or to find solutions and healing paths for illnesses and psychosocial conflicts. Ayahuasca is often used by curanderos, ayahuasceros or vegetalistas (healers in traditional Amazon or Andean medicine) to heal diseases. The use is widespread from the Andes and the Pacific coast as far as Brazil and from Colombia via Ecuador and Peru to Argentina. For the shamans , the effect of the drink is not due to an active ingredient, but to the plant souls, which reveal themselves to the people under the influence of ayahuasca as teachers.

In various Brazilian religions, the entheogen Ayahuasca is used as a sacrament in rituals. The largest municipalities are the União do Vegetal and Santo Daime and the smaller Barquinha . By drinking the tea, singing prayers and communal ritual dances, a qualitatively altered state of waking consciousness is generated, which is supposed to enable the perception of spiritual reality.

Novel use

The Ayahuasca phenomenon has been subject to globalization since the late 1990s. Some famous personalities, such as the pop singer Sting in his biography and in television interviews, report publicly about their personal-biographical and spiritual ayahuasca experiences. A western ayahuasca tourism developed, as a result of which flourishing "healing centers" emerged in the upper Amazon region, mainly in Peru, which mostly belong to US owners and pay or employ local mestizo shamans on a fee basis. The offers are not infrequently aimed at the expectations of the western public for a supposed authenticity of Indian-shamanic spirituality and wisdom. This often results in an unrecognizable folkloric retraditionalization for the foreign audience, which does not reflect today's authentic reality of mestizo folk medicine. Western neo- shamanistic and syncretic elements are mixed with mestizo animism and shamanism and East Asian elements from Buddhism and yoga in order to meet the expectations of the western ethnotherapy audience. However, ayahuasca is also globalizing in the other direction, so that more and more ayahuasca offers can be found in North America and Europe, partly through South American shamans who offer seminars and retreats there, and partly through western neo-shamans, western alternative psychotherapists and Ayahuasca churches or their globalized offshoots.

Ayahuasca tourism and ayahuasca business are sometimes violently criticized by ethnologists as cultural colonialism, since, unnoticed or ignored by the mostly untrained ayahuasca tourists, egalitarian social structures are further destroyed by commercial marketing. Competitive pressure and violence between tourist shamans and against them are increasing behind the scenes of healing centers. Complex healing systems of Amazon vegetalism are reduced to the aspect of psychedelic-spiritual ethnodrug consumption. Ayahuasca is over-generalized as a supposedly millennia-old healing method for almost everything.

Psychotherapeutic and medical potentials, risks and pharmacological properties of ayahuasca have been researched since the mid-1990s with modern scientific methods, often with the aim of removing its use from the traditional shamanic context and for specific disorders such as chronic post-traumatic stress disorder , To make addiction disorders and therapy-resistant depression usable within Western psychotherapy. Leading research in this area comes mostly from Brazil, USA, Canada and Spain. Important research organizations are MAPS and the Beckley Foundation . In South America there are resident doctors, psychotherapists and therapy facilities who cooperate with shamans and offer or convey Ayahuasca experiences as an integral part of their psychotherapies, for example the Takiwasi therapy center from Tarapoto in Peru, founded by the French doctor Jacques Mabit , which has been combining long-term weaning therapy for addictive disorders since 1992 with traditional Amazon medicine and Ayahuasca.

preparation

The following plants are mainly used to make Ayahuasca:

such as:

  • Chacruna ( Psychotria viridis ) or
  • Chaliponga ( Diplopterys cabrerana ), which contain DMT.

The plants and roots used are boiled to a brew for up to three days.

Eighteen different Yagé species were studied among the Siona in the Colombian Amazon, eleven of which are named after different animals. Banisteriopsis caapi is called Juipa by the Sikuani. One type of this is called Sisipi-Juipa (Yagé Hummingbird), as hummingbirds drink the nectar from its flowers. The Tigri-Husaca is so named because jaguars are said to often eat its leaves. The anaconda is also said to feed on Yagé, which in turn is to be found when consuming it.

