Hourglass drum
Sanduhrtrommeln , rare hourglass drums , English hourglass drums , form a group of one or usually doubt then tubular barrels , in which the average diameter is smaller than the two end diameter. This results in the shape reminiscent of an hourglass . Hourglass drums are beaten on one or both sides with curved sticks or with the hands. The membranes of simple hourglass types are bent over the edge of the body and glued on, nailed down or fixed on the opposite side with readjustable tension cords. In the more complex types, the two membranes are pulled onto rings and form two discs that lie loosely on the body ends and are only held in their position by the bracing. In contrast to cylindrical and barrel-shaped tubular drums, this runs at a distance from the body , so that the pitch can be changed by several note values while playing by pressing the strings from the side.
Hourglass drums are common in South Asia , East Asia, and Africa . Most Asian hourglass drums have had, since their first mention in Mesopotamia in the 3rd millennium BC. A religious or magical meaning. In India , street musicians use small hourglass-shaped rattle drums ("monkey drums") to accompany their songs. In New Guinea , large, single-headed hourglass drums made from a single trunk accompany traditional group dances, and in West Africa, double-headed cord drums are classed as speaking drums according to their function .
origin
Middle East
The oldest hourglass drums known by name and from illustrations come from Mesopotamia. On cuneiform tablets in the 3rd millennium BC it reads The most common name for drums in the Sumerian language UB, in later Akkadian it became uppu . This word in the basic meaning "beat" can also refer to "heartbeat" and is therefore, as the original sound of the living human being, in connection with creation as it was accomplished by God Enki . The word occurs generally in the connection SU UB, where the prefix stands for skin or membrane and UB should accordingly denote a shape that is hollowed out inside or a somewhat enclosing shape. Judging by early ideograms , such a drum was cylindrical and single-headed.
Another Sumerian name for a drum was BALAG, which in earlier times possibly meant musical instruments in general and with the addition GIŠ.BALAG ( giš , "wood") string instruments. The ideogram for BALAG shows an hourglass-shaped drum with two skins, which was hit with both hands while hanging horizontally on a shoulder strap. A cylinder seal imprint from Ur shows a group of musicians with a lyre , flute, rattle and a drummer who hits his instrument with two sticks in the same playing position. The hourglass drum BALAG was played during the temple ritual for Enki, who was among other things considered the god of musicians and whose name was occasionally reproduced with the symbol of the drum. There was a smaller version of the hourglass drum called BALAG.TUR, in which the suffix tur is a diminutive, analogous to the hunting bow GIŠ.BAN, which as BAN.TUR became the smaller musical bow , the oldest stringed instrument. In its most primitive form, the hourglass drum probably consisted of two connected skullcaps and belonged to the group of ancient magical ritual drums such as the chang teu skull drum used in Tibetan cult music and the sacred wooden hourglass drum damaru , which is represented in India as an attribute of Shiva . The Sumerian hourglass drum was played to worship the gods and enhanced the expressiveness of religious chant. From a Hittite ritual text from around 1300 BC It appears that katraš women ( cymbal players) struck the drum (BALAG) and thus summoned the gods. In Akkadian, the drum was called balaggu, balangu, palagga or pelaggu . The Aramaic names palgah and Syrian pelagga are derived from this . Its body was made of wood. Initially, the membranes were not tied to one another with cords, but were presumably attached to wooden dowels.
The most detailed contemporary description of a Sumerian temple and at the same time the longest coherent text in the Sumerian language is engraved on two large clay cylinders that were deposited in the rebuilt temple of the god Ningirsu of Girsu in the Lagaš region in southern Mesopotamia. Around 2100 BC The priest king Gudea had the temple decorated splendidly. The cuneiform writing on the first cylinder contains at the beginning how Gudea received the divine idea for building a temple in a dream, how he was commissioned to have a holy sword, a chariot and a drum made for Ningirsu. The drum BALAG was placed in the care of a certain priest, who alone had the right to use it ceremonially and who bore the name of the instrument as the title. The BALAG seems to have sounded quite loud and therefore large, because its blow has been compared to the roar of an ox.
An imprint of a seal from the Akkad period (24th / 23rd century BC) shows next to the seated goddess Ištar an altar in the form of a standing slender hourglass drum on which offerings are placed. The special relationship of the BALAG to the main Mesopotamian goddess is also evident from a cuneiform text, in which the appearance of another type of drum, called Balag.DI, in front of the goddess at the liver inspection is considered a favorable sign. BALAG.DI, Akkadian timbūttu or timbpūtu , was probably a smaller hourglass-shaped drum that was used specifically to accompany singing. An Elamite seal from around 1200 BC Chr. Shows animals making music with a harp , double whistle and a BALAG.DI in the paws of a lion. The question of whether the name BALAG could also mean string instruments in addition to the corresponding group of drums is linked by Francis W. Galpin with the second meaning of the word timbūttu as a kind of cricket that was played in the Akkad period. The noise generated in such a ball game has to do with a drum beat, but not with a stringed instrument. Timbūttu egli is therefore incorrectly translated as “harp in the field”. Instead, the timbūttu uses a file-like stick to imitate the sound of the playing sound between the two membranes using the principle of rubbing drums . Stimulating the membranes by moving the tension cords sideways was part of the BALAG.DI playing style. It is associated with today's Indian plucking drums ( ektaras ) and the grating drums that came to Europe from Asia. A small grater drum in Spain is called chicharra , like the Spanish word for cricket and for cicadas . The insects have a drum organ ( tymbal , from Greek kymbalon , " cymbal ", outdated for " frame drum "), which consists of slightly curved plates that are set in motion on the insect's abdomen and produce a characteristic high-pitched snarling sound. The frame drum player produces exactly the same noise as the "singing of the cicadas" when he rubs the heel of his hand over the membrane.
