Eating culture of the early modern times
The cuisine of early modern Europe (approx. 1500 - 1800 ) is a mixture of medieval cuisine with innovations that extend into modern times . The age was marked by the emergence of new ideas, growing foreign trade, the Reformation and the revolution in science. The discovery of the new world , the creation of new trade routes to Asia and the expanding international relations into sub-Saharan Africa and the Orient brought Europe an abundance of new foods and beverages. Spices, previously thought of as expensive luxury, became generally affordable; Plants that were introduced and gradually cultivated, such as corn , potatoes , sweet potatoes , chilli , cocoa , vanilla , tomatoes , coffee or tea , became permanent features of a transformed European cuisine.
This period led to an increase in the European standard of living, which gradually spread to all regions and strata of society. This also brought about significant changes in eating habits. A national consciousness arose in the early modern period, but it was not until the 19th century that the concept of a national cuisine emerged. There were differences in the cuisine, but they were more regional than national and more dependent on climatic conditions. The class differences formed another major dividing line; mostly the kitchen of the upper class found its way into the recipe collections and cookbooks of the time.
Meals
In most European regions, two meals were the order of the day: one in the morning and one in the late evening. The exact times varied by era and region. In Spain and parts of Italy such as Genoa and Venice , breakfast was the side meal while dinner was the main course. In northern Europe, the morning meal was the main course. The number of meals per day varied according to region, class and economic situation. Up to four meals a day were common in the rural and urban upper classes. Breakfast consisted of a cup of wine; the morning meal around 9 o'clock consisted of several courses, and again wine and bread were served at Vespers.
Dinner was the main meal with several courses and was served between 3 and 6 o'clock in the afternoon. The variety of dishes was not served one after the other, but at the same time. Sweets ended the meal.
The morning and lunchtime meals of the rural population consisted of cereal porridge that was constantly simmering over the stove and spooned from the warm kettle. In the evening there was soup and bread. Honey was a coveted addition to sweets.
When breakfast became fashionable, it was usually coffee, tea, or chocolate, but was considered a minor matter in many parts of Europe until the 19th century. In the south, where dinner was the main meal, breakfast was of no importance, as the traditional light morning meals of southern Europe still show today, which usually consist of coffee or tea with bread or pastries. The working classes have undoubtedly enjoyed a morning meal since the Middle Ages, but the timing and composition remains unclear due to a lack of evidence.
The three-meal model only became a generally accepted standard in the modern era .
Nutritional components
Cereals and cereal products
For most Europeans, the varietal grain was the main source of nutrition and the daily general staple food. It was available in many varieties in terms of quality and preparation. The lower class enjoyed the coarse bread because of the higher bran content, while the upper class ate the white bread made from finely ground white wheat flour, which is still common in Europe today. Wheat was much more expensive than other grains and was only available to a few. Bread was made from a mixture of wheat and other grains.
Grain remained the undisputed staple food in early modern Europe until the 17th century. The skepticism against goods imported from the New World such as potatoes and maize, which had existed up to that time, was gradually overcome among the population, and the potato found acceptance, especially in Northern Europe, as it was a far more productive and flexible vegetable than wheat. In Ireland this later had disastrous consequences. When many countries became almost exclusively dependent on the potato at the beginning of the 19th century, dry rot , a potato disease, caused famine and killed over a million people and drove two million to emigrate.
In Northern and Eastern Europe, the climate and soil conditions offered poorer conditions for wheat cultivation; Rye and barley retained their importance in regions such as Scotland , Scandinavia and Russia . Rye was used to bake black bread, as it is still common today in countries such as Sweden, Russia and Finland. Barley was more common in the north and was often used to make beer .
Oats made up a not insignificant share in the cultivation of grain, but were considered inferior and generally served as animal, especially horse, feed. Millet , widespread in large parts of Europe since prehistoric times, essentially disappeared by the 18th century, although its exceptional storage time of up to twenty years made it extremely suitable for times of need.
Italian cuisine gradually replaced millet with corn for polenta . Widespread since the High Middle Ages, pasta gained popularity in the early modern period, but it was not yet common to use durum wheat or semolina to make pasta until the age of industrialization . In Italy and Spain, rice was widely grown during this period , but it was considered to be inferior food, which, exceptionally, was enjoyed as rice pudding , but otherwise ignored.
vegetables
Peas and beans formed an essential part of the diet of the medieval poor, their importance as a staple food gradually waned due to the triumphant advance of grain and especially potatoes.
flesh
All components of the animal were used. The blood was used as black pudding or in soups, offal was used for stews and soups or processed in baked goods. Even parts of the body that were visibly reminiscent of the living being were part of the menu. Even a whole veal's head could be served as a dish. Eyes, tongue and cheeks were also consumed. In some regions, these organs were even considered a delicacy.