A snuff is made from the seeds of the Anadenanthera peregrina plant , also known as dopa or yopo, and is inhaled after chewing the roasted roots of Banisteriopsis caapi . The recipe made of the above-mentioned two components, known from Western drug tourism, seems too short-sighted in relation to the Yagé, since the complex shamanic tribal knowledge of the various Amazon peoples knows very different recipes and preparation rites for different purposes. Numerous other plants, such as Brugmansia suaveolens or Brugmansia candida , can be added to increase or decrease certain effects.

Meaning of the name

The term Ayahuasca comes from the indigenous language of northern Quechua and translates as "vine of the spirits / dead / ancestors" or "tendril of souls" / "soul tendril". Alternative names are Yagé , liana del muerto ( Spanish ), la purga ( Spanish ), la medicina ( Spanish ), daime , natem (Shuar / Achuar), mii or mihi (Huaorani), iyaona (Zapara), caapí , hoasca Quechua , vegetal ( spanish ), dapa , natema , shuri , kamalampi , pinde , kaji .

Effect in humans

effect

The effect varies depending on the type of Banisteriopsis liana and the added plants. Typically, psychedelic states develop after consuming the bitter brew . The musculoskeletal system usually remains controlled, but the conscious motor skills can be restricted. The incidence of addiction from taking ayahuasca was rated as low.

side effect

Well-known and frequent acute effects are vomiting, diarrhea or sweating, whereby these symptoms are traditionally often not viewed as side effects, but as the intended main effect which, in combination with the psychological effects, are intended to bring about a comprehensive spiritual-psycho-physical cleansing. It can lead to reduced motor control, balance disorders and dizziness. Anxiety and transient psychotic states can be triggered if used improperly. The use of Ayahuasca is based on a certain uncertainty in the results. Responses during ayahuasca ceremonies ranged from being in a deep state of calm to agonized screaming for forgiveness. Ayahuasca is not recommended for people who have had psychotic or manic episodes in their personal or family history.

In combination with medication or other drugs, ayahuasca can be fatal due to the monoamine oxidase-inhibiting effect. In connection with ayahuasca rituals, there have also been repeated reports of sexual abuse, injuries and fatal accidents. An Australian television journalist investigating the death of a New Zealander who died in 2015 in a ritual in the Peruvian Amazon rainforest reported at least five known deaths in Peru since his death in early 2017 . It is unclear whether the deaths were caused by taking the ayahuasca. Not infrequently, before ayahuasca ceremonies, concentrated tobacco juice (made from nicotine-rich farmer's tobacco, also called mapacho) is administered, which, in combination with drinking several liters of water, is said to induce vomiting and is considered a prior internal cleansing. There is a risk of nicotine poisoning, which can be fatal. An obvious problem is that if serious side effects occur rarely, effective emergency medical care on site is not guaranteed or is not recognized in time by the poorly medically trained staff.