The Sumerian LILIS (Akkadian lilissu ) had a similar meaning in the ritual as the BALAG . It was a kettle drum with a body made of bronze. The body of the DUB was also made of metal. The small Indian kettle drum duggi ( dugi , a clay pot drum of the Baul ), the dundubhi , often mentioned in the Vedas , the budbudika (another name for the hourglass drum damaru ) and the Georgian cylinder drum dabdabi (today doli ) seem to go back to this word . BALAG and DUB also referred to abstractions such as “lamentation” and “whining”. In addition to the sacred drum BALAG, the ceremonial music at the Ningirsu Temple in Lagaš also included the much larger, upright frame or cylinder drum A.LA, which was played by two men, and the wind instrument SĪM.DA. In the 8th century BC In honor of the goddess Ištar, a small drum uppu , a kettle drum lilissu , a double- pipe wind instrument ḫalḫallatu , a round frame drum manzu and a balaggu played together.
In early Islamic times, according to the treatise by al-Mufaḍḍal ibn Salama († around 904), there was the common drum ṭabl , the cup drum kabar and the double- skin hourglass-shaped kūba , which was said to be not played by Muslims as early as the 7th century may be. The kūba is depicted on a miniature from the 14th century for a book by the Arab inventor al-Jazarī (12th century). Al-Jazarī constructed, among other things, a clock powered by water power, on the illustration of which four seated musicians can be seen who, in addition to the hourglass drum, play the lute ʿūd , the frame drum dāʾira and the flute quṣṣāba . A Persian source from the 12th century mentions a long range of musical instruments, including the vertical angular harp chang , the spiked dongle kamantsche , the frame drum dāʾira , the goblet drum tombak and the so-called hourglass drum kōba . The funnel oboe surnay and the boiler drum kōs were added to music-making outdoors . The Andalusian scholar al-Shakundi († 1231/32) used the name akwāl for a drum, which was probably one of the cup drums widely used in Arabic music today . Their name is passed down in Berber folk music in the Maghreb as agwāl, tagwalt or gwāl . In the Moroccan Atlas Mountains such a rare, small hourglass-shaped clay drum is called, the same ġūwāl (Pl. Gwāl ) is used in northern Morocco, among other things, together with the plucked gimbri in the possession ritual of the female spirit Aisha Qandisha .
There are no hourglass-shaped drums among the ancient Egyptian musical instruments. The oldest Egyptian musician was the caretaker Merj, sitting in front of his mistress in a picture from the 4th dynasty , who played and sang on a beaker drum similar to today's darbuka . From the New Kingdom onwards there were professional musicians who played the tubular drum tnb , whose skins were tied together , to accompany singing and dancing . After the 11th century BC BC, elegantly arched, double-headed barrel drums were added due to Near Eastern influences. A connection between the early Asian and today's African hourglass drums cannot be established.
South asia
The earliest representations of putative Sanduhrtrommeln in South Asia are terracotta labels, there is with animal and human figures of chalkolithisch -bronzezeitlichen Indus civilization recognizable (by 2800 to 1800 v. Chr.), Which in the lower layers of Mohenjodaro and Harappa found and classified as sealing amulets. A group of male and female musicians and dancers stand together on a seal. A man stands next to a tiger with a long tubular drum held horizontally in front of his body with his arms outstretched. One of the musicians from Harappa, who is interpreted as the “mother goddess”, carries an hourglass drum under her left arm. A similar female figure comes from Mohenjodaro. A kneeling male clay figure holds a flat, round object in front of his chest, obviously a frame drum, which is now also played as daira or daf in Pakistan.
In the rock grottoes of Bhimbetka in the central Indian state of Madhya Pradesh , paintings have been preserved that are dated from the Mesolithic (older than 5000 BC) to historical times. In addition to numerous depictions of animals, these include scenes with ritual dancers, harp players and drummers. Other rock carvings depicting hourglass drummers can be found in the Pachmarhi caves about 200 kilometers from Bhimbetka.
