Khlui

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Khlui ( Thai ขลุ่ย , Kluj ), also Klui , is a longitudinal-blown core gap flute of bamboo in Thailand , in Cambodia the khloy ( Rouge ខ្លុយ ) and in Lao the Khui correspond. The Thai khlui , which is mainly made in three sizes, is used as a soloist for personal entertainment, in the string ensembles mahori ( comparable to the Cambodian mohori ) and khrüang sai, as well as in the piphat , if this classical orchestra performs outdoors for ceremonial performances in closed rooms. In Cambodia, the khloy is mostly used in a standard size for similar styles of music.

Origin and Distribution

Chinese clay figure of a musician with the longitudinal flute hsiao from the Han dynasty (207 BC - 220 AD).

From India to South Asia to East Asia and the Pacific Ocean, longitudinal and transverse flutes are mainly made from bamboo. Flutes without finger holes ( one-tone flutes ) belong to the oldest layer of the Paleolithic in New Guinea , which is distributed worldwide. Flutes with finger holes have been handed down for the music of New Guinea since the Neolithic there . Long bamboo flutes without handholes originate from a very old cultural layer and are almost always used for ceremonial purposes in Melanesia . Further east, the number and variety of forms of musical instruments in the South Seas decrease. The University of the Philippines has a collection of several dozen types of bamboo flutes from the numerous Filipino ethnic groups. Bamboo is also used throughout the region for the production of other well-known musical instruments, such as percussion instruments that historically preceded the Southeast Asian gongs ( rattles , percussion forks, slit drums ), panpipes , jew's harps ( genggong ) and tubular zithers ( guntang , kolitong ).

In the first centuries AD, Southeast Asia came under the influence of Indian culture, as evidenced by the Buddhist and Hindu temples of the Khmer Empire with the capital Angkor in Cambodia and the relics of the Buddhist culture of Dvaravati in Thailand . While transverse flutes are often depicted at medieval temples in India, primarily as an attribute of Krishna (in Sanskrit sources murali, vamsha or kuzhal ), these are missing on the temple reliefs of Angkor, which otherwise show several musical instruments from India. At Angkor Wat (12th century, north gallery, east wing), three striding musicians are depicted playing wind instruments that look like longitudinal flutes. After all, at Borobudur on Java (beginning of the 9th century), alongside Indian bow harps and various lute instruments, there are depictions of transverse flutes. It is not possible to tell whether the musician of an ensemble who is playing a longitudinal flute or a reed instrument on a Borobudur relief to the right of a seated Buddha with three trumpets and an hourglass drum . In the entire Malay Archipelago today , bamboo flutes called suling are most widespread. In Java and Bali, like the Burmese palwei, these belong to the special type of outer core gap flutes (tape flutes), which may be associated with the double transverse flutes in the Pacific and India ( surpava ).

The flutes of the Southeast Asian mainland, however, go back to Chinese predecessors. Apart from much older, preserved bone flutes (Chinese gudi ), length- blown bamboo flutes with a notch on the upper edge have been known since the Han dynasty (207 BC - 220 AD). In ancient China they were called to the Tang Dynasty (617-907) hsiao , possibly at a certain time, finger hole-free, bundled flutes ( panpipes ) were understood. Other old flute names are di, guan and chiba . The current name xiao has existed since the 12th century and mainly stands for a 50 centimeter long bamboo flute with the keynote d 1 , five finger holes, a thumb hole and at least two side holes at the lower end, as well as for several regional types, including in the Jiangnan area a 75 centimeter long flute with a U-shaped notch at the top closed by a growth knot.

Taiwanese bamboo flute xiao with a notch in the blowing edge.