history

  • The oldest evidence of the combination of Harman alkaloids and dimethyltryptamine in South America was found in a 1000 year old ritual bundle in the highland Andes.
  • In 1851 the liana was identified and researched in the Brazilian jungle by the British botanist Richard Spruce . Two years later, in his publication Notes Of A Botanist On The Amazon And The Andes, he pointed to the hallucinogenic effects of the plant, but attributed this to additives. This assessment by Spruce is correct, since the hallucinogenic effects of ayahuasca result from the DMT of Psychotria viridis and not from the vine.
  • In 1966 the parts of the plant were examined more closely and the strongly psychoactive alkaloids harmine , harmalin , tetrahydroharmine and DMT were recognized as the cause of the altered state of consciousness.
  • In 1986 Loren S. Miller patented the liana species Banisteriopsis caapi, which is required for the production of Ayahuasca (US patent number: US PP5,751 P). He claims to be the discoverer of the plant.
  • In 1986 the Brazilian Narcotics Authority CONFEN (Conselho Federal de Entorpecentes) authorized the religious use of ayahuasca through resolutions 6 and 7 after the plant brew was banned between 1985 and 1986.
  • In 1999 ayahuasca was recognized as the intellectual property of indigenous peoples and the patent was revoked.
  • In 2001 the patent came into force again, which sparked many protests and is considered an example of the exploitation of indigenous cultures. The patent is invalid under international law .
  • In 2006, the US Supreme Court decided: Ayahuasca was approved for ritual religious use.
  • In 2008, Ayahuasca in Peru received the status of a national cultural heritage with the Resolución Directoral Nacional No.836 / INC.
  • In 2011, on the 50th anniversary of the founding of one of the Brazilian Ayahuasca religions, Uniao do Vegetal , special sessions were held in the Brazilian parliament and in the state parliaments of several states to honor the religion. In some states, July 22nd has been introduced as a new public holiday ("Day of Peace").

research

The Department of Medical Psychology at Heidelberg University Hospital ran a research area Ayahuasca / Santo Daime , as part of which the three-day conference The globalization of Ayahuasca - An Amazonian psychoactive and its users took place in May 2008 .

At present (as of 2017), however, there is no significant university research activity from Germany. However, there is a very active research community in Brazil, the US, Canada and Spain. Since the late 1990s there has been a boom in the publication of research articles, as can be seen in the PubMed research database under the keyword ayahuasca .

Legal status

Germany

The active ingredients DMT and 5-MeO-DMT contained in the Ayahuasca plant stock are listed in Appendix I of the Narcotics Act and are therefore not marketable narcotics. Dealing without permission is a criminal offense.

Switzerland

The chemical N , N -dimethyltryptamine contained in ayahuasca is listed in directory d (prohibited substances) of Annex 5 BetmVV-EDI (SR 812.121.11) and is therefore subject to Art. 3 Para. 2 lit. d BetmKV (SR 812.121.1) under the Swiss Narcotics Act (SR 812.121). The higher court of the canton of Zurich confirmed the legality of the confiscation and destruction of ayahuasca in a decision of January 24, 2014 (ZR 113 (2014) No. 7, p. 23ff.).

Peru

The traditional use of the well-known combination of Ayahuasca ( Banisteriopsis caapi ) with Chacruna ( Psychotria viridis ) has been protected in Peru since 2008 as national heritage ( patrimonio nacional ) by the Resolución ministerial 836 del INC . The aim was to protect the identity and continuity of indigenous peoples based on the ayahuasca practice based on the therapeutic effect. The use as a knowing plant or teacher is explicitly named, which opens up the foundations of the world and its components to initiates and enables the privileged bearers of culture to enter the spiritual world and its secrets . Tourist use is unregulated in Peru.

Brazil

In Brazil, Ayahuasca can only be used for religious purposes. The vegetable stock may not be produced or sold for commercial purposes. Use is regulated by the federal authority CONAD.

United States

Although Ayahuasca is still one of the substances in need of regulation in the USA, the Supreme Court ruled on February 21, 2006 in favor of the freedom to practice one's religion.

Canada

In 2017, the Santo Daime community of Céu do Montréal was granted the right to use ayahuasca as a sacrament in its rituals in favor of religious freedom .

Schia

A fatwa of the Grand Ayatollah Sayyid Sadeq Rohani finds hallucinogens such as ayahuasca as halāl and allows Shiites to use them under the supervision of qualified experts.

Convention on Psychotropic Substances

Neither the plants that are processed into ayahuasca ( Psychotria viridis , Banisteriopsis caapi, etc.) nor the drink itself are subject to the Convention on Psychotropic Substances of 1971. This view is shared by the United Nations International Narcotics Control Board. The respective national case law, on the other hand, may differ.