Larger images of Indian hourglass drums are 2000 years younger and belonged to Buddhist cult sites. On a relief from the middle of the 2nd century BC. BC, which belonged to the southern gate ( torana ) of the stone fence at the stupa of Bharhut (near Satna in the north of Madhya Pradesh ), a dance scene is shown. In addition to a group of musicians, four graceful dancers facing the viewer who appear as apsaras are shown in different postures. The musicians sitting on the floor largely hide their instruments with their bodies. Nevertheless, a vertical drum, a double-headed tubular drum laid horizontally over the knees and a small hourglass-shaped drum can be made out. The latter is pressed against the upper body with the left upper arm and hit on one side with the right hand, as is still common today with Indian hourglass drums. The group dances and makes music according to the inscription in honor of the gods. On a medallion on the stone fence ( vedika ) several monkeys ride on an elephant that fills the middle area. On the right side, a standing monkey beats an hourglass drum with a straight stick, which he has hung on a belt around his shoulder. This is an alternate playing position of the Indian hourglass drums. A tight lacing with a loop around the waist of the instrument can be seen, which can be pulled together to increase the membrane tension and thus the tone. The ape musicians represent worldly sensual pleasure rather than religious seriousness. A music group with hourglass drums, clay pots ( ghatam ) and snail horns ( shankha ) can also be found at the east gate of the Sanchi stupa from the 1st century BC. To see. At the west gate there, four drummers, one of them with an hourglass drum, march at the head of a procession. The center of the scene is the Bodhi tree , under which Buddha found enlightenment along with his empty throne. The contrast to the orderly standing musicians on the left is the malevolent, chaotic army of Mara on the right .
Many of the reliefs on the stupas deal with mythological stories from the life of Buddha ( Jatakas ). In a scene from the Mugapakkha-Jataka, an ensemble with a cast that is common for theatrical performances plays on an extremely sculptural, circular limestone relief from the 2nd century AD, which was once at the fence of the Amaravati stupa was. The three drummers hit the upright tubular drum muraja , the barrel drum dardara and the hourglass drum panava . The melody is provided by three bow harps ( vina ), two flutes ( vamsha vādaka ) and a singer ( gāyikā ), as can be seen in the Natyashastra. Except for the king and his son in the upper center, all of the people depicted are women. The place of the event are the women's apartments of the palace.
In South Asia , membranophones ( Sanskrit avanaddha vadya ) have been one of the four groups of musical instruments since the ancient Indian music theory Gandharva Veda, which was summarized in the work Natyashastra at the turn of the century . Avanaddha ("covered") means that a vessel or frame is covered with a membrane. The drums most frequently mentioned were, besides the dundubhi used as a war drum, in the 1st millennium BC. The mridangas ( mrid , "clay", "earth") made from clay , of which Bharata Muni, the author of Natyashastra , again distinguished three types: The type called ūrdhvaka is said to have looked like a stye , so it belonged to the elongated ones Double cone drums. According to the description, Āngkika should have been more rounded double-cone drums and ālingya were probably called conical or hourglass-shaped drums. The group of drums with a wooden body ( pushkaras ) included the vertically positioned muraja of a shape not further described, the barrel-shaped dardara and the hourglass-shaped panava . The fur diameters were eight angula (twelve angula were a vitasti , a span of the hand) on one side and five angula on the other with a mean diameter of four angula . There was also a third group of drums that were only used on certain occasions and not in the usual orchestras.
On a relief in Cave 7 of the Buddhist Aurangabad Caves (near Aurangabad ), a dancer is accompanied by musicians seated on both sides. The figure on the left is playing an hourglass drum that she holds on her left thigh with her left hand and hits with her right hand. The women following to the right play the flute, cymbals, a cylinder drum struck with a stick, and other drums. In similar scenes, the musicians completely dispense with melody instruments; counterstrike sticks are sometimes sufficient for rhythmic accompaniment. A wall painting in Cave 6 of Ajanta , a Buddhist monastery ( vihara ) from the 6th century, shows a dance scene from a Jataka. The women play two flutes ( vamsha ), a vertical barrel drum and cymbals ( tala ). A large hourglass drum ( panava ) is difficult to see. The cymbals provide the basic beat on which the dancer orientates, while the drums can improvise rhythmically. Hourglass drums offer the particular freedom that the pitch can be changed over a wide range by squeezing the tension cords while playing. According to the Natayshastra, a drummer is required to be able to produce a final note that is adapted in height to the playing of the flute or bow harp. He has to master the technique of adapting the pitch to the melody instruments. This is exemplarily demonstrated by a seated musician on a relief at Stupa II of Nalanda from the 6th / 7th. Century, who presses an hourglass drum with the stretched left forearm against his stomach and hits it with the slightly arched right hand. The second way of playing is demonstrated by a standing musician on a relief at the Hindu sun temple in Konark, East India, from the middle of the 13th century. His drum hangs on a shoulder strap. He has put his right hand between the tension cords and the middle cross loop and can thus press the drum down to increase the tone and lift it up to loosen the tension cords.
distribution
South asia
The religious meaning of the Indian hourglass drums goes back to the damaru , which is an attribute of Shiva and other gods. When Shiva appears in the form of Nataraja , he performs the cosmic dance ( tandava ), with which he sets the eternal cycle of becoming and passing in motion. He is holding a small hourglass drum in his upper right hand, a flame is blazing on the palm of his left hand and the other two hands point down unarmed. In the medieval Tibetan Buddhist ritual music which reached damaru ( Tibetan RNGA chung ) as a double shell of two bones of the skull, along with the bones trumpet rKang dung and metal trumpets.
