Capernaum

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Overview of the Franciscan grounds with the ancient synagogue and the modern St. Peter's Church

Capernaum ( Hebrew כְפַר נָחוּם Kfar Naḥūm , Arabic Talḥūm ) is an archaeological site in the northern district of Israel . It is located on the northwestern bank of the Sea of ​​Galilee , about 5 km southwest of the confluence of the Jordan into the lake and 16 km northwest of Tiberias . As the setting for New Testament stories, Capernaum was a Christian pilgrimage destination in late antiquity and was again in the 20th century.

The area of ​​the archaeological site is about 5 hectares; the western part is owned by the Franciscan Custody of the Holy Land , the eastern part belongs to the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem . The ancient settlement was identified with the ruins of Talḥūm in the 19th century . Today's visitor to the Franciscan site will find remnants of ancient residential buildings as well as a representative late ancient synagogue and a "House of Peter" , the latter being overbuilt by a modern Roman Catholic church.

Surname

The ancient Greek spelling of the place name Καφαρναούμ Kapharnaúm is offered by early manuscripts of the New Testament as well as by Flavius ​​Josephus . In the more recent manuscripts of the New Testament, however, the place name is Καπερναούμ Kapernaúm . That is why the Luther Bible , which translated the Textus receptus , has this form of the name. Capernaum is the modern ecumenical spelling according to the Loccumer guidelines ( standard translation , Zurich Bible ).

The midrash Kohelet Rabba, a work written in Palestine in the 6th / 7th, possibly 8th century AD, transmits the Hebrew place nameכְפַר נָחוּם Kfar Naḥūm "Nachums village", which is confirmed by a Byzantine inscription in the synagogue of Chammat Gader . In addition, there were other names of the place in late antique and early medieval Judaism, one of which, (Kfar) Tanḥūm , was adopted in early Islamic times as the Arabic place name Talḥūm . Nineteenth- century explorers misunderstood this place name as Tall Ḥūm and mistakenly interpreted this name as an abbreviation of Tall Naḥūm .

Identification and excavations

During his first visit to Palestine in 1838, Edward Robinson discovered the remains of an ancient synagogue in Talḥūm , but did not associate this find with Capernaum. It was not until 1866 that Charles William Wilson identified Talḥūm with the ancient Capernaum. The vacant site on which the synagogue ruins were located then increased in value. After several years of negotiations, the Samakieh Beduins finally sold part of the property to the Franciscan Custody (September 19, 1894), who had a surrounding wall erected and a hospice built on the edge of the area to prevent stone robbery. The Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople had not been able to assert itself with its legal opinion that the area of ​​ancient Capernaum was in Greek Orthodox possession; Jewish prospective buyers were also unsuccessful.

In the 19th century, the grounds of Talḥūm were littered with dark basalt rubble from ancient houses, and in the middle the remains of the synagogue stood out with their dazzling white color. Wilson's expedition partially excavated the synagogue, which was then described and mapped as part of the Survey of Western Palestine , but has also been subject to further destruction since it was uncovered. Even before they acquired the area, the Franciscans had covered the archaeological site with earth and planted it, so that a garden was created.

In 1905 the synagogue was excavated for the second time. Heinrich Kohl and Carl Watzinger ( German Orient Society ) explored the ancient building; the custody then commissioned the Franciscan Wendelin van Menden to continue the archaeological work, which he extended to the area west of the synagogue by 1914. Kohl and Watzinger described their condition after uncovering as follows: “The first layers of the enclosing walls of a rectangular building and inside parts of a column position have been preserved. The building is oriented from north to south, so that the main entrances are in the southern narrow side, accessible from a terrace that was presented here because of the slope of the terrain. Along the west side ran a 3 m wide, basalt-paved street with thresholds of individual houses, on the east side there is a courtyard carefully laid out with tiles with a colonnade and a surrounding wall, which had three entrances on the north and south sides. " No pillar was in its place anymore. Most of them had been abducted, with a few lying in their original fall position to the southwest. The high square bases (chairs) on which the columns had stood without dowels were in situ or only slightly displaced: five on the east, four on the west and two on the north stylobate . Under the architectural decoration was a wall frieze depicting a car that had been published by the Palestine Exploration Fund in the 19th century, but has been lost since the ruins were filled in and was only found again in 1912 by van Menden. After the First World War, the Franciscan archaeologist Gaudenzio Orfali continued the excavations, which finally came to a preliminary conclusion with a partial reconstruction of the ancient synagogue and a publication (1922). Orfali believed that the synagogue was the scene of Jesus' ministry. He also excavated the remains of an octagonal church just south of the synagogue.

