Israeli peace diplomacy

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Since the outbreak of the Middle East conflict , several conflict resolution proposals for the creation of a Jewish and an Arab homeland in the Palestine region have been developed. The international community demanded several times by the United Nations a "peaceful solution to the Palestinian question" ( English : "Peaceful settlement of the question of Palestine") that by adhering to in Resolution 242 should be enabled mentioned conditions. The central conflict issues in the Israeli-Palestinian talks are borders, Israeli settlements , security and refugees . Both the early Zionist representatives before Israel's independence as well as several Israeli heads of government afterwards have made several agreements with Arab representatives since 1919 and submitted a large number of peace offers, but none of these has been able to establish a regional peace for various reasons.

Peace diplomacy until the Six Day War

Faisal-Weizmann Agreement

The Faisal-Weizmann Agreement is an agreement reached on January 3, 1919 at the Paris Peace Conference between Arabs (head of delegation Emir Faisal ) and Zionists (head of delegation Chaim Weizmann ) on the political reorganization of Palestine . The agreement determined the mutual establishment of state borders for the Arab kingdom sought by Faisal and that of Weizmann in accordance with the Balfour Declarationdesired Jewish state. The Arabs thereby agreed to the detachment of Palestine from the Arab Kingdom and the existence of a Jewish-Zionist state in the event of political independence. Since the Levant and what is now Iraq were divided between France ( League of Nations mandate for Syria and Lebanon ) and Great Britain ( British Mandate over Palestine , British Mandate Mesopotamia ) at the Sanremo Conference , the agreement never came into force.

Proposal for a split by the Peel Commission.

Peel Commission proposal

The Peel Commission was a commission set up by the British during their mandate in Palestine . On July 7, 1937, she proposed for the first time the division of Palestine into a Jewish and an Arab state. This proposal was rejected by the Arabs - with the exception of King Abdallah of Transjordan - who earmarked around 20% of the territory for the future Jewish state. In September 1937, in Bludan, Syria, a pan-Arab congress called for united resistance against " World Jewry " and the Zionist movementon. While the Zionist movement was initially divided due to the small number of territorial concessions, it then, in contrast to the Arab side, hesitantly voted in favor of the peace plan. The British government later dropped the partition plan, set up the Woodhead Commission and published the MacDonald White Paper following the recommendations of that commission .

UN Partition Plan of 1947 (Resolution 181)

The UN Partition Plan for the British Mandate of Palestine.

The UN Partition Plan for Palestine was adopted on November 29, 1947 by the UN General Assembly as Resolution 181 (II) . The resolution included the termination of the British mandate and provided for Palestine to be divided into a state for Jews and one for Arabs, with Jerusalem (including Bethlehem ) to be placed under international control as a corpus separatum . Most Jews accepted the plan; the Jewish Agency should be mentioned here in particular, a kind of predecessor government of the State of Israel. The Arab UN members rejected the plan. In addition to the general rejection of a Jewish state, this was done on the grounds that the plan violated the rights of the Arab residents of Palestine and was a catastrophe.

The end of the British League of Nations mandate for Palestine on May 14, 1948, a Friday at midnight, led to the meeting of the Jewish National Council in the house of former Mayor Dizengoff in Tel Aviv at 4 p.m., Erev Shabbat . In the Israeli declaration of independence, David Ben Gurion proclaimed the establishment of the State of Israel “by virtue of the natural and historical right of the Jewish people and based on the resolution of the UN General Assembly” . A few hours after the proclamation of the State of Israel, the armies of Transjordan, Iraq, Lebanon, Egypt and Syria opened a war against Israel ( Palestine War, in Israel "War of Independence").

"This will be a war of extermination and a massacre [of the Jews] that will one day be talked about like the Mongolian massacres and the Crusades."

- Abdel Rahman Azzam : Interview of the Secretary General of the Arab League from 1947

In 2011, Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas described the reaction of the Arab side as a mistake.

Levi Eshkol's 1965 peace plan

Since Israel's War of Independence, the Arab rejection of Israel's right to exist has often come to the fore in the conflict. This happened both politically in resolutions of the Arab League , economically by expanding the boycott of Israel and militarily by supporting Arab rioters in terrorist attacks on Israeli civilian territories.