The Korean tungso , whose name is a translation of xiao , and the Japanese shakuhachi are derived from the Chinese longitudinal flutes with an edge notch . Many Hokkien speakers ( Hoklo ), who mainly live in the southern Chinese coastal province of Fujian and who have proven themselves to be able seafarers in the past, have emigrated to Taiwan , where they make up around 70 percent of the population, as well as to the Philippines and other countries in Southeast Asia on Pacific Islands. There they brought the South Chinese classical style of singing and instrumental music nanguan and the traditional instruments belonging to it such as the pear-shaped bowl-neck lute pipa and the longitudinal flute xiao . Another plucked instrument with Chinese roots is the lunar lute yueqin , whose shape, with a round body and a slim neck, reached Japan and via Vietnam to Thailand ( krajappi ) and Cambodia ( chapey dang veng ).

Flutes are documented in the contemporary Chinese source Book of Songs since the Zhou dynasty (11th - 3rd centuries BC). The transverse flute dizi (or di ) developed during the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) and in use today is about 60 centimeters long and has six finger holes, two side holes at the bottom and another hole above the first finger hole, over which a thin one Skin of bamboo or reed is glued as a Mirliton and makes a humming noise when playing. Other bamboo flutes are the 70 to 80 centimeter long Korean daegeum (from dae , "large" and gum , "wind instrument"), which is similar to the dizi except for the greater length , and the Japanese nōkan (from nō and kan , "pipe") , so “pipe of the Noh theater”) with seven finger holes and several nested parts.

The 25 centimeter long Burmese bamboo flute palwei also has a membrane between the mouthpiece and the first finger hole known from the Chinese flutes . The membrane in this case consists of an onion peel. The blown air is diverted through a hole in the outer wall at an inner growth node, with a piece of film strip tied over the hole guiding the air back into the tube, following the principle of the Indonesian tape flute.

With the Thai lute krajappi and its Cambodian equivalent chapey dang veng , the shape of which is derived from Chinese models, the instrument name has an Indian origin. Some other names of musical instruments have passed from Sanskrit into Old Khmer , which was spoken in the pre-Korian and Angkorian periods (after 802 AD), for example the words vina and kinnara for certain stringed instruments, which were used in the 9th / 10th centuries. Century in temple inscriptions. In an old Khmer inscription from the 10th century, kluy for "flute", kinnara for a rod zither and chko (unknown instrument) are mentioned as an offering. It is unclear what type of flute was meant by kluy . Old Khmer kluy is mostly transcribed as khloy (or khloi ) for modern Khmer . The Khmer word, perhaps onomatopoeic, imitating the sound of the flute, was adopted in Thai ( khlui ) and Lao ( khui ).

During the kingdom of Sukhothai , which existed in northern central Thailand from the middle of the 13th to the middle of the 14th century , under which the Thai were united into one empire for the first time, the Thai not only created the Thai alphabet from the Khmer script , but also adopted it musical and other cultural elements of the Khmer and Mon . On the stelae inscription of King Ramkhamhaeng from 1292 there is a reference to Thai music, which included stringed instruments, bamboo flutes, drums and singing, in addition to the king’s declaration of government.

Some Europeans who were in Siam in the 17th century mention "flutes". They include the traveling salesmen François Caron (around 1600–1673) and Joost Schouten († 1644) in their joint work A True Description of the Mighty Kingdoms of Japan and Siam (1663), the French writer François-Timoléon de Choisy (1644– 1724) in his travel report Journal du voyage de Siam fait en 1685 et 1686 (1687) as well as the French missionaries Nicolas Gervaise (1662-1729) in Histoire naturelle et politique du Royaume de Siam (1688) and Guy Tachard (1651-1712) in Voyage de Siam des Pères Jésuites (1686). When a king (sitting on an elephant) traveled overland, a musical group would go ahead of him to warn the population of his arrival. The subjects were not allowed to look their king in the face, but had to prostrate themselves before him. A traveler named Glanius reported in 1682 that nothing else could be heard along the way except "pipes, drums, flutes and other instruments that sounded reasonably harmonious."