Studies

  • DJ McKenna: Clinical investigations of the therapeutic potential of ayahuasca: rationale and regulatory challenges. In: Pharmacology & therapeutics. Volume 102, Number 2, May 2004, pp. 111-129, doi: 10.1016 / j.pharmthera.2004.03.002 , PMID 15163593 (review).
  • RS Gable: Risk assessment of ritual use of oral dimethyltryptamine (DMT) and harmala alkaloids . (PDF) In: Addiction. Volume 102, Number 1, January 2007, pp. 24-34, doi: 10.1111 / j.1360-0443.2006.01652.x , PMID 17207120 (review).
  • PC Barbosa, S. Mizumoto, MP Bogenschutz, RJ Strassman: Health status of ayahuasca users. In: Drug testing and analysis. Volume 4, number 7-8, 2012 Jul-Aug, pp. 601-609, doi: 10.1002 / dta.1383 , PMID 22761152 (review).
  • M. Winkelman: Psychedelics as medicines for substance abuse rehabilitation: evaluating treatments with LSD, Peyote, Ibogaine and Ayahuasca. In: Current drug abuse reviews. Volume 7, Number 2, 2014, pp. 101-116, PMID 25563446 (Review).
  • J. Soler, M. Elices, A. Franquesa, S. Barker, P. Friedlander, A. Feilding, JC Pascual, J. Riba: Exploring the therapeutic potential of Ayahuasca: acute intake increases mindfulness-related capacities. In: Psychopharmacology. November 2015, doi: 10.1007 / s00213-015-4162-0 , PMID 26612618 .
  • RG dos Santos, FL Osorio u. a .: Antidepressive, anxiolytic, and antiaddictive effects of ayahuasca, psilocybin and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD): a systematic review of clinical trials published in the last 25 years. In: Therapeutic Advances in Psychopharmacology. 2016, doi: 10.1177 / 2045125316638008 (Review).
  • E. Domínguez-Clavé, J. Soler, M. Elices, JC Pascual, E. Álvarez, M. de la Fuente Revenga, P. Friedlander, A. Feilding, J. Riba: Ayahuasca: Pharmacology, neuroscience and therapeutic potential. In: Brain research bulletin. March 2016, doi: 10.1016 / j.brainresbull.2016.03.002 , PMID 26976063 (Review).
  • RG Dos Santos, JC Bouso, JE Hallak: Ayahuasca, dimethyltryptamine, and psychosis: a systematic review of human studies. In: Therapeutic advances in psychopharmacology. Volume 7, number 4, April 2017, pp. 141–157, doi: 10.1177 / 2045125316689030 , PMID 28540034 , PMC 5433617 (free full text) (review).