The Israeli Prime Minister Levi Eschkol has been campaigning for the expansion of Israeli relations with the USA and the Soviet Union since he took office in 1963, agreed with Federal Chancellor Ludwig Erhard and Israel’s Prime Minister Levi Eschkol the establishment of diplomatic relations between Israel and Germany and made a speech presented a peace plan to the Knesset to normalize relations between Israel and the Arab states. In a speech on May 17, 1965, he made the following points, among others:

  • Direct negotiations to replace the ceasefire agreements with peace agreements
  • Freedom of movement for all citizens in Israel and the Arab states; Free transit in airports
  • Access to Israeli ports for Jordan
  • Expansion of tourism in the region
  • Further economic cooperation
  • Free access to religious places
  • Israeli financial compensation for refugees

In return, the Arab states would have to recognize Israel's right to exist and its sovereignty as well as territorial integrity within the Green Line and agree to refrain from any further aggression against Israel. There was no direct response from Arab politicians to this peace offer. However, on May 25, 1965, Egyptian President Nasser and Iraqi President Arif announced their continued support for the Arab League resolution of 1964, which heralds the "collective Arab struggle for the liberation of Palestine". Since at that time the West Bank was annexed by Jordan and the Gaza Strip was administered by Egypt, this did not mean these areas, but Israel was the country to be "liberated".

Peace diplomacy after the Six Day War

The Six Day War between Israel and the Arab states of Egypt , Jordan and Syria lasted from June 5 to 10, 1967 and was the third Arab-Israeli war . Immediate triggers were the Egyptian closure of the Strait of Tiran to Israeli shipping, the withdrawal of UNEF troops from Sinai, forced by Egyptian President Nasser , and an Egyptian deployment of 1,000 tanks and almost 100,000 soldiers on the borders of Israel. The war began on June 5 with a preemptive strike by the Israeli Air Forceagainst Egyptian air bases, which should forestall a feared attack by the Arab states. In the course of the war, Israel conquered the entire Sinai Peninsula , the Gaza Strip previously occupied by Egypt and the West Bank previously occupied by Jordan, and reopened the Strait of Tiran after the Egyptian blockade.

Israel and Jordan

Relations between Israel and Jordan were already very tense before the war. The November 1966 attack marked the end of three years of secret negotiations between King Hussein and Israel. Hussein saw his throne in imminent danger as the Palestinians and parts of the military began to refuse allegiance to him. A few days before the Six Day War, Israel had assured him that it would not plan an attack on Jordan if the Jordanian armed forces remained calm. However, on June 6, Jordan opened fire on the ceasefire border and bombed West Jerusalem. Israel counter-attacked.

An internal working group of the Israeli government formulated the goals of the Israeli government regarding Jordan before the war. Israel sought to keep Hussein in power as he recognized the existence of Israel and defused the Israeli-Palestinian conflict by encouraging the Palestinians to settle in the kingdom. However, the working group came to the conclusion that Israel had to intervene as soon as Jordan allowed foreign Arab troops on its territory or entered into an alliance directed against Israel with other states.

Israel and Syria

In the 1960s, the Syrian-Israeli border was a place of ongoing conflict. Together with the Soviet Union, Syria supported the Palestinian rioters in their fight against Israel, who murdered 132 Israelis in terrorist attacks between 1965 and 1976. Syria also shelled civilians in the Israeli towns in northeastern Galilee from its border post on the Golan. In the spring of 1966 it had become clear that Israel's neighboring states were stepping up their anti-Israeli activities. Within Israel in 1966 calls for crackdown on Syria grew louder.

The orange territories were offered to Egypt and Syria by Israel in exchange for a peace treaty that the Arab League rejected.

Israel's offer of peace to Egypt and Syria

On June 19, 1967, nine days after Israel's victory in the Six Day War, the Israeli cabinet decided to submit an offer of peace to Syria and Egypt. Through American diplomatic channels, Israel offered the return of the Golan Heights to Syria and the return of Sinai to Egypt on the condition that both countries recognize Israel's right to exist and refrain from further attacks. Published manuscripts by the Israeli government show that many Israeli politicians, including Menachem Begin himself, were in favor of the return of the territories, even if Syria and Egypt refused to make peace with Israel but would consent to demilitarization and the rights of Israeli ships in international waters .

Arab League Decision Against Peace

The Khartoum resolution of September 1, 1967, was passed by the Arab League shortly after Israel's peace offer. It determined the basis of the foreign policy of these states until the Yom Kippur War in 1973 . The resolution contains provisions in its third paragraph that have come to be known as the "three no's" or the "three no's":

  1. NO peace with Israel - No peace with Israel
  2. NO recognition of Israel - No recognition of Israel
  3. NO negotiations with Israel - No negotiations with Israel

After the rejection of the Israeli peace offer and the categorical rejection of all talks and peace efforts by the Arab League, the Israeli government withdrew the peace offer in October 1967.