Two striking stones hanging on a string are set in motion by a quick turn of the wrist and produce a crackling sound on the damaru's eardrums . The hourglass -shaped rattle drum called dugdugi works in the same way . Street vendors use it to announce their presence. Only metal idiophones ( ghana ) are allowed for Hindu temple rituals of the Brahmins in front of the altar of the deity . These are flat gongs ( jagate ), cymbals ( tala ) or stem bells ( ghanta ). A damaru may only be used in Shiva temples in exceptional cases .
On a second social level, non-Brahamic caste groups practice possession rituals and the evocation of spirits ( bhutas ) and regional deities ( devas ), with hourglass drums with V-shaped cord tension being the suitable accompaniment to singing. At an obsession ceremony of the Mina, an ethnic group in the south of Rajasthan , two singers appear initially, who accompany each other with the hourglass drum dhak and a brass plate ( thali ) as a flat gong. Singing and percussion instruments support the participants in reaching a hypnotic state.
In the regions of Kumaon and Garhwal in the state of Uttarakhand on the southern edge of the Himalayas , a slightly larger hourglass drum about 25 centimeters long without a clapper, which is hit with the right hand, is known as the hurka . Hurkiya are the names of the always male singers who form a sub-caste of the Dalits and who accompany their epic singing with the hourglass drum. The songs themselves are called hurkiya bol ("songs of the Hurkiya") and are performed for entertainment for women while they collectively set out the young plants in wet rice fields. The hurka , like the similarly large daunr in Garhwal, is used for light music and for indoor possession ceremonies. To play both drums belongs in Rajasthan one with sticks quickly beaten thali , which is a type higher drone adds to the more varied drumbeats.
Similarly large hourglass drums that are played in north and south Indian folk music are called hurukka, hudukka, udukkai, deru or dhaak . In all of them, the membranes are drawn over a wooden body, following the example of the damaru . In the old Tamil Sangam literature (up to about the 5th century AD), the terms utukkai, itakkai and timilai , which are still in use today, occur. There are numerous regional variants, and sometimes the same hourglass drum has a different name depending on the region.
In Punjab , dhadd (also dhad ) is a small wooden, hand-beaten hourglass drum that members of a musical caste called Dhadi use to accompany religious chants. Dhadis are Sikh musicians whose tradition goes back to the time of the first Sikh gurus (from the end of the 15th century). At first they were Muslims who accompanied each other on the Afghan plucked rubāb from the 18th century . They celebrated the exploits of the ancient warriors; Their current repertoire includes not only religious songs ( kirtan ) but also entertaining folk tales. In the usual line-up as dhadi jatha , one member plays the sarangi string instrument , two beat the rhythm with dhadds and one acts as a storyteller.
The small damaru types are called budbudke or kudukuduppe in South India . After their use by begging street musicians who pull a monkey on a leash behind them, they are "monkey drums". In north and central India, the showmen belong to the marginalized Madari or Kalandar caste, some of which, despite the ban in 1998, still show dancing bears. The monkey or bear keepers sing or tell stories as they shake the rattle drum. The rich instrumentation of the South Indian street musicians also includes the single-string plucked ekanada , a single-string fiddle with a coconut shell as a resonance body, the pungi wind instrument and various types of drums and hand rattles. To accompany folk dances in the southern Indian states of Karnataka and Kerala , the small hourglass drum thudi (or tudi ) is played together with the wind instrument cheeni , which is particularly popular with the Adivasis in the villages of the Nilgiri Mountains .
According to its design and musical use, the most sophisticated Indian hourglass drum is the idakka , which is played in Kerala during Hindu processions and at festivals within the temple grounds. The two membranes are not bent and tensioned directly over the edge, but glued to wooden rings that have twice the diameter of the body opening. The membrane disks formed in this way lie loosely on the drum body and are only fixed in their position by being tied to one another. Due to the unstable construction, the player can vary the membrane tension over a wide range and thus generate drum beats in a range of over two octaves. The idakka is therefore considered a melody instrument in Kerala. Wide membrane rings protruding beyond the edge of the body are characteristic not only of South Indian hourglass drums, but also of cylinder drums such as the chenda in Kerala and the chande in Karnataka. The idakka is considered a divine musical instrument and is depicted on numerous temple reliefs.
In the Panchavadyam (“five musical instruments”) drum orchestra , in addition to the idakka, the wooden hourglass drum timila , the larger two-headed barrel drum madhalam , also made of wood, and the small bronze paired cymbals elathalam and the only wind instrument, the curved natural trumpet kombu . The timilia is a slim, almost 90 centimeter long hourglass drum, the calfskin membranes of which are pulled onto a bamboo ring. It hangs from the right shoulder of the standing musician on a strap and is hit with both hands on the protruding eardrum. The way they play is similar to African drums.
The urumi is an hourglass drum in Tamil Nadu that is beaten on both sides with curved sticks. According to popular belief, some casts have magical abilities. A urumi ensemble ( tamil urumi melam ), which consists of the double reed instrument nadaswaram , the cylinder drum pair pambai and urumi , only plays at funerals . For the Telugu- speaking group of the Kampalattar Nāyakar, the musicians perform to accompany group dances with two to three urumis . The dancers themselves play the bronze gong cekanti and the frame drum cēvai palakai .