  • Talḥūm 1890

  • Kohl and Watzinger 1905

  • Watzinger's model of the synagogue (1916)

  • Aerial photo of the Franciscan grounds in 1937/38

Virgilio Corbo and Stanislao Loffreda carried out excavations from 1968 to 1984 on the Franciscan area. Vassilios Tzaferis excavated on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Administration from 1978 to 1982 on the site of the Greek Orthodox Church.

Settlement history

Roman milestone near Capernaum

In the late Hellenistic and Hasmonean times, the density of settlements in Galilee increased. Capernaum belongs to a group of archaeologically investigated places whose earliest architecture dates from this phase. Capernaum was on a side street of the Via Maris , which branched off north of Gennesar ( Tell el-Oreme ), then passed close to the shore in the direction of Bethsaida and from there to Damascus in the northeast.

From the 1st century BC Until 1st century AD, Capernaum was a larger settlement ("Großdorf"); the approximately 600 to 1000 inhabitants, mostly Jewish, lived from agriculture and fishing. After Herod's death 4th BC Capernaum belonged to the territory of Herod Antipas and became a border town during this time, as the rulership of Herod Philip followed further east . (This is the situation assumed in the New Testament, which mentions a customs post here, possibly associated with a small military post.)

  • The oldest public building in Capernaum was a basalt synagogue, which was built in the first decades of the 1st century AD and also served for communal purposes, as a kind of community hall. It was later replaced by a new building in the same place, the dating of which is discussed in research.
  • A house next to the synagogue, possibly a Jewish Christian meeting place, was surrounded by a wall in the 4th century; the excavators referred to this late antique building as domus-ecclesia ("house church"). As the excavations in the eastern part of Capernaum show (including a bathhouse from the 2nd / 3rd century), the non-Jewish population of Capernaum has increased since the 1st century AD. In the late 5th century, the domus-ecclesia was destroyed in order to build an octagonal church on this spot, a central building typical of Christian pilgrimage sites.

The entire place was built of local dark basalt, except for the synagogue and the octagonal church, which were built of white limestone; this building material comes from quarries in the Arbel cliffs north of Tiberias. Loffreda found Byzantine shards with signs of the cross in almost all of the excavated houses, from which he concluded that the synagogue was in the 5th / 6th centuries. Century was literally "circled" by Christian residential areas. In the 5th century there was the unusual situation that the neighboring synagogue and church buildings were used simultaneously by the respective religious communities; what this meant for the everyday coexistence of Jews and Christians in Capernaum cannot be elucidated from literary sources. The synagogue was the larger and more representative structure. Michael Avi-Yonah criticized: "This state of affairs is conceivable in our ecumenical age, but it is almost impossible to imagine that the Byzantine authorities would have approved something like this in the 4th century." 5. In the 17th century, local Jewish self-government, which thanks to the good economic situation (also due to the Christian pilgrimage), made it possible to build several synagogues that were not regulated by the Byzantine authorities.

The excavations of Vassilios Tzaferis in the eastern part of Capernaum showed that a large, mostly Christian settlement continued to exist in the early Islamic period. Both in neighboring Khirbat al-Minya and in Sinnabra near Tiberias there had been Muslim estates since the 8th century, but they apparently did not affect the economic life in Capernaum. It was not until the late 10th century that signs of decline began to appear and in the 11th century, before the arrival of the Crusaders, Capernaum was abandoned.