It is not clear from any of the descriptions whether the instruments are lengthways flutes or reed instruments . Only the Scottish naturalist George Finlayson reveals in his travel report from 1826 that the name klani refers to a notched flute that produces a “fuller, softer and louder” sound than a “crocodile zither” chakhe used for comparison . The British diplomat Frederick Verney (1846–1913) lists what seems incomprehensible to three types of flute: a “large bamboo flute” with eight notes, a “small bamboo flute” with ten notes and a “Khlui” whose sound is penetrated by a membrane over a hole will be generated. Alfred J. Hipkins (1888) depicts a Thai khlui and refers to the membrane over a hole, but does not mention any other types of flute. Verney may be referring to the three sizes of the same flute: khlui u (large), khlui phiang aw (medium) and khlui lip (small). The references show that the flute was rather rare in Thailand until the 19th century and did not belong to the usual large ensembles.

Design

Blow opening of a khlui with the side down

The bamboo tube is cut so that there is a growth knot at the top about 2.5 centimeters from the edge. The knot is cut open, creating a tube that is open on both sides, which is carefully dried over the fire and in some cases decorated with patterns by the flame. The surface of the rarer hardwood flutes remains undecorated.

All common Thai wind instruments are used in three sizes. There are three one-piece cylindrical double-reed instruments pi ( pi nawk, piklang and pi nai ), three two-part conical double-reed instruments ( pi chanai , pi chawa and pi mawn ), three trumpets ( trae ngawn and trae farang made of metal and the snail horn sang ). With the khlui , the three main sizes are khlui lip for the smallest instrument with a length of 36 centimeters, a diameter of 2 centimeters and the root e 2 , khlui phiang aw with 45 centimeters in length, a diameter of 4 centimeters and the root a 1 and khlui u with a length of 60 centimeters, a diameter of 4.5 centimeters and the keynote G. The most common is the khlui phiang aw . A fourth rare version is the khlui krüat , which has the same pitch range, but with a keynote higher than the khlui phiang aw .

Theoretically, all sizes are tuned in an equidistant heptatonic scale, which is why they can be used in any pitch. Measurements carried out on individual flutes in 2002 and 2006 showed deviations from the equidistant ideal value, at which the intervals are 171.4 cents . After that, the tone intervals were between the extreme values ​​144.3 and 206.8 cents. According to David Morton (1976), Thai musicians strive for the ideal of equidistance, from which they rarely deviate more than 10 cents up and down. The theory of the principle of equidistance in Thai music is, however, questioned by some researchers due to the fact that the measurement results for metallophones and flutes differ considerably.

Of the total of 14 holes in a khlui phiang aw , 7 are finger holes on the top. The long khlui u has only six finger holes. On the underside near the mouthpiece, a 2 centimeter long rectangular opening, which is beveled towards the upper end and is called the "parrot's beak", serves as the cutting edge. A thumb hole is drilled a little further away on the underside. Around the thumb hole is the Mirliton opening on the right-hand side of the flute in playing position, which used to be pasted with a bamboo skin and is now mostly covered with thin paper. Bamboo fiber or paper act as a vibrating membrane and create a noisy, rougher sound. As in many Chinese flutes, four holes are cut near the lower end. A cord is looped through the opposite pair of holes for decoration or for easy transport. The top and bottom of these holes remain open.

The straight blowing end is closed by a wooden plug except for a narrow segment of a circle at the lower edge. The player takes the end of the pipe in the area of ​​the slot in the mouth and the slot directs the blown air against the cutting edge. The sound quality of the khlui , held down like a recorder , can be changed by the blowing pressure and the position of the lips.

In Cambodia, the khloy is a similar notch flute made of bamboo with seven finger holes, but according to Terry E. Miller and Sam-Ang Sam (1995) it usually only comes in one size. The khloy has as the Thai flute a Mirliton (in Cambodia from rice paper or bamboo fiber layer), the noise-like sound change is more desirable from the musicians than in Thailand, where the Mirlitonöffnung is often taped with a ribbon. There are also Cambodian flutes made of wood, plastic, or metal. According to Sam-Ang Sam (1998) a distinction is made between a small, high-pitched khloy ek and a large, deep-pitched khloy thom . Both usually have six finger holes and one thumb hole, and in some cases seven finger holes with or without a thumb hole. Most Khmer musicians play the khloy, like the Cambodian reed instruments, with circular breathing . The name khloy can also refer to bamboo flutes in Cambodia.