The drums and other musical instruments in Sri Lanka have almost all their models in India. The pair of kettle drums tamattama corresponds to the widespread type of naqqaras , the barrel drum geta bera refers in shape and style to the South Indian mridangam , the frame drum rabana is known under this name as far as the Malay Islands and the small hourglass drum udekki ( uddeukei or udekkiya ) corresponds to the South Indian Types. Its turned wooden body is painted in colored stripes.
On the French island of Réunion in the Indian Ocean, Hindu Tamils , whose ancestors were brought here as slaves for the sugar cane plantations in the 18th century, have preserved a special style of music that they practice at the temples in the plantations on the coast. The drums and percussion instruments used are part of the tradition of village music in South India. At the big annual Pandyale festival with fire walking , the ensemble plays the single-headed drum śakti , the frame drum tapou and sometimes the hourglass drum ulké (also called bobine ). The priest comes into direct contact with the goddesses Mariyamman, Draupadi or Kaliami with the hourglass drum. Each temple ritual and the invocation of a certain deity has its own rhythmic structure of the drum music, which is constantly repeated. According to the understanding of the believers, the deity perceives the message more clearly if the drumming is more intense. In contrast to the usual improvisation in Indian music , all drummers have to play in the same rhythm.
East asia
The hourglass drums known in China, Korea and Japan correspond in their design and religious significance to the type of the Indian idakka with membrane rings. With the spread of Buddhism around the turn of the century , hourglass drums probably found their way from India across the Himalayas to China and on to Korea and Japan. Your earliest images in this region are all related to Buddhist cults. From the Jin Dynasty (265–420), Chinese sources differentiated between their own music and music that was played on musical instruments imported from foreign western peoples ( hu-yüeh ). The music from the west probably reached China via the Central Asian region of Kuqa (then Chiu-tzu ) in the Tarim Basin . Kuqa was located on the later Silk Road and was the center of Central Asian musical culture. The earliest date for the arrival of foreign music, which can only be assessed as an original narrative, is the year 126 BC. When the Chinese envoy Zhang Qian (195–114 BC) returned from Central Asia after long journeys and imprisonment and reported on his experiences. The Chinese considered these instruments, which immigrated by the 5th century, to include the bowl-neck lute pipa , which goes back to the Iranian barbat , the wind instrument bill , the harp konghou and the hourglass drum jiegu ( chiehgu ). The jiegu , which was widespread at the time, had a string tension and was beaten with sticks. The way from the Iranian highlands to China led through the Graeco-Buddhist empire of Gandhara .
In the 4th century, the two hourglass drums dutango and maoyuangu were introduced from India, which were popular during the Sui dynasty (581–618) and the Tang dynasty (618–907), as shown by illustrations in several caves. In the Tang Dynasty, there was the "Eternal Spring Garden" music school, which mainly taught women. A picture entitled “Ming-huang listens to music” shows one of the women's orchestras, popular at the time, with various string and wind instruments, a mouth organ ( sheng ), an hourglass drum ( jiegu ), a big drum and rattles. Ming-huang referred to the Tang emperor Xuanzong (r. 712–756), who composed pieces himself, including for the hourglass drum introduced from the West. The Chinese hourglass drums have disappeared today.
The earliest images of an hourglass drum in Korea are preserved on the temple bell of Sangwongsa Temple in Pyeongchang County , South Korea, which was built in the Silla Period (57 BC - 935 AD), and on a mural in the Goguryeo tombs (5th / 6th centuries). A bronze figure from the 7th century depicts a drum player. From the early days of the Goryeo empire (10th – 14th centuries) come some hourglass-shaped clay drums that were found during archaeological excavations. The janggu ( changgo ) is the best-known Korean drum and, together with vaulted board zithers, is one of the instruments imported from China, which have been given their own form in Korea according to the needs of Korean musical styles. These are broadly divided into indigenous folk music and courtly music influenced by China. The Janggu featured in each Korean music style with the exception of the epic singing pansori for a complex rhythmic structure ( changdan from chang , "long" and tan , "short"). With the mallet in the right hand, the player produces the rhythmically defining blows that sound deep in the middle of the skin and high on the edge. With the left palm or with a stick he adds complementary deep blows in the middle of the fur. Since it dictates the timing and accentuation, there is only one janggu in practically every ensemble .
The P'ungmul Nori (also Nongak ), a style that is characteristic of folk theater, dances and secular songs, comes from the rural tradition . As with the Samulnori , the focus is on percussion instruments. The two ensembles are led by a player with a small flat brass gong ( kkwaenggwari or soe ). There are also large gongs ( jing ), small barrel drums, buk and janggu . Two melody instruments are used: a straight natural trumpet ( nabal, nap'al , or kodong ) made of brass or wood opens the performance, after which either the long double reed instrument taepyeongso or the shorter soenap (corresponds to the Chinese suona ) improvise the melody line.