Scene of the New Testament

Remnants of the basalt synagogue from the 1st century have been preserved in the foundation of the limestone synagogue

Capernaum plays an important role in the Gospels as the place of activity of Jesus of Nazareth , according to the Gospel of Matthew this was his temporary residence:

“When Jesus heard that John had been handed over, he returned to Galilee. He left Nazareth to live in Capernaum, which is on the lake, in the area of ​​Zebulun and Naftali. "

- Matthew 4, 12-13 (standard translation)

Several of Jesus' disciples are said to come from Capernaum, “his city” ( Mt 9,1  EU ): the brothers Simon Peter and Andrew as well as James and John , the sons of Zebedee, and a tax collector named Levi or Matthew .

According to Mk 1,11–28  EU , Jesus taught in the synagogue of Capernaum at the beginning of his ministry . Then he visited Peter's house and healed his mother-in-law . In addition to Mk 1.29–31  EU , this healing is also told in the synoptic parallels Lk 4.38–39  EU and Mt 8.14–15  EU .

The logia source mentions the captain of Capernaum , a centurion stationed in Capernaum ( Mt 8,5–13  EU ; Lk 7,1–10  EU ).

Capernaum also appears in the Gospel of John: After the multiplication of bread, the late antique Christian pilgrimage tradition localized in the area of Tabgha , Jesus gives a speech in the synagogue of Capernaum about the “bread of heaven” ( Jn 6,22-59  EU ).

Ancient synagogue

South facade of the limestone synagogue
Aramaic donor inscription of Chalfai

The 1st century basalt synagogue apparently existed until the 4th century.

In its place, a new white limestone synagogue was built, which was not completed until the 5th century. However, the framework conditions for a new synagogue were unfavorable: in 415 the Jewish patriarchate lost the right of jurisdiction over Christians, before 429 this office was then completely revoked. In 438, Emperor Theodosius I banned new synagogues, but renovations of existing synagogues were still allowed. A Greek and Aramaic donor inscription each document that wealthy individuals supported the local Jewish community in their building project:

  • Herod the son of Monimos and his son Justus with their children;
  • Chalfai son of Zabdai, son of Jochanan.

The synagogue has a main room paved with large stone slabs (23 × 17.28 m), which is divided by two rows of seven columns each with Corinthian capitals and stone benches along the eastern and western walls; the direction of prayer was south (towards Jerusalem). The walls were decorated with colored stucco. The south facade with rich architectural decorations had three entrances. There was a more than 3 m wide terrace in front of it. On the east side there was a courtyard with a trapezoidal floor plan. There does not seem to have been a permanently built Torah shrine in the first construction phase; possibly the Torah scrolls were kept in niches between the doors. In a later renovation, a Torah shrine in the form of an aedicula was added. The high-quality sculptural decorations were attached to the outside of the building, while Byzantine synagogues were otherwise only decorated inside.

The difficulty in dating the synagogue of Capernaum is that the architectural decoration would be more stylistically appropriate to the 3rd century AD. But due to ceramic fragments and hoarding coins on the synagogue grounds, the early dating of the older research cannot be kept; the excavators around Stanislao Loffreda pushed the date of completion further and further into the middle and then up to the late 5th century.

In 1999, Zvi Uri Ma'oz proposed an alternative solution: Spolia from destroyed synagogues from the 3rd century in the area were merged in the 5th century to form the synagogue of Capernaum, which, however, was not used for Jewish worship but was a Christian pilgrimage site because the Gospels reported a healing miracle of Jesus in this synagogue. Ma'oz 'thesis remained a minority opinion, since the cost of such a building seems disproportionately great only for a "Jesus Synagogue" as a pilgrimage destination. But with the keyword Spolia a way was shown to explain the stylistically fitting architectural details into the 3rd century. Perhaps the use of spoils when building synagogues for Jewish communities was a way of circumventing the imperial ban on building new synagogues.