Documentation

literature

  • Beatriz Caiuby Labate & Clancy Cavnar [Eds.]: The Therapeutic Use of Ayahuasca. Springer, 2014. ISBN 978-3-642-40425-2 [Print]; ISBN 978-3-642-40426-9 [eBook]
  • Alan Shoemaker: Ayahuasca Medicine: The Shamanic World of Amazonian Sacred Plant Healing. Park Street Press 2014. ISBN 978-1-62055-193-6
  • Stephan V. Beyer: Singing to the Plants: A Guide to Mestizo Shamanism in the Upper Amazon , University of New Mexico Press, 2009, ISBN 978-0-8263-4729-9 - English-language comprehensive overview work on Upper Amazonian Ayahuasca shamanism. Phenomenology, pharmacological research, new forms such as spiritual tourism and globalization are also covered.
  • Frank Pfitzner: Amazonian medicine in the treatment of drug addiction. An exploratory study , 2008, VDM-Verlag, ISBN 978-3-639-00291-1 - The psychologist Pfitzner examined the therapy concept of the withdrawal and weaning clinic "Takiwasi" in Tarapoto (Peru), which uses traditional shamanic Amazonian herbal medicine Treated drug addiction in the therapeutic framework of group therapy and therapeutic community.
  • Arno Adelaars, Christian Rätsch , Claudia Müller-Ebeling: Ayahuasca - rituals, magic potions and visionary art from Amazonia , 2006. ISBN 978-3-03800-270-3
  • Govert Derix: Ayahuasca, a critique of psychedelic reason. Philosophical Adventure on the Amazon , 2004, Nachtschatten-Verlag, ISBN 3-03788-127-5 - Derix drank ayahuasca for the first time in 1990, traveled to remote areas of the Brazilian jungle and interviewed many ayahuasqueiros, masters and students.
  • Carsten Balzer: Paths to Salvation, the Barquinha. An ethnological study on transformation and healing in the ayahuasca rituals of a Brazilian religion , 2003, ISBN 3-88559-083-2
  • Jeremy Narby : The Cosmic Snake , 2001, ISBN 3-608-93518-5 - A report by an anthropologist who describes, among other things, the experience with this plant.
  • Ralph Metzner, PhD (Ed.): Ayahuasca - Hallucinogens, Consciousness, and the Spirit of Nature . Thunder's Mouth Press, 1999. ISBN 1-56025-160-3
  • Ulrich Meyerratken, Nathalie Salem: Daime - Brazil's cult of healing power plants . Munich, Droemer Knaur 1998. ISBN 3-426-76165-3

Web links

Commons : Ayahuasca  - collection of images, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