The khui of Laos is a notch flute with six or seven finger holes and one thumb hole. As in Thailand, the smaller version is called khui lip .

Style of play

Cylindrical one-piece reed instruments sralai thom (left, sounding low) and sralai touch (high) in the Cambodian pinpeat ensemble, corresponding to the pi nai in the Thai piphat ensemble.

The khlui is played as a soloist, often for personal entertainment, and in some ensembles with string instruments and in the classic piphat ensemble, if this occurs in a muted manner of playing in closed rooms. The flute plays around the melody line with fine, fast ornamentation and creates long notes by rapidly inserted interruptions in the tone. Often the flute can be heard melodically and rhythmically independently over the overall sound of the orchestra. In the numerous Thai compositions that allude to animals (elephants, crocodiles, white pigeons), the flute always takes the part of the birds.

Piphat

The piphat ensemble (also phinphat , in Cambodia pinpeat or pinn peat ) traditionally accompanies courtly and religious ceremonies with a series of melodically and rhythmically used percussion instruments that are struck with hard mallets, and the only wind instrument, the cylindrical four- reed instrument pi nai Outdoors. In closed rooms, the musicians use soft mallets and replace the reed instrument with the quieter sounding flute. In addition to the standard line-up of the usual piphat kruang yai , there is also the shell skewer violin with coconut resonator sor u . In addition, instead of the large barrel drums taphon and klong that, the slimmer barrel drums klong khaek are used. This ensemble is called piphat mai nuam (from mai nuam , "soft mallets"), it was created towards the end of the reign of King Rama IV .

In the second half of the 19th century, Prince Narit, a half-brother of King Rama V , introduced the piphat dükdam ban ensemble to accompany a play that was only performed for a short time. The specialty of the ensemble is the cast with a khlui , a spike violin sor u and the rare and expensive gong game wong khwang chai with seven vertically hanging humpback gongs. Further instruments are the xylophones ranak ek and ranat thum as well as the barrel drums taphon and klawng khaek . While the play has disappeared, the musical ensemble is still played occasionally.

Mahori

The Thai string ensemble mahori and its Cambodian equivalent mohori include flutes. There are indications of the existence of a mahori ensemble since the beginning of the Ayutthaya period (1351–1767). An older mahori ensemble in the 18th century - after the founding of the capital Rattanakosin in 1782, in which only women made music with smaller instruments, was sor sam sai with a three-stringed tubular violin , a plucked krajappi , a khlui , a beaker drum thon and occasionally the flat drum rammana as well as the rattling krap phuang and the hand cymbal ching occupied. Since the 20th century mahori has been understood as an ensemble of stringed instruments under the direction of the sor sam sai and melodically used percussion instruments. The latter include various xylophones ( ranat ) and the gong circle khong wong yai . Under King Rama IX. (ruled 1946–2016) classical Thai music was particularly encouraged. A very large wong mahori orchestra was maintained, which consisted of 10 xylophones ranat ek , 10 xylophones ranat thum , 10 humpback gong circles khong wong yai , 10 humpback gong circles khong wong lek , 10 crocodile zithers chakhe , 20 spit- fiddles sor duang , 20 pike- violins sor duang and 20 khlui passed.

The mahori khrüang hok ( "ensemble with six instruments") called Ensemble actually consists of seven instruments together: a fiddle sor sam sai , a plucked lute krajappi , a goblet drum thon , a rattling krap Phuang a khlui , Handzimbeln ching and a flat drum rammana . In the mahori wong lek (“small ensemble”) in use today , nine instruments are used: in addition to a xylophone ranat ek, three different fiddles, a crocodile zither chakhe , a khlui , the drum pair thon and rammana as well as the hand cymbals ching . The mahori khrüang khu (“ensemble with instruments in pairs”) has a similar line-up, which includes two flutes ( khlui phiang aw and khlui lip ). All three flute sizes , including the khlui u , play in the mahori khrüang yai (“ensemble with a large number of instruments”).