Sinawi is a Korean instrumental style that has its origins in shamanism . It is performed with a solo melody instrument such as the arched zither ajaeng and with a janggu or by an ensemble. To accompany shamanistic rituals, the ensemble consists of a janggu , a large gong ( jing ), a small double reed instrument ( piri ), the long transverse flute ( daegeum ), the two-stringed tubular violin haegeum and occasionally the barrel drum buk . The rhythmic basis is formed by the improvisations on the janggu , which are based on the melody line that has developed over a long period of time.
Another Korean drum, whose membranes are stretched over rings like the janggu and tied together, but which has a cylindrical body, is called galgo . Its shape and name-related counterpart in Japan is the kakko . The Korean janggu corresponds to the tsuzumi ( san-no-tsuzumi ) in Japan . As in Korea, the tsuzumi takes the lead in numerous Japanese musical styles, including courtly Korean komagaku , a form of gagaku music that uses only percussion and wind instruments. The tsuzumi is also played in the Kabuki theater to accompany singing and dancing and in the Nō together with the large barrel drum taiko .
Tsuzumi refers to an hourglass drum that is struck with the hands. A distinction is made between the two types ko-tsuzumi and o-tsuzumi . The wood used in ko-tsuzumi is carefully selected according to certain ritual regulations, hollowed out inside, turned in the shape of a double chalice and sanded. The wood is given a surface of black gloss lacquer with gold decorations. The two membranes made of horse skin are stretched over iron rings, with one side being lined with another skin. A W-shaped bracing made of a thick cord holds both membranes in place. The musician takes the ko-tsuzumi under his left upper arm and presses the tension with his left hand to change the pitch. For the larger o-tsuzumi , a little less effort is put into choosing the wood and building it. Ring-shaped patterns decorate its body, the membranes are made of cowhide. The musician holds this drum, which is considered secondary to the interaction with the ko-tsuzumi , across his left thigh.
In Southeast Asia, hourglass drums are unknown today. However, they came to Cambodia with the spread of Indian culture in the 1st millennium and were played in the Khmer Empire for at least a short time. Only one relief from Angkor Wat , built at the beginning of the 12th century, shows an hourglass drum, the shape and style of which corresponds to an idakka , as it is depicted at this time at the sun temple of Konark .
Melanesia, Micronesia
In traditional New Guinea music , membrane drums are typically hourglass-shaped and are as common as slotted drums . Hourglass drums are made from a log up to one meter long, the inside of which is peeled off and burned out. The final diameters are 12 to 15 centimeters and are covered with the skin of a lizard or other small animal. Only men play hourglass drums. To tighten the membrane, glue patches of wax in the middle.
In the central highlands, the musicians beat hourglass drums ( pidgin kundu ) to accompany men and women who move in circles and recite alternating chants. Some ethnic groups do not make hourglass drums but purchase them by bartering. In contrast to the instruments of the coastal regions, the Kundus of the highlands have no laterally protruding handles, but only a loop of string with which they are held while playing. The lower half of the drums can be decorated with carvings , the depressions are painted with earth colors. In the past, the Kundus were rubbed with pork fat before each ritual use, which was considered an act of renewing their magical powers. In the Southern Highlands Province , hourglass drums are called tabage . They are held with the left hand and hit with the right palm. The dindanao tabage is a special drum and may only be beaten by male necromancers . In the corresponding ritual, two to three necromancers with long skirts and feather headdress move around a fire while they drum. Their strange appearance should make the ghosts laugh and thus make them disappear more easily. The water drums , which are open on both sides, are also hourglass-shaped .
Kundu does not occur in the Solomon Islands east of New Guinea . On some Melanesian and Micronesian islands there was a single type of drum at the beginning of the 19th century: a single-headed hourglass-shaped drum, which was played only by men on the eastern Carolines and only by women on the adjacent Marshall Islands . From there the hourglass drum asig got to the island of Kosrae in the 19th century . On the Marshall Islands this drum played to accompany the dance was called aje , the only other musical instruments were the snail horn jilel and various baton sticks . The aje, which was played until around 1900, was 60 to 80 centimeters long and consisted of hard lukwej wood ( Calophyllum inophyllum ) with a membrane made from a shark stomach sac . Only one specimen remains in the Alele Museum in Uliga .
Africa
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African wooden drums are large standing cup drums or barrel-shaped or cylindrical tubular drums hanging on a belt around the shoulder. In addition, some doubt celled Sanduhrtrommeln occur after their original purpose as a speech drums ( talking drum are classified). The Yoruba call such a drum, which for them has an identity-forming cultural meaning, dundun . In order to reproduce the three tones of the Yoruba language , the player takes the dundun under the crook of the left arm and presses the tension cords before or while he hits the membrane with his right hand. In this way he creates distinguishable semitone intervals and glissandi . The Dundun ensemble of the Yoruba consists of four hourglass drums of different sizes and a small kettle drum with the onomatopoeic name gudugudu. The largest hourglass drum with a range of up to an octave takes the lead. Her name is iya ilu. ("Mother", iya. "The drum", ilu ). In the three other hourglass drums, the pitch is determined by a string tied across the waist. The iya ilu can occasionally be struck with the hands, otherwise curved mallets are used for all dunduns . The kettle drum played with two leather mallets is intended to further subdivide the basic beat at a rapid pace.