Ancient Christian pilgrimage site

House of Peter excavation site, 1980s

Literary testimony

Before AD 377, Epiphanios of Salamis wrote that it was impossible to build churches in the cities of Tiberias , Sepphoris , Nazareth and Capernaum because the Jews were careful to ensure that “no one belonging to another ethnic group should settle among them It is fitting that Capernaum is not mentioned as a pilgrimage destination in the Burdigalense Itinerary and that no bishops from Galilee took part in the First Council of Nicea . It is difficult to assess the historical reliability of the news Epiphanios reports about a Jew named Joseph who converted to Christianity. With the support of Emperor Constantine, this Comes Joseph is said to have built Christian churches in the named Galilean places, including Capernaum, which did not exist there before.

The fact that Capernaum had become the destination of Christian pilgrims at the end of the 4th century is first documented by a mention in Egeria , but her report was only preserved in an excerpt by Petrus Diaconus (12th century):

“In Capernaum, however, the house of the Prince of the Apostles became a church; the walls stand as they were to this day. There the Lord healed the paralyzed man. There is also the synagogue in which the Lord healed the possessed (and) to which one climbs up many steps. The synagogue is made of square stones. Not far from there are stone steps on which the Lord stood "

- Petrus Diaconus: De locis sanctis V 2

In the 6th century, the pilgrim from Piacenza mentioned that in Capernaum there was a basilica on the spot where the house of Peter was. Also Arculf visited the pilgrimage site in the 7th century.

archeology

The excavations of Orfali and then of Corbo and Loffreda brought the following findings:

  • About 30 m from the synagogue there were normal late Hellenistic-early Roman residential buildings.
  • One house was upgraded to a house church ( domus-ecclesia ) with a multi-colored floor in the 4th century .
  • In the 5th century this house church was built over with the octagon of the pilgrim church.

The excavators assigned the building of a house church in the 4th century to the work of Comes Joseph; Emmanuele Testa saw in him an Ebionite who proselytized the “Jewish Christian ghetto” of Galilee and brought it to the imperial church: “Never before had a Gentile Christian succeeded in breaking into this ghetto. ... Only he, a Hebrew according to race, an Ebionite according to religion, connected to the main church ... could serve as a bridge. "

The excavators suspected that the house church was located on the site of an early Christian meeting room from the late 1st century AD and ultimately goes back to the house of Simon Petrus, which is also mentioned in the New Testament. The only clear indication of this, however, are limestone inscriptions that name Jesus with sovereign titles and Peter and show traces of ritual meetings. They date from the 3rd century at the earliest. For the postulated early Christian assembly room of the 1st century, it can only be asserted that it was plastered more often than other, neighboring rooms, so it was possibly particularly valuable for the inhabitants of Capernaum at that time.

Modern churches and tourist infrastructure

In 1931 a small Greek Orthodox church was built dedicated to the Twelve Apostles. The associated monastery is subordinate to the Patriarch of Jerusalem.

The modern Roman Catholic St. Peter's Church was built over the ancient Christian pilgrimage site based on designs by Ildo Alvetta, Rome, and takes on the shape of the octagon. At the same time, it should be reminiscent of a ship, since Peter was a fisherman by trade, and serve as a protective structure for the ancient structures. This church was consecrated on June 29, 1990.

  • Church of the Twelve Apostles, exterior view

  • Church of the Twelve Apostles, interior

  • Petruskirche, exterior view

  • Petruskirche, interior

In 2000, a new facility for pilgrims and tourists was built east of the Greek Orthodox site, from where boat trips across the lake are also offered.

reception

To commemorate the 25th anniversary of diplomatic relations between Israel and the Vatican, the Vatican Philatelic Service issued a commemorative stamp on September 10, 2019, showing an aerial view of the foundations of the Byzantine Octagonal Church. The proximity of the church and synagogue in Capernaum stands for the depth and uniqueness of the relationship between Christianity and Judaism.