Khrüang sai

The third and probably youngest ensemble of Thai art music is the khrüang sai , which apparently was not created until the end of the 19th century, as it is not depicted on older wall paintings in Thai Buddhist temples. The name is composed of khrüang (“musical instrument”) and sai (“string”) and stands for an ensemble of stringed instruments and one or two flutes, which are rhythmically supported by drums and cymbals. The small standard line-up includes the fiddles sor u and sor duang , a crocodile zither, a khlui phiang aw , the drum pair thon and rammana as well as the hand cymbal ching . Khlui phiang aw and khlui lip play in an ensemble with twice the number of instruments .

Northern Thailand

Folk music ensemble in Northern Thailand, Wat Khung Taphao in the village of the same name in the Amphoe Laplae in the province of Uttaradit . The musicians play from left to right: Zuplaute süng , tubular spit violin sor duang (smaller version of sor u ), süng, khlui , barrel drum taphon , hand cymbals ching .

The khlui occurs most frequently in the mahori and khrüang sai ensemples in central Thailand, and to a lesser extent in the folk music of northern Thailand, which differs from the music in the rest of Thailand in terms of instruments and melodic forms. A traditional northern Thai ensemble includes the quadruple reed instrument made of bamboo pi chum , the plucked long-necked lute süng , the two- to three-stringed spiked fiddle salaw and the khlui .

The ethnic minorities in Northern Thailand each use their own variants of bamboo flutes and other musical instruments, which differ in design and size from those of the other ethnic groups. Instrument variants rarely appear in multiple groups. The musical styles of the individual mountain peoples are equally different. Xylophones and metallophones are mostly missing. They are replaced by stringed sounds of Chinese origin, for example the three-stringed plucked long-necked lute dsyböö , which comes from the Chinese sanxian , in the Lisu . These lutes, small mouth organs and bamboo flutes are the most common Lisu musical instruments. The Lisu notch flute djylee produces a pentatonic scale with six finger holes and is usually played as a soloist for personal entertainment.

Cambodia

The Cambodian mohori ensemble was the model for the Thai mahori . It ideally consists of the xylophones roneak aek (high-pitched) and roneat thung (low-pitched), three different fiddles tror , a khloy , a crocodile zither krapeu (or takhe ), a dulcimer khim , the hand cymbals ching , the drum pair thaun and rumanea and the singing voice ( chamrieng ). The mohori is the only traditional ensemble in Cambodia that is only used for entertainment, it plays at festivals or to accompany folk dances.

The traditional wedding music , vung phleng kar , has an essential meaning for the course of the wedding ceremony in Cambodia. In addition to their instruments, which, including the khloy, are similar to those of the mohori ensemble, there is the skor arak beaker drum , which is otherwise used in the phleng arak necromancy ritual .

The incantation rituals accompanied by the phleng arak are a village tradition with simple musical instruments, including the stab zither kse diev and a reed instrument. The pey keo ensemble is used for official ancestor worship . It performs the same musical repertoire as the phleng arak on with xylophone roneat , deep-sounding humpback gong circle kong by thom , the flute khloy , the three-stringed spit violin tro Khmer , the plucked chapey dang veng , the goblet drum skor arak and singing ( chamrieng ). The pey keo ensemble used to play ceremonial in the royal palace and at the popular ancestral festival pchum ben ("day of the ancestors"). The 15-day festival for worshiping spirits and ancestors takes place every year in September / October. The highlight of the festival is a procession of the royal family on the evening of the 14th day from the royal palace to the banks of the Tonle Sap , during which a boat loaded with food as offerings is carried by twelve Brahmin priests. Four flute players precede the boat.

The Cambodian counterpart pinpeat to the Thai piphat ensemble, in which the flute replaces the four- reed instrument sralai and soft mallets are used for the percussion instruments, is the pinpeat anloung do .