Peace with egypt

Sinai, three times the size of Israel, was gradually ceded to Egypt.

Change in Egyptian foreign policy

In 1977, Menachem Begin's Likud party won the Israeli elections, making Menachem Begin the first Israeli leader since the establishment of the state who did not come from the left political spectrum. A few weeks after his election, Begin negotiated with Egyptian President Anwar Sadat about a possible visit to Israel. In November 1977 Sadat visited the Israeli Knesset and gave a speech in which he announced a reorientation of Egyptian foreign policy. After three Egyptian wars against Israel in 1948 , 1967 and 1973, the repeated infiltration by militant fighters from Egyptian territories into the Israeli heartland, several sea blockades and a 30-year state of war, Anwar Sadat was the first Arab leader to find conciliatory words for Israel: “Never again war! Never again bloodshed! "

Israeli concessions for peace with Egypt

See also: Israeli-Egyptian Peace Treaty

After 16 months of tough negotiations, a far-reaching decision was reached on March 26, 1979 in the talks between Menachem Begin and Anwar as-Sadat: Israel agreed to all of Egypt's demands. This included the complete withdrawal from Sinai, which corresponded to 91% of the territory conquered by Israel in 1967. In addition, Israel agreed to the evacuation of over 7,000 Israeli civilians from Sinai, the abandonment of electronic early warning systems about troop movements in the Suez region and the relocation of over 170 Israeli military installations, airfields and army bases from Sinai to the Israeli heartland. Furthermore, the Alma oil field and the Sadot natural gas field, which were found by Israeli researchers, were given to Egypt, then valued at 100 billion dollars. To date, these fields have been the largest source of energy for Israel, which is poor in natural resources, with which it is estimated that the state would have been energy-independent in the 1990s. According to the peace treaty, Israel's withdrawal from Sinai should be gradual and completed after the next elections in Israel. In these elections only one party (Techiya - "Renewal") stood against the peace treaty and won only three percent of the vote. The consensus of the Israeli people for peace with Egypt was clear. In these elections only one party (Techiya - "Renewal") stood against the peace treaty and won only three percent of the vote. The consensus of the Israeli people for peace with Egypt was clear. In these elections only one party (Techiya - "Renewal") stood against the peace treaty and won only three percent of the vote. The consensus of the Israeli people for peace with Egypt was clear.

Reactions from the Arab world

In the Syrian capital Damascus the heads of government of Algeria, Syria, Libya and the People's Republic of Yemen met with the leader of the Palestinian Liberation Front, Yasir Arafat, to discuss measures to combat the "conspiracy against the Arab nation". Among other things, they decided to break off economic and political relations with Egypt. The Sadat opponents were supported by the USSR, which called the Camp David Accords a "plot". Nevertheless, Anwar Sadat stuck to the peace plan with Israel. On October 6, 1981, Egyptian Islamists murdered Anwar al-Sadat. Their plan was to overthrow the Sadat regime, seize power and establish an Islamic state, in particular to revise Sadat's reconciliation policy with Israel.

Peace with Jordan

Allon plan

The Allon Plan without further concessions: the blue areas should be annexed to Israel, the green areas returned to Jordan or serve as the basis for a Palestinian state

In November 1967, the Deputy Prime Minister Jigal Allon presented a settlement plan, which was approved by the Knesset as a settlement concept in 1968, but was not given the status of a final territorial plan because the religious coalition partner NRP refused to approve it. The plan was later expanded until the final version was available in 1970. The plan envisaged a partial return of the West Bank conquered by Jordan and the incorporation of a strategic "protective belt". This should meet the requirements of Resolution 242guarantee the required safe limits. In addition, the presence of Israeli troops on a strip of the Jordan was planned. According to a later interview with King Hussein I, the Israeli offer was expanded to 98 percent of the West Bank, but he turned down these conditions.

I was offered the return of something like 90 plus percent of the territories, 98 percent even, excluding Jerusalem, but I couldn't accept. As far as I am concerned, it was either every single inch that I was responsible for or nothing.