In West Africa, the hourglass drum tama held under the arm has been known since the 14th century. A drum was probably one of the accompanying instruments used by storytellers and singers ( griots ) in the past, as is the kora, for example, today . The tama is one of the speaking drums because of its technical possibilities. It is the indispensable instrument in the Mbalax , which drives the fast rhythm forward , a musical genre that is especially cultivated by the Wolof and popular in Senegal and Gambia . In Senegal, the sabar ensemble of the Wolof determines the style of drum music. All drum types used in this ensemble are single-headed and are played with one hand and a long stick in the other hand. In contrast to other West African drum ensembles, the sabar does not feature bells ( gankogui ) or rattles.
Other double-headed hourglass drums are called jauje and dan kar'bi among the Hausa in Nigeria and Niger . The former, like the metal trumpet kakaki, belonged to the domain of rulers, while the latter is traditionally used for entertainment. The most famous hourglass drum with variable cord tension among the Hausa is the kalangu . It used to belong exclusively to the butchers who advertised their goods in the markets with drum beats. Today it is used by young amateurs and by professional musicians at family celebrations and for entertainment while working in the fields. In some areas she plays together with the single-stringed fidel googe and percussively used calabash half-shells ( kwarya ) in the music group of the Bori obsession cult.
The Hausa kalangu occurs in northern Ghana and Burkina Faso under the name lunga . Here griots drum lines of text with this speaking drum alternating with their song song. The nordghanesischen Dagomba play the Lunga along with a questionable time cylinder drum, the further north settled Mossi use for lunga one from a large calabash existing boiler drum called bendre or Binha . The court orchestra of the traditional ruler ( naaba ) of the Mossi, for example, includes two lunga , four double-headed tubular drums gangado and six kettle drums binha .
Doodo is a double-headed hourglass drum for the Songhai , donno a similar one for the Akan with a tight, parallel lacing. The Akan imported them from the north. The Fulbe call a single-headed hourglass drum kootsoo . The Hausa took over this ruler's drum from the Fulbe under the name kotso . The Dogon hourglass drum , gomboy , appears to be imported in contrast to the local cylinder drums boy na or boy dagi . The Kassena in northern Ghana play the 50 centimeter long and 20 centimeter thick gungona to accompany dance and song. The player holds it under his left arm as usual and can produce higher notes when he presses the lacing. For many West African peoples, hourglass drums, kettle drums and long metal trumpets were among the insignia of local rulers.
The mukupela is a large drum that is played horizontally while sitting on the knees and is made from a slightly waisted trunk. It occurs with the Luba , Lunda and Chokwe in Zambia and Angola . Museum specimens are richly decorated with geometric carvings and some have eyelets or handles in the middle. It has no cord tension. The two membranes are pulled a few centimeters over the edge and nailed there or tied with a string ring. The mukupela, which is struck with the hands, is traditionally one of the respected ruler's drums .
In the Afro-Cuban music of the Caribbean , Yoruba from Nigeria brought the Batá drums , which are used in the cult music of the Santería religion and in other rituals. Batás are conical, slightly waisted tubular drums that are used in different combinations, with the leading drum being called iya ila , as in the Dundun ensemble . The deities ( orishas ) can be invoked through two different sacred music styles. An ensemble with three batás acts at the Güemilere . The Batá Rumba is a hybrid of the popular Afro-Cuban dance music style with the rhythms of the sacred Batá drums.
literature
- Alison Arnold (Ed.): Garland Encyclopedia of World Music . Volume 5: South Asia. The Indian Subcontinent. Routledge, New York / London 2000, ISBN 0-8240-4946-2 .
- Alain Daniélou : South Asia. Indian music and its traditions. Music history in pictures. Volume 1: Ethnic Music . Delivery 4. VEB Deutscher Verlag für Musik, Leipzig 1978.
- Francis W. Galpin: The Music of the Sumerians and their Immediate Successors, the Babylonians and Assyrians. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1937. (unchanged edition. Cambridge University Press 2010, ISBN 978-0-521-18063-4 )
- Adrienne L. Kaeppler, JW Love (Ed.): Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. Volume 9: Australia and the Pacific Islands. Routledge, New York 1998, ISBN 0-8240-6038-5 .
- Walter Kaufmann : Old India. Music history in pictures. Volume 2. Ancient Music . Delivery 8. VEB Deutscher Verlag für Musik, Leipzig 1981.
- Robert Provine (Ed.): Garland Encyclopedia of World Music . Volume 7: East Asia: China, Japan, and Korea. Routledge, New York / London 2002, ISBN 0-8240-6041-5 .
- Ruth M. Stone (Ed.): Garland Encyclopedia of World Music . Volume 1: Africa. Routledge, New York / London 1998, ISBN 0-8240-6035-0 .
Individual evidence
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- ^ Richard J. Dumbrill: The Archaeomusicology of the Ancient Near East. Trafford Publishing (Ebookslib), 2005, ISBN 1-4120-5538-5 , pp. 180, 224.
- ^ Galpin, pp. 2f.