The singing voice has the highest priority in the formation of melodies in Cambodian music. Measured against the singing voice, all musical instruments only produce secondary variations of the melody. That is why wind instruments - reed instruments and flutes, which are generally considered to be closest to the human voice, and the spiked fiddles play the purest form of melody, i.e. the continuous main melody line.

literature

  • Terry E. Miller: Thailand. In: Terry E. Miller, Sean Williams (Eds.): Garland Encyclopedia of World Music . Volume 4: Southeast Asia . Routledge, London 1998
  • David Morton: The Traditional Music of Thailand . University of California Press, Berkeley 1976; Text archive - Internet Archive
  • David Morton: Khlui . In: Laurence Libin (Ed.): The Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments . Volume 3. Oxford University Press, Oxford / New York 2014, pp. 155f

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Paul Collaer: Music history in pictures: Oceania. Volume 1: Ethnic Music. Delivery 1, published by Heinrich Besseler, Max Schneider . Deutscher Verlag für Musik, Leipzig 1965, pp. 32, 39, 170
  2. ↑ José Maceda: In Search of a Source of Pentatonic Hemitonic and Anhemitonic Scales in Southeast Asia. In: Acta Musicologica , Volume 62, Fasc. 2/3, May – December 1990, pp. 192–223, here p. 196
  3. ^ Roger Blench: Musical instruments of South Asian origin depicted on the reliefs at Angkor, Cambodia. (PDF) EURASEAA, Bougon, September 26, 2006, pp. 1–7, here p. 6
  4. ↑ Martin Knust: Urged to Interdisciplinary Approaches: The Iconography of Music on the Reliefs of Angkor Wat. In: Music in Art , Volume 35, No. 1/2 ( Rethinking Music in Art: New Directions in MusicIconography ) Spring – Fall 2010, pp. 37–52, here p. 47
  5. ^ Jaap Art : Music in Java. Its History, its Theory and its Technique. (2nd edition 1949) 3rd edition edited by Ernst L. Heins. Volume 1. Martinus Nijhoff, Den Haag 1973, p. 107
  6. ^ Hans Oesch : Extra-European music. Part 2 ( New Handbook of Musicology , Volume 9) Laaber, Laaber 1987, p. 18
  7. ↑ Cf. Kunz Dittmer: On the origin of the core split flute . In: Zeitschrift für Ethnologie , Volume 75, 1950, pp. 83-89
  8. ↑ Laurence Picken : T'ang Music and Musical Instruments. In: T'oung Pao, Second Series , Volume 55, No. 1/3, 1969, pp. 74–122, here p. 117
  9. ^ Alan R. Trasher: Xiao . In: Grove Music Online , 2001
  10. ^ Alan R. Trasher: China, People's Republic of. I. Introduction: historical, regional and study perspectives. 1. Han Chinese regions and genres. (v) The south-east coast. In: Grove Music Online , January 31, 2014
  11. ^ Andreas Meyer: Flute instruments in cultures . In: András Adorjan, Lenz Meierott (Ed.): Lexicon of the Flute. Flute instruments and their construction history - playing practice - composers and their works - performers. Laaber, Laaber 2009, pp. 287–295, here p. 289
  12. ^ Frederick Lau: Instruments: Dizi and Xiao. In: Robert Provine (Ed.): Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. Volume 7: East Asia: China, Japan, and Korea . Routledge, New York / London 2001, p. 183
  13. ↑ John Okell: Palwei. In: Grove Music Online , May 28, 2015
  14. ↑ Saveros Pou: Music and Dance in Ancient Cambodia as Evidenced by Old Khmer Epigraphy. In: East and West , Volume 47, No. 1/4, December 1997, pp. 229-248, here pp. 235f
  15. ^ David Morton, 1976, p. 77
  16. ^ David Morton, 1976, p. 3
  17. ↑ W. Glanius: A New Voyage to the East Indies Containing an account of several Of Those rich countries, and more particularly of the kingdom of Bantam. H. Rhodes, London 1682, p. 112