“I was offered the return of over 90 percent of the territories, even 98 percent without Jerusalem, but I couldn't accept it. As for me, I was either responsible for every inch or not a single one. "

- King Hussein I : Interview about the Allon Plan

Israeli-Jordanian peace treaty

In 1987 the Israeli Foreign Minister Shimon Peres and King Hussein tried in secret talks to conclude a peace agreement in which Israel would cede the West Bank to Jordan. The two signed an agreement that sets the framework for a Middle East peace conference. The proposal was not implemented due to objection from Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Shamir. The following year, Jordan abandoned its claim to the West Bank in favor of a peaceful solution between Israel and the PLO.

In 1993 a common agenda was set for a draft peace treaty between Israel and Jordan. The following components were part of the negotiation: security, water, refugees and displaced persons, borders and territorial matters. Rabin, Hussein and Clinton signed the Washington Declaration on July 25, 1994 in Washington, DC, stating that Israel and Jordan had ended official enmity and would begin negotiations for an "end to bloodshed and mourning" and a just and to achieve lasting peace. The Israeli-Jordanian peace treatywas signed by Hussein, Rabin, and Clinton on October 26, 1994. Since then there have been economic and political relations between Israel and Jordan, which have remained robust despite various crises.

Further peace offers to the Palestinians

Oslo peace process

On September 13, 1993, Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat signed the " Declaration of Principles on Temporary Self-Government " (also known as Oslo I ). This represents a milestone in the peace process. Both sides officially recognized each other for the first time. The Israelis accepted the PLO as the official representative of the Palestinians, and the PLO committed itself to its charterto delete all passages that contained the goal of destroying Israel. The PLO also pledged to end terrorist acts against Israel. The agreement contained the general agreement to strive for a Palestinian self-government and thus a two-state solution. The framework conditions should be clarified in the following negotiations.

Controversial issues such as the status of Jerusalem, the refugee issue or the settlements in the West Bank have not yet been dealt with in the agreement. The agreement was ratified by the Knesset a week later. A ratification by the PLO has not yet taken place.

The signing of the " Oslo II Accord " (orig. "Interim Agreement on the West Bank and the Gaza Strip"), also known as Oslo II , marked the end of the first phase of the Israeli-Palestinian negotiations. It was signed by Israel and the PLO in Washington on September 28, 1995. The interim agreement replaced previous agreements between Israel and the PLO. It is a complex key agreement on the future of the Gaza Strip and the West Bank.

Map of the different areas. A and B areas were left to the Palestinian autonomy for self-government.

Oslo II deals, among other things, with the role and competencies of a ruling Palestinian council and committee dealing with civil affairs, as well as the transfer of authority from Israel to the Palestinian council, the phases in which Israeli armed forces withdraw from Palestinian population centers, and regulations for economic relations , the right of the Palestinians to water and the allocation of water in the West Bank between Israel and the Palestinians. In Chapter 2 of the Interim Agreement (“Withdrawal and Security Arrangements”) the areas of the West Bank are divided into 3 zones (A: 18%, B: 20% and C: 62% of the area of ​​the West Bank):

  • A areas (over 50% of the total population) are under Palestinian civil and security administration
  • B areas (over 40% of the population) are under Palestinian civil administration and joint Israeli-Palestinian security administration
  • C areas (approx. 6% of the population) are under almost full Israeli civil and security administration

This created the first Arab-Palestinian self-government, which has limited legislative, executive and judicial measures for the administration of their territories. Originally, the Oslo II Agreement was intended for a transition period of five years. At its end there should be a sovereign Palestinian state and the C areas should be gradually converted into A and B areas.

On November 4, 1995, Prime Minister Rabin was shot dead in Tel Aviv by the right-wing Jewish student Jigal Amir . Rabin's successor was Shimon Peres. Peres continued Rabin's peace policy and began negotiations on permanent status in Taba in early 1996. On September 4, 1999, an agreement was signed in Sharm el-Sheikh, Egypt , in which additional areas were transferred to the Palestinian Authority and a temporary freeze on settlement was agreed. Negotiations about a permanent status should also be resumed, but the issues of Jerusalem, the refugee issue, the drawing of borders and the status of the Jewish settlements turned out to be difficult and very protracted.