literature

Overview representations

  • Stanislao Loffreda: Art. Capernaum . In: Eric M. Meyers, American Schools of Oriental Research (Ed.): The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archeology in the Near East. Volume 1, Oxford University Press, 1997, pp. 416-419.
  • Johannes Pahlitzsch : Art. Capernaum . In: The New Pauly . Volume 6, 1999, pp. 257-258.
  • Moshe Fischer: Art. Kapharnaum . In: Reallexikon für Antike und Christianentum , Volume 20, Stuttgart 2004, Sp. 43–56.
  • Moshe Fischer: Art. Capernaum . In: Paul Corby Finney (ed.): The Eerdmans Encyclopedia of Early Christian Art and Archeology , Volume 1, Eerdmans, Grand Rapids 2017, pp. 251-253.

Excavation reports

  • Heinrich Kohl , Carl Watzinger : Ancient synagogues in Galilaea . (= Scientific publications of the German Orient Society . Volume 29), Leipzig 1916. Reprint: Verlag Zeller, Osnabrück 1975, ISBN 3-535-00592-2 .
  • Gaudenzio Orfali : Capharnaüm et ses ruines d'après les fouilles accomplies à Tell Houm par la Custodie Franciscaine de Terre Sainte (1905–1921) . Paris 1922.
  • Virgilio Corbo: Cafarnao , Volume 1: Gli edifici della città . Studium Biblicum Franciscanum, Jerusalem 1975.
  • Stanislao Loffreda: Cafarnao , Volume 2: La Ceramica . Studium Biblicum Franciscanum, Jerusalem 1974.
  • Augusto Spijkerman: Cafarnao , Volume 3: Catalogo delle monete della città . Studium Biblicum Franciscanum, Jerusalem 1975.
  • Emanuele Testa : Cafarnao , Volume 4: I Graffitti della Casa di S. Pietro . Studium Biblicum Franciscanum, Jerusalem 1972.
  • Stanislao Loffreda: Cafarnao, Volume 5: Documentazione fotografica degli scavi (1968-2003). Studium Biblicum Franciscanum, Jerusalem 2005, ISBN 965-516-069-6 .
  • Stanislao Loffreda: Cafarnao, Volume 6: Tipologie e contesti stratigrafica della ceramica (1968-2003) . Terra Santa, Jerusalem 2008.
  • Stanislao Loffreda: Cafarnao, Volume 7: Documentazione grafica della ceramica (1968-2003) . Terra Santa, Jerusalem 2008.
  • Stanislao Loffreda: Cafarnao, Volume 8: Documentazione fotografica degli oggetti (1968-2003) . Terra Santa, Jerusalem 2008.
  • Bruno Callegher: Cafarnao, Volume 9: Monete dall'area urbana di Cafarnao (1968-2003) . Terra Santa, Jerusalem 2007.
  • Vassilios Tzaferis (Ed.): Excavations at Capernaum , Volume 1, 1978-1982 . Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake 1989.

Monographs, articles

  • Günter Stemberger : Jews and Christians in the Holy Land. Palestine under Constantine and Theodosius . CH Beck, Munich 1987, ISBN 3-406-32303-0 .
  • Anders Runesson: Architecture, Archeology, and Identitiy Formation: Jews and Christians in Capernaum from the First to the Sixth Century . In: Jürgen Zangenberg , Harold W. Attridge , Dale B. Martin (Eds.): Religion, Ethnicity, and Identity in Ancient Galilee: A Region in Transition (= Scientific Studies on the New Testament . Volume 210). Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen 2007, pp. 231-258. ISBN 978-3-16-149044-6 . ( Digitized version )
  • Jodi Magness: The Question of the Synagogue: The Problem of Typology. In: Judaism in Late Antiquity 3. Where we Stand: Issues and Debates in Ancient Judaism (= Handbook of Oriental Studies , Section 1: The Near and Middle East ). Volume 55. Brill, Leiden 2000, ISBN 978-90-04-12000-6 . Pp. 1-48.