  18. ↑ George Finlayson: The Mission to Siam and Hue the Capital of Cochin China in the Years 1821-2. John Murray, London 1826, p. 190; Text archive - Internet Archive
  19. ↑ Frederick Verney: Notes on Siamese Musical Instruments. William Clowes and Son, London 1885, p. 22
  20. ↑ Alfred James Hipkins: Musical Instruments. Historic, Rare and Unique. The Selection, Introduction and Descriptive Notes. (1888) A. and C. Black, London 1921, panel XLII; Text archive - Internet Archive
  21. ↑ Terry E. Miller, Jarernchai Chonpairot: A History of Siamese Music Reconstructed from Western Documents, 1505-1932 . In: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Southeast Asian Studies , Volume 8, No. 2, 1994, pp. 1–192, here pp. 68f
  22. ↑ Trae ngawn : two-part, 50 centimeter long, curved trumpet made of silver-plated metal; trae farang : military trumpet introduced by Europeans in the 18th century. Both were used in royal ceremonies and are now obsolete.
  23. ^ David Morton, 2014, p. 155
  24. ↑ Jarun Kanchanapradit, Kittiphong Meesawat: Subjective measurement of Thai traditional musical scales. In: Darius Kučinskas, Stephen Davismoon (eds.): Music and Technologies. Cambridge Scholars, Newcastle upon Tyne 2013, pp. 37–48, here p. 37
  25. ↑ David Morton, 1976, pp. 28f
  26. ↑ John Garzoli: The Myth of Equidistance in Thai tuning. (PDF) In: Analytical Approaches to World Music , Volume 4, No. 2, 2015, pp. 1–29, here p. 11
  27. ↑ David Morton, 1976, pp. 77f
  28. ↑ Terry E. Miller, Sam-Ang Sam: The Classical Musics of Cambodia and Thailand: A Study of Distinctions. In: Ethnomusicology , Volume 39, No. 2, Spring – Summer 1995, pp. 229–243, here p. 231
  29. ↑ Sam-Ang Sam, Panya Roongruang, Phong T. Nguyễn: The Khmer People . In: Terry E. Miller (Ed.): The Garland handbook of Southeast Asian music. Volume 4. Routledge, New York 1998, pp. 151-216, here p. 172
  30. ↑ Khluy . In: Laurence Libin (Ed.): The Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments . Volume 3. Oxford University Press, Oxford / New York 2014, p. 156
  31. ↑ Khui . In: Laurence Libin (Ed.): The Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments . Volume 3. Oxford University Press, Oxford / New York 2014, p. 157
  32. ↑ Terry E. Miller, 1998, pp. 271, 276
  33. ^ David Morton, 1976, p. 105
  34. ↑ a b Pansak Vandee: Developing of Thai Classical Music Ensemble in Rattanakosin Period. (PDF) In: World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology. International Journal of Social, Behavioral, Educational, Economic, Business and Industrial Engineering , Volume 7, No. 1, 2013, pp. 49–54, here p. 52
  35. ↑ Terry E. Miller, 1998, p. 243
  36. ↑ Terry E. Miller, 1998, p. 244 f.
  37. ↑ Terry E. Miller: The Uncertain Musical Evidence in Thailand's Temple Murals . In: Music in Art , Volume 32, No. 1/2 ( Music in Art: Iconography as a Source for Music History , Volume 3) Spring – Autumn 2007, pp. 5–32, here pp. 10f
  38. ↑ Terry E. Miller, 1998, p. 245
  39. ^ Hans Peter Larsen: The Music of the Lisu of Northern Thailand . In: Asian Folklore Studies , Volume 43, No. 1, 1984, pp. 41-62, here pp. 43, 46, 49
  40. ↑ Sam-Ang Sam: Mohori . In: Grove Music Online , 2001
  41. ↑ Sam-Ang Sam: Cambodia, Kingdom of. 2. Music performing practice and ensembles. In: Grove Music Online , 2001
  42. ^ John Clifford Holt: Caring for the Dead Ritually in Cambodia. (PDF) In: Southeast Asian Studies , Volume 1, No. 1, April 2012, pp. 3–75, here p. 68
  43. ↑ Terry E. Miller, Sam-Ang Sam, 1995, p. 234