- ↑ Jeremy Black, Graham Cunningham, Eleanor Robson , Gábor Zólyomi: The Literature of Ancient Sumer . Oxford University Press, Oxford 2004, pp. 44-52.
- ↑ Galpin, p. 4f.
- ↑ Galpin, pp. 6f, 17.
- ^ Henry George Farmer : Music History in Pictures. Volume III: Music of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance . Delivery 2: Islam . German publishing house for music, Leipzig 1966, 26, 92
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- ^ Roger Blench: The Morphology and Distribution of Sub-Saharan Musical Instruments of North-African, Middle Eastern, and Asian, Origin. (PDF; 463 kB) In: Laurence Picken (Ed.): Musica Asiatica. Volume 4. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1984, pp. 156-191, here p. 163, ISBN 0-521-27837-6 .
- ^ Reis Flora: Music Archaeological Data from the Indus Valley Civilization, approx. 2400–1700 BC In: Ellen Hickmann, David W. Hughes (eds.): The Archeology of Early Music Cultures. Third International Meeting of the ICTM Study Group on Music Archeology. Publishing house for systematic musicology, Bonn 1988, p. 217.
- ^ ECL During Caspers: Rituals and Belief Systems in the Indus Valley Civilization. In: AW Van Den Hoek, DHA Kolff, MS Oort (eds.): Ritual, State, and History in South Asia: Essays in Honor of JC Heesterman. Brill, Leiden 1992, p. 110.
- ↑ Yashodhar Mathpal: Prehistoric paintings of Bhimbetka . Abhinav Publications, New Delhi 1984, ISBN 81-7017-193-8 , p. 211, plate 60
- ↑ Kapila Vatsyayan: Dance in Indian Painting . Abhinav Publications, New Delhi 1982, ISBN 0-391-02236-9 , picture panels betw . D. Text pages 15 u. 17, Figs. 9 and 9B.
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- ^ Danielou, p. 44.
- ↑ David Roche: The Dhak, Devi Amba's hourglass drum in tribal Southern Rajasthan, India. In: Asian Music. Vol. 32, No. 1, 2000/2001, pp. 59-99; David Roche: Music and Trance. In: Garland: South Asia. P. 291f.
- ↑ Hemant Kumar Shukla, DR Purohit: Theories and Practices of Hurkiya Theater in Uttarakhand, India. (PDF; 215 kB) In: Language in India. Vol. 12, May 5, 2012, pp. 143-150; Danielou, p. 88.
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- ↑ Bigamudre Chaitanya Deva: Musical Instruments. National Book Trust, New Delhi 1977, p. 41.
- ^ David B. Reck: Musical Instruments: Southern Area. In: Garland, South Asia. P. 360.
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- ^ Danielou, p. 130.
- ↑ Monique Desroches, Brigitte DesRosiers: Réunion Island. In: Garland, South Asia. P. 607.
- ^ Hans Oesch: Extra-European Music (Part 1). (Carl Dahlhaus (Ed.): New Handbook of Musicology. Volume 8) Laaber, Laaber 1984, p. 34.
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- ↑ Han Song Hiltman: The changgo. Its history and its music. (PDF; 537 kB) University of Hamburg, 2012, p. 4f.
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- ↑ James Blades: Percussion Instruments and their History . Kahn & Averill, London 2005, ISBN 0-933224-61-3 , pp. 126-128 (first edition 1970)
- ^ Roger Blench: Musical instruments of South Asian origin depicted on the reliefs at Angkor, Cambodia. (PDF; 846 kB) July 2007, p. 3.
- ^ Vida Chenoweth, Kathleen van Arsdale, Artur Simon: Irian Jaya Province of Indonesia. In: Garland, Australia and the Pacific Islands. P. 582.
- ↑ Heinz-Christian Dosedla: Art and Artists in the central highlands of Papua New Guinea. In: Tribus, No. 27, September 1978, p. 104.
- ^ Artur Simon : Oceania. In: Ludwig Finscher (Hrsg.): The music in past and present . Sachteil 7, 1997, col. 1280.
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- ^ Barbara L. Hampton: Identities: Music and Other African Arts. In: Garland, Africa. P. 107.
- ↑ Dundun (iya ILU). The Metropolitan Museum of Art (illustration)
- ^ KA Gourlay, Roger Blench: Kalangu. In: Stanley Sadie (Ed.): The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians . Vol. 9. Macmillan Publishers, London 2001, p. 320.
- ↑ Andreas Meyer: Drums. Outside of Europe. In: Ludwig Finscher (Hrsg.): The music in past and present . Part 9, Bärenreiter, Kassel 1998, column 860.
- ↑ Mossi du Burkina Faso. Musiques de court et de village. Recordings by Charles Duvelle 1961. Prophet CD 27, 2002, track 1
- ↑ Dominik Phyfferoen: Donno. music.africamuseum.be
- ↑ Dominik Phyfferoen: Gungona . music.africamuseum.be
- ^ Jacqueline Cogdell DjeDje: West Africa: An Introduction. In: Garland, Africa. Pp. 446, 449, 455, 465.
- ↑ Drum (Mukupela). The Metropolitan Museum of Art