Popular science

  • Walter Bühlmann : How Jesus lived. 2000 years ago in Palestine. Living, eating, working, traveling. Rex, Luzern / Stuttgart 1989, ISBN 3-7252-0491-8 .
  • Bargil Pixner : With Jesus through Galilee according to the fifth Gospel . Corazin, Rosh Pina 1992. ISBN 978-9-654-34000-7 .
  • Bargil Pixner: Ways of the Messiah and Places of the Early Church. Jesus and Jewish Christianity in the light of new archaeological knowledge , ed. by Rainer Riesner (= studies on biblical archeology and contemporary history . Volume 2). 3rd edition, Brunnen Verlag, Giessen 1996, ISBN 3-7655-9802-X .
  • Willibald Bösen : Galilee as the living space and field of activity of Jesus. A contemporary historical and theological investigation , 3rd edition, Herder, Freiburg i. Br. 1998.

Web links

Commons : Kapernaum  - album with pictures, videos and audio files

Coordinates: 32 ° 52 ′ 52 ″  N , 35 ° 34 ′ 30 ″  E

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Flavius ​​Josephus: Jüdischer Krieg 3, 519: Καφαρναούμ Kapharnaúm ; Vita 403: εἰς κώμην Κεφαρνωμόν eis kṓmēn Kepharnōmón .
  2. ↑ Walter Bauer: Greek-German dictionary on the writings of the New Testament and early Christian literature . 6th completely revised edition ed. by Kurt and Barbara Aland. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 1988, column 867.
  3. ↑ Several Protestant churches in Germany as well as in Denmark bear the name Kapernaumkirche in this tradition .
  4. ↑ Günter Stemberger: Introduction to the Talmud and Midrash . 9th, completely revised edition, CH Beck, Munich 2011, p. 352.
  5. ↑ a b Johannes Pahlitzsch : Kapernaum , 1999, p. 257.
  6. ^ A b Moshe Fischer: Capernaum , Grand Rapids 2017, p. 251.
  7. ^ Charles Wilson: The Recovery of Jerusalem: A Narrative of Exploration and Discovery in the City and the Holy Land , London 1871, p. 342.
  8. ^ Custodia Terrae Sanctae: The acquisition of the site of Capernaum .
  9. ^ Heinrich Kohl, Carl Watzinger: Antike Synagogen in Galilaea , Leipzig 1916, p. 4 f.
  10. ^ Custodia Terrae Sanctae: Excavations at Capernaum .
  11. ^ Heinrich Kohl, Carl Watzinger: Antike Synagogen in Galilaea , Leipzig 1916, p. 5 f.
  12. ^ Heinrich Kohl, Carl Watzinger: Antike Synagogen in Galilaea , Leipzig 1916, p. 22.
  13. ^ Heinrich Kohl, Carl Watzinger: Antike Synagogen in Galilaea , Leipzig 1916, p. 35. Watzinger did not interpret this car as a cult object, but as a Roman show car ( carruca ). The Jewish patriarch also had the right to use such a car like a senior civil servant. Therefore Watzinger saw in this car a reference to the patriarchal office, cf. ibid., pp. 193-195.
  14. ↑ Kenneth Atkinson: A History of the Hasmonean State: Josephus and Beyond . Bloomsbury T&T CLark, London et al. 2016, p. 89.
  15. ↑ Valentin Schwöbel: The traffic routes and settlements of Galilee in their dependence on the natural conditions. Breitkopf & Härtel, Leipzig 1903, p. 67 f.
  16. ↑ Jürgen Zangenberg : Kapernaum - A visit to Jesus' «own city» . In the S. (Ed.): Life on Lake Gennesaret . Philipp von Zabern, Mainz 2003, pp. 99–103, here p. 99.
  17. ↑ Anders Runesson: Architecture, Archeology, and Identity Formation: Jews and Christians in Capernaum from the First to the Sixth Century , Tübingen 2007, p. 245 f.
  18. ^ A b Anders Runesson: Architecture, Archeology, and Identitiy Formation: Jews and Christians in Capernaum from the First to the Sixth Century , Tübingen 2007, p. 247.
  19. ^ Günter Stemberger: Jews and Christians in the Holy Land , Munich 1987, p. 122.
  20. ^ Moshe Fischer: Capernaum , Grand Rapids 2017, p. 252.
  21. ↑ Michael Avi-Yonah: Some Comments on the Capernaum Excavations , quoted here. according to Jodi Magness: The Question of the Synagogue: The Problem of Typology, Leiden 2000, p. 34.
  22. ^ Joan E. Taylor: Christians and the Holy Places: The Myth of Jewish-Christian Origins . Oxford University Press, New York 1993, p. 292.
  23. ^ Gideon Avni: The Byzantine-Islamic Transition in Palestine: An Archaeological Approach . Oxford University Press, New York 2014, pp. 88-91.
  24. ↑ Anders Runesson: Architecture, Archeology, and Identity Formation: Jews and Christians in Capernaum from the First to the Sixth Century , Tübingen 2007, p. 244.
  25. ↑ Moshe Fischer: Capernaum , Grand Rapids 2017, p. 251 f.
  26. ↑ Günter Stemberger: Jews and Christians in the Holy Land , Munich 1987, pp. 119–123.
  27. ↑ Jodi Magness: The Question of the Synagogue: The Problem of Typology, Leiden 2000, p. 25.
  28. ↑ Rachel Hachlili : Ancient Synagogues - Archeology and Art: New Discoveries and Current Research . Brill, Leiden 2013, pp. 61-63. See Zvi Uri Ma'oz: The Synagogue at Capernaum: A Radical Solution . In: John H. Humphrey (Ed.): The Roman and Byzantine Near East , Volume 2, Ann Arbor 1999, pp. 137-148.
  29. ↑ Mordechai Aviam: Jews, Pagans and Christians in the Galilee: 25 Years of Archaeological Excavations and Surveys Hellenistic to Byzantine Periods . University of Rochester Press, Rochester 2004, p. 168.
  30. ↑ Epiphanius of Salamis: Panarion , 11/30/10.
  31. ↑ a b Dietrich-Alex Koch : History of early Christianity: A textbook . Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2013, p. 189.
  32. ^ Egeria: Itinerarium, travel report . With excerpts from Petrus Diaconus, De locis sanctis. The holy places . Latin-German. Translated and introduced by Georg Röwekamp with the assistance of Dietmar Thönnes (= Fontes Christiani . Volume 20), 3rd, completely revised edition, Herder, Freiburg et al. 2017, pp. 309–311.
  33. ↑ Emmanuele Testa: I Graffitti della Casa di S. Pietro , Jerusalem 1972, p. 87, quoted here from: Günter Stemberger: Jews and Christians in the Holy Land , Munich 1987, p. 69. Stemberger is critical of Testa's hypothesis. It goes far beyond what can be proven with a few graffiti letters, and remains of flowers and other patterns are even less useful for the convictions of a possible Jewish Christian community in Capernaum. See ibid., P. 70.
  34. ↑ Gerd Theißen , Annette Merz : The historical Jesus , 4th edition, Göttingen 2011, p. 160 f.
  35. ^ Anders Runesson: Architecture, Conflict, and Identity Formation . In: Jürgen K. Zangenberg , Harold W. Attridge, Dale B. Martin (Eds.): Religion, Ethnicity and Identity in Ancient Galilee (= Scientific Studies on the New Testament Vol. 210). Tübingen 2007, pp. 240–242.
  36. ↑ Cafarnao: la nuova Chiesa costruita sulla casa di Pietro .
  37. ↑ Stato della Città del Vaticano, Filatelia: 25 ° ANNIVERSARIO DELLE RELAZIONI DIPLOMATICHE TRA SANTA SEDE ED ISRAELE .