Clinton parameters in 2000/2001

In Camp David , the summer residence of the US president, found in 2000 talks between President Bill Clinton , the President of the Palestinian Authority Yasser Arafat and Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barakto continue the peace negotiations. In the course of the negotiations, which lasted until January 2001, Ehud Barak accepted Clinton's framework conditions with the approval of the Israeli cabinet. These provided for a Palestinian state in all of Gaza and 94–96% of the territory of the West Bank. In addition, as compensation, Israel would have to cede areas in relation to 1–3% of the West Bank to a future Palestinian state, which would receive functional contiguity through a land bridge from the Gaza Strip to the West Bank. Furthermore, Jerusalem's Arab Quarter and Palestinian Administration and Jerusalem's Jewish Quarter are under Israeli administration. There would also be a process of compensation for Palestinian refugeeswill be initiated by the creation of an international fund of $ 30 billion. In the end, Yasser Arafat also agreed to the parameters, but according to Dennis Ross, the chief US negotiator for the peace talks, he made his concessions conditional. However, these conditions would have voided all of his concessions (“ He added reservations that basically meant he rejected every single one of the things he was supposed to give ”).

Finally, Bill Clinton invited both negotiating teams to a further 15-day negotiation stage in Taba , which were supposed to concretize the parameters in order to achieve a final peace solution . American and Israeli diplomats criticized that Yasser Arafat did not bring up a single idea of ​​his own during the negotiations and ultimately denied the historical existence of the Jewish temple in Jerusalem . The Palestinian side challenged American impartiality. In the end, no compromise could be found and Ehud Olmert dragged himself through a series of Palestinian terrorist attacks due to domestic political pressureback from negotiations. Bill Clinton and Dennis Ross blamed then-Palestinian President Yasser Arafat for the failure of the negotiations. This testified his innocence.

“Since 1948, every time we've had something on the table we say no. When we say yes, it's not on the table any more. Then we have to deal with something less. Isn't it about time we say yes?… If we lose this opportunity, it's not going to be a tragedy, it is going to be crime. "

- Bandar ibn Sultan : New York Times Interview (The Prince)

“Since 1948 we (Arab states) have rejected every proposal on the negotiating table. As soon as we agree, it will be too late. Then we have to come to terms with less. Isn't it finally time to say yes? If we lose this chance, it will not be a tragedy but a crime. "

- Bandar ibn Sultan : New York Times Interview (The Prince)

Israel's unilateral disengagement plan from Gaza

Israeli civilians leave the Gaza Strip.

Israel's Unilateral Disengagement Plan , also known as the "Sharon Plan," is a proposal by Israeli Prime Minister Ariel Sharon in 2004 that involves withdrawing from some of the territories occupied by Israel since the Six Day War and dismantling some Israeli settlements while others should be retained permanently.

In the Gaza Strip , according to Ariel Sharon’s plan, all 21 settlements were evacuated in 2005 and over 9,000 Israelis were forcibly evacuated. In addition, the settlements of Chomesh, Ganim, Kadim, and Sa Nur in the northern West Bank were dismantled. The plan should improve Israel's security and enable a unilateral solution to the Middle East conflict. During a visit by Ariel Sharon to Washington on April 14, 2004, US President George W. Bush endorsed the plan as historic and courageous. The German Federal Governmentwelcomed the plan as an opportunity for peace, as the process had started moving again, and as an important step on the way to a two-state solution. Nonetheless, Irish Foreign Minister Brian Cowen announced on April 15, 2004 that the EU would not recognize unilateral borders.

Since the withdrawal of Israel, Islamist groups from Gaza have carried out rocket and mortar attacks on Israeli civilian areas. After a bloody war between the brothers within the Palestinians, the radical Islamic Hamas gained control of the Gaza Strip. This was followed by three armed conflicts between Hamas and Israel.

Olmert's peace offer in 2008

The areas colored blue would become Israeli territory and the red areas would become the territory of a future Palestine.

After the unsuccessful peace talks at the Annapolis conference in 2007, personal negotiations took place between Israel's Prime Minister Ehud Olmert and the Palestinian President Mahmud Abbas. Ehud Olmert's offer included an exchange of 6.3% of the territory of the West Bank. While this would allow Israel to connect over 80% of all Israeli settlers to the mainland, a future Palestinian state would have received compensation of 5.8% of the territory and a land bridge (0.5%) between the Gaza Strip and Hebron in the West Bank. Olmert presented Abbas with a map with final boundaries. In an interview with the Israeli broadcaster Channel 10, Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas admitted that he had rejected the offer without submitting counter-proposals: “I rejected it without hesitation” (“ I rejected it out of hand"). Nevertheless, both negotiating partners praised the dynamism and intensity of the joint discussions. Years later, Ehud Olmert regretted Abbas breaking off the talks.

"First [Israel] said we would only have the right to run our own schools and hospitals. Then they consented to give us 66% [of the occupied territories]. At Camp David [in 2000] they offered 90% and recently they offered us 100%. So why should we hurry, after all the injustice we have suffered? "

- Saeb Erekat : Palestinian chief negotiator with Jordanian daily Al-Dustour (June 25, 2009)

“First [Israel] allowed us to run our own schools and hospitals. Then they offered us 66% [of the occupied territories]. At Camp David [in 2000] they offered us 90% and recently 100%. So why should we hurry after all the injustice we have suffered? "

- Saeb Erekat : Palestinian chief negotiator with Jordanian daily Al-Dustour (June 25, 2009)

Peace offer to Lebanon

The kidnapping of two Israeli soldiers by Lebanese Hezbollah troops was the immediate trigger of the second Lebanon war , which was settled by a ceasefire on August 14, 2006 after UN resolution 1701 was passed. This was largely adhered to and the Israeli troops have gradually withdrawn from all Lebanese territories occupied during the war. At the same time, units of the Lebanese army and UNIFIL have taken up positions in southern Lebanon.

In June 2008 the Israeli government under Ehud Olmert called on Lebanon for reconciliation between the two countries. In the direct peace talks anticipated by Israel, "all points of conflict" would have been negotiable on the part of Israel, including the sheeba farms , which are controversial under international law . As before, Lebanon refused direct peace talks with Israel and called for the territorial handover of the Sheeba farms to Lebanon, although according to the United Nations these are not Lebanese territory and Israel had already withdrawn from all Lebanese territories occupied in the Second Lebanon War. Israel was willing to negotiate and compromise, but the Israeli government ruled out unilateral concessions without Lebanese assurances. TheUnited States Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice toured Lebanon and tried in vain to win the Lebanese government into direct peace negotiations with Israel.

Peace treaties of 2020

In September 2020, Israel made two peace declarations together with the United Arab Emirates and Bahrain . Both states were previously hostile to Israel and had also supported the boycott of Israel , even if there had been no open state of war. This establishment of diplomatic relations was mediated by the USA, accordingly the signing of the contracts took place in Washington, DC. A previous concession by the Israeli Prime Minister Netanyahu to the Arabs had been a renunciation of the further occupation of parts of the West Bank. A peace agreement with Sudan followed in October 2020 .

As the fourth Muslim-majority country, Morocco recognized Israel as a state in December 2020, as announced by US President Donald Trump and his adviser son-in-law Jared Kushner . Liaison offices are to be opened immediately in Rabat and Tel Aviv and, ultimately, mutual embassies will also be opened. At the same time, the United States recognized Morocco's sovereignty over the conflict region of Western Saharaat. So far there have been no reactions from the Moroccan side. Both Israel and Morocco have had good relations for decades and are historically linked. Months earlier, the African state had been seen as a candidate for normalization of relations with the Jewish state and had contact offices in Israel. So far, only the Islamist parties in Morocco have refused to enter into diplomatic relations with Israel.

Current proposed solutions

Online tool from The Washington Institute for Near East Policy

Report from The Washington Institute for Near East Policy

Individual evidence

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  2. ↑ Colonial times: for a historical moment, the united Syria became a reality . In: ZEIT ONLINE . ( zeit.de [accessed June 1, 2018]).
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  5. ↑ Levi Eshkol: Israel's peace plan; a statement by Levi Eshkol, Prime Minister of Israel, in the Knesset, May 17, 1965. Jerusalem, Israel Ministry for Foreign Affairs, 1965 ( archive.org [accessed June 30, 2018]).
  6. ↑ S / 6003 * of October 8, 1964. Retrieved June 30, 2018 .
  7. ^ Resolution 228
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  18. ^ Federal Agency for Civic Education: 30 years of assassination attempt on Egypt's President Sadat | bpb. Retrieved June 12, 2018 .
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  20. ^ Terence Smith: Hussein Said to Urge an Israeli Pullback To Western Edge of the Jordan Valley. The New York Times, February 15, 1974, accessed June 1, 2018 (ISSN: 0362-4331).
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  40. ↑ Der Spiegel , August 13, 2020: Israel and the United Arab Emirates want to establish diplomatic relations (accessed on September 29, 2020)
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  42. ↑ Alfred Hackensberger: Donald Trump's breakthrough comes at a price . In: welt.de, December 10, 2020 (accessed December 11, 2020).
  43. ^ Settlements and Solutions
  44. ^ Imagining New Borders