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  2. ↑ a b c Dennis J. McKenna, GHN Towers, et al .: Monoamine oxidase inhibitors in South American hallucinogenic plants: Tryptamine and β-carboline constituents of Ayahuasca. In: Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 10, 1984, pp. 195-223, doi: 10.1016 / 0378-8741 (84) 90003-5 .
  3. ↑ Divine one in tea . In: Süddeutsche Zeitung Magazin No. 26 of July 2, 1999, pp. 14-21.
  4. ^ Beatriz Caiuby Labate: The Internationalization of Ayahuasca. LIT Verlag Münster, 2011, ISBN 978-3-643-90148-4 ( limited preview in Google book search).
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  13. ↑ Bernd Brabec de Mori: Culture as a murderer, excesses of violence, alternative tourism and cultural colonialism in Amazonia , pp. 28–32, Latin America different, Austria's magazine for Latin America and the Caribbean. 2/2018
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  15. ↑ Home . 4th March 2016.
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  17. ↑ Ulrike Fokken: The Liana of Death .
  18. ↑ takiwasi.com
  19. ^ Tom John Wolff: Ayahuasca tourism in South America , in R. Feustel, H. Schmidt-Semisch, U. Bröckling. Handbook drugs from a social and cultural science perspective. 2018, Springer Verlag, pp. 555-575.
  20. ↑ Luna, LE: Apéndices , indigenous America 46 (1). 1986. Pages. 241-251.
  21. ↑ Luna, LE: vegetalismo: Shamanism among the Mestizo Population of the Peruvian Amazon , Acta Universitatis Stockholmensis, Stockholm Studies in Comparative Religion. No. 27. 1986. Stockholm, Sweden: Almquist and Wiksell International
  22. ↑ a b c R. S. Gable: Risk assessment of ritual use of oral dimethyltryptamine (DMT) and harmala alkaloids . ( Memento of August 10, 2017 in the Internet Archive ) (PDF) In: Addiction. Volume 102, Number 1, January 2007, pp. 24-34, doi: 10.1111 / j.1360-0443.2006.01652.x , PMID 17207120 (review).
  23. ^ J. Riba: Human Pharmacology of Ayahuasca: Subjective and Cardiovascular Effects, Monoamine Metabolite Excretion, and Pharmacokinetics. In: Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 306, 2003, p. 73, doi: 10.1124 / jpet.103.049882 .
  24. ↑ IM Lovetree: Liquid plum'r for the soul . In: R. Metzner (Ed.): Ayahuasca: Human Consciousness and the Spirits of Nature. Thunder's Mouth Press, New York 1993, pp. 116-123.
  25. ↑ Paulo Cesar Ribeiro Barbosa, Joel Sales Giglio, Paulo Dalgalarrondo: Altered States of Consciousness and Short-Term Psychological After-Effects Induced by the First Time Ritual Use of Ayahuasca in an Urban Context in Brazil. In: Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 37, 2005, p. 193, doi: 10.1080 / 02791072.2005.10399801 .
  26. ↑ Rafael G. Dos Santos, José Carlos Bouso |, Jaime EC Hallak: Ayahuasca, dimethyltryptamine, and psychosis: a systematic review of human studies . In: Therapeutic Advances in Psychopharmacology , Volume 7, No. 4, April 1, 2017, pp. 141–157, doi: 10.1177 / 2045125316689030 , PMID 28540034 , PMC 5433617 (free full text)
  27. ^ RG dos Santos: A critical evaluation of reports associating ayahuasca with life-threatening adverse reactions. In: Journal of psychoactive drugs. Volume 45, number 2, 2013 Apr-Jun, pp. 179-188, doi: 10.1080 / 02791072.2013.785846 , PMID 23909005 (review).
  28. ↑ Lauren McMah: Hamish Macdonald probes death of Matthew Dawson-Clarke for Foreign Correspondent. In: news.com.au. News Life Media, March 14, 2017, accessed January 20, 2020 .
  29. ↑ José M. Capriles, Christine Moore, Juan Albarracin-Jordan, Melanie J. Miller: Chemical evidence for the use of multiple psychotropic plants in a 1,000-year-old ritual bundle from South America . In: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences . May 1, 2019, ISSN  0027-8424 , p. 201902174 , doi : 10.1073 / pnas.1902174116 , PMID 31061128 ( pnas.org [accessed May 16, 2019]).
  30. ↑ Yasmin Anwar: Ayahuasca fixings found in 1,000-year-old Andean sacred bundle. In: news.berkeley.edu. May 6, 2019, accessed May 19, 2019 .
  31. ↑ Banisteriopsis caapi (cv) `Da Vine` . The United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO). Retrieved October 16, 2013.
  32. ↑ Conselho Federal de Entorpecentes - Resolução nº 06, de 04 de fevereiro de 1986. (PDF; 64.4 KB) In: bialabate.net. February 4, 1986, Retrieved October 12, 2019 (Brazilian Portuguese).
  33. ↑ a b 546 US (2006) Opinion of the Court (PDF) Complete grounds for judgment, accessed June 12, 2015.
  34. ↑ Resolution No. 836 / INC of June 24, 2008 ( Memento of June 16, 2015 in the Internet Archive ). Website of the Peruvian Ministry of Culture, accessed June 12, 2015.
  35. ↑ sessão Solene Câmara dos Deputados 50 anos da UDV on YouTube , from July 11, 2011
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  38. ↑ Home. (PDF) Cultural Studies Collaborative Research Center on Ritual Dynamics
  39. ↑ Ayahuasca research area at Heidelberg University Hospital . Archived from the original on March 17, 2010.
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  41. ↑ Beatriz Caiuby Labate, Kevin Feeney: Ayahuasca and the process of regulation in Brazil and internationally: Implications and challenges . In: International Journal of Drug Policy . No. 23 . Elsevier, 2012, ISSN  0955-3959 , p. 154–161 (English, pdfs.semanticscholar.org [accessed August 26, 2019]).
  42. ↑ Jessica Rochester: How Our Santo Daime Church Received Religious Exemption to Use Ayahuasca in Canada. July 17, 2017, Retrieved May 1, 2019 (American English).
  43. ↑ An Iranian mystic makes the Grand Ayatollah Rohani approve the use of ayahuasca. In: news.iceers.org. February 1, 2014, accessed June 15, 2015 .
  44. ↑ JPEG file. In: erowid.org. Retrieved March 22, 2016 .