Cylinder seal

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Akkad period (approx. 2330–2200 BC) cylinder seal made of lapis lazuli with modern unwinding, Chicago, Oriental Institute

Cylinder seals are cylindrical seals , the outer surface of which was provided with an engraved image that could produce a roll in the form of a continuous ribbon on a malleable material (especially clay ). Normally, the seals were cut from stone or gemstone (especially onyx , lapis lazuli , agate ) or artificially produced stones (especially quartz ceramic ). Almost all cylinder seals were made using the intaglio technique, which means that the depiction was deepened and the impression appears in high relief . The cylinder seal was in southern Mesopotamia / SW-Iran in the second half of the 4th millennium BC. Was invented until the 1st millennium BC. The dominant seal form of the ancient Orient. Locally produced cylinder seals are probably adopted from there in Egypt from the Old to Middle Kingdom and in the area of ​​the Indus culture . Outside these areas, cylinders for decorating ceramics appear at different times and in different areas (Balkans, Italy, Transcaucasia, Latin America), but they did not serve as a seal.

Middle East

Cylindrical seals appear for the first time in the Middle East practically at the same time as the emergence of cuneiform script in the late Uruk period (approx. 3400 BC) and remain closely linked to the cuneiform script and clay as a medium. They quickly displace the stamp seals that were common up until then . It was only with the spread of the alphabet written on papyrus in the first half of the 1st millennium BC. Stamp seals appear again more frequently in Mesopotamia and Syria . In the Achaemenid period (550–330 BC) the cylinder seal went out of use in the Middle East. Middle Eastern cylinder seals are usually 2 to 8 cm long and 1 to 3 cm in diameter. They are usually pierced lengthways. Many of the cylinder seals kept in museums and collections today came there through the art trade and were therefore probably discovered during robbery excavations. These seals therefore lack the archaeological context; their chronological classification is often possible through the stylistic classification of their representation or the reading of any existing inscription.

iconography

A very large number of original seals and unrolled seals have been preserved from the ancient Orient, as important functionaries and, from the second half of the 3rd millennium, private individuals each owned at least one cylinder seal, which is often well preserved because of its durable material. Seal unrolls on clay are - once they get into the ground - also very durable. Therefore, the seal images represent by far the most extensive source of iconography of the Ancient Near East.

Uruk period (approx. 3500-3000)

Uruk-era cylinder seal and roll-off, Louvre
Uruk period cylinder seal fragment with unwinding, shown is the "man in a net skirt" followed by a servant, Louvre

The cylinder seals of the Uruk period were predominantly made of limestone or other soft stones and are often quite large compared to cylinder seals from later periods. At the end of the Uruk period, harder rock was occasionally used, e.g. a. Lapis lazuli that came from the distant Badachschan .

Often among the primeval cylinder seals there are specimens with a zoomorphically designed knob / handle made of bronze , which was cast using the lost form . Replicas of bone end pieces as pommel are also documented.

Mainly domesticated animals (cattle, sheep and goats), which were an important part of the primeval economy, are shown, but also mythical creatures (especially the snake dragon ), ornaments and geometric patterns. The most striking representation of people shows the so-called "man in a net skirt", who is interpreted as a representation of a ruler. It shows a bearded man with a topknot and a wide hairband. The upper body is bare; he wears an ankle-length semi-transparent skirt with a mesh pattern. It appears in various contexts, such as in ritual acts in front of temples, cult processions, with plants in the hands between herds of cattle, in hunting scenes and in depictions of prisoners. The depiction of prisoners in front of the "man in the net skirt" is documented on cylinder seals only from a few sites (Susa, Uruk , Habuba Kabira and Choga Miš ) and is one of the rare evidence of this social hierarchy.

Research has assumed that there was a connection between the motifs of the seal images and the activities of their users. According to this, depictions of animals would be assigned to the field of livestock farming or hunting, depictions of boats to fishing or water management, depictions of prisoners of the management of spoils of war and the "man in the net skirt" ritual acts. In Susa, for example, unrolling of seals with depictions of grain ears was actually found in buildings used as grain stores. Overall, however, there are too few secured findings from the primary context to be able to verify the thesis mentioned.

Particularly towards the end of the Uruk period, cylinder seals with a concavely drawn-in outer surface appear, the representations of which often still bear traces of the ball drill used for production. The themes of these seals are simple rows of animals and usually seated people (predominantly women), who are shown doing domestic or agricultural activities.

Early Dynastic Period (approx. 3000-2330)

Cylinder seal and modern scroll from the tomb of Queen Puabi , Ur , approx. 2450 BC BC British Museum
Cylinder seal from Mari and modern unwinding: animal fighting scene as a figure band , approx. 25th century BC BC, Louvre

The cylinder seals of the early dynastic period were mostly made of stone, semi-precious stone or metal, the latter not being particularly suitable, as their unrolling did not always give a clear picture and they were not particularly resistant.

At the beginning of the early dynastic period, seals (mainly made of steatite ) with geometric and stylized plant representations appear. The most common motif is a rosette, which is often framed by hatched bands or circular lines. In addition, there are ladder motifs, stylized leaves and groups of points and diamonds. Seals in this style appear to be limited to the first two to three centuries of the 3rd millennium and apparently have not been made after that.

The two most important motifs of the following early dynastic glyptic are animal fighting and banquet scenes. While in the early dynastic period the main motif of the seals were mainly animals such as rams, deer and goats and less humans, this developed into animal fighting scenes over time. These represent confrontations between people who are mostly identified as heroes, hybrids (such as the bull man ), herd animals and predators (especially lions). In most cases, these fights are shown in the form of a figure band in which all participants are upright in the same size are shown standing on their (hind) legs. There are regularly overlaps between two figures. The animal fighting scenes remain the main motif in the early dynastic period, in which the depiction of animals is now even more careful and plastic and is no longer reduced to a collection of lines as before. Other, less widespread depictions of animals and plants at this time show a lion-headed eagle with outstretched wings.

The first banquet scenes on cylinder seals are documented at the end of the early early dynastic period, when they mostly still have a geometric style that is later replaced by a naturalistic one. However, exact dating is difficult, as the banquet scenes hardly changed over time. It is controversial how the banquet scenes are to be interpreted, whether as a religious, historical or cultural act, or whether the banquet depicted only took place for a certain event, such as the death or the birth of an important person.

In some cases the sealing area is divided into two registers with a double line. Both similar and different scenes can be combined in the two registers.

In the more recent early dynastic times, cylinder seals were first provided with inscriptions stating the owner, occasionally also the occupation and / or an overlord. The possession and use of seals seems to have been limited to members of the ruling houses and functionaries at this time; As a rule, private individuals did not have a seal.

Important sites for early dynastic seals are Susa , Ur , Šuruppak , Nippur , Ešnunna , Ḫafāǧī , Tell Aqrab , Mari and Tell Brak .

Akkad time (approx. 2330-2150)

Modern unrolling of the seal of Ibni-Šarrum, scribe of the Akkadian king Šarkališarri , Louvre

With his conquests, Sargon of Akkad created the first great empire of the ancient Orient. With it begins the Akkadian period , in which a multitude of hitherto unknown themes and scenes are represented in the glyptics, so that the repertoire of motifs in Akkadian glyptics is greater than that of any other period in ancient oriental history. Some particularly high-quality cylinder seals date from this time. Two-registered seals are almost completely disappearing. Boehmer divided the Akkadian glyptic into three successive style levels (Akkadian I to III), mainly due to the development of the combat depictions. In the first stage, the figure band typical of the early early dynastic glyptics is broken up into individual groups of fighters. The transition from the early dynastic glyptic is gradual, however, and the distinction between the early dynastic and early Akkadian seals occasionally causes difficulties. Combat scenes are also characteristic of the following style levels II and III.

From style level Akkadian II the entire range of motifs of the Akkadian glyptic appears. Fighting scenes are often located in the open air through the depiction of plants and other natural elements. Further motifs are the heroes Laḫmu and Kusarikku, human-faced bison, bull people , lions, bulls and water buffalo. The S-shaped lion tails are typical. Fighters are usually shown in groups of two, with the elbows of the fighters usually pointing upwards. High quality pieces show deep relief, a lot of care in the representation of physiognomic details and a dynamism that was never achieved before.

The banquet scene widespread in early dynastic glyptics disappears, instead the so-called introductory scene appears, in which a prayer approaches an enthroned deity and is introduced by a lower deity. For the first time in the Akkadian period depictions of gods appear as acting figures, both in battles between the gods and in mythological scenes. Due to the creation of an official pantheon, the motifs of the cylinder seals mainly include the deities Šamaš , Ea