European meat consumption was comparatively high and was considered a social status symbol. The poor, on the other hand, relied mainly on eggs , dairy products and legumes to meet their protein needs. They often lived better in less populated regions, where small game and fish enriched the menu. The meat consumption of wealthy countries, especially England, was considerably higher than that of poorer nations. In some areas, especially in Germany and the Mediterranean countries, meat consumption among the common people fell in connection with population growth since around 1550.
fat
A social structure of early modern Europe could be reconstructed by preferring the respective fats olive oil , butter or lard . These staples hadn't changed since Roman times, but the effects of the Little Ice Age in early modern Europe affected its northern regions, where olives were in bloom. Only olive oil was the subject of long-distance trade.
sugar
Cane sugar , which has been known in Europe since the Middle Ages, was expensive and was mainly used as medicine . At the end of the 17th century, New World sugar production increased to meet growing European demand, so by the end of the period the maritime nations of England, France, the Netherlands and the Iberian Peninsula were consuming large quantities, unlike the rest of Europe. At the same time one began to differentiate between sweet and savory dishes; Meat dishes were far less sweetened than in the Middle Ages.
beverages
In Europe, until the drinking water treatment of the industrial age, water was by no means considered a neutral table drink. Everyone, including the poor, drank mild alcoholic beverages daily and at every meal ; Wine in the south, beer in the north and east. Both drinks were offered in numerous types, vintages and in the most varied of quality. Wealthy northern Europeans imported wines. Ale was the most popular form of beer in England in the Middle Ages, but it was gradually replaced by hop beer from the Netherlands in the 16th century .
spirits
The art of distillation was completed in Europe in the 15th century, and many of the spirits popular and known today were invented and supplemented before the 18th century. The term brandy (from Low German brandy over the Dutch brandewijn , "burnt wine") came first in the 15th century in Germany. When the English and Dutch came into fierce competition for control of the lucrative European export market, the Dutch relocated their cultivation outside of the Bordeaux region , the traditional area of the English. As a result, regions like Cognac and Armagnac gained fame for producing high quality brandy. Many of the now famous cognac producers such as Martell , Rémy Martin and Hennessy started their businesses in the early to mid-18th century. Whiskey and schnapps were produced in small house stills. The whiskey, which had come into fashion, was marketed and became an export hit in the 19th century. Gin - grain alcohol flavored with juniper , invented by the Dutch - was produced commercially by Lucas Bols from the middle of the 17th century . Production was later refined in England and immensely popular among the English working class.
The triangular trade that began between Europe, Africa and America in the 16th and 17th centuries made rum one of the most important commercial goods. Made from molasses , it became one of the most important sugar products in the Caribbean and Brazil .
Coffee, tea and chocolate
Up until the early modern period, all of the drinks popular in Europe were based on alcohol. The contact with Asia and Africa as well as the discovery of America brought Europe into contact with tea , coffee and drinking chocolate . But it was not until after the 17th century that the three drinks achieved general popularity. The new drinks contained caffeine or theobromine , mild drugs that were not as intoxicating as alcohol. Chocolate became popular as the first exotic drink and became one of the preferred drinks of Spanish nobility in the 16th and early 17th centuries. All three remained very expensive.
Remarks
- ^ Johanna Maria van Winter: Cooking and Eating in the Middle Ages . In: Bernd Herrmann (Ed.): Man and the environment in the Middle Ages . 3rd edition DVA, Stuttgart 1987, pp. 88-100, ISBN 3-421-06288-9 .
- ↑ Braudel, pp. 105-129.
- ↑ Braudel, p. 109.
- ↑ Braudel, pp. 110-111.
- ↑ Braudel, pp. 112-114.
- ↑ Braudel, pp. 190-199.
- ↑ Braudel, pp. 224-227.
literature
- Ken Albala: Food in early modern Europe. Greenwood Press, Westport CT et al. 2003, ISBN 0-313-31962-6 ( Food through history ).
- Fernand Braudel : Civilization & Capitalism. 15th – 18th century. Volume 1: The Structures of Everyday Life. The limits of the possible. New Edition, revised by Siân Reynolds. William Collins & Sons, London et al. 1981, ISBN 0-00-216303-9 .
- "Food and drink". In: Oswald A. Erich, Richard Beitl: Dictionary of German Folklore. 3rd edition, revised. Kröner, Stuttgart 1974, ISBN 3-520-12703-2 ( Kröner's pocket edition 127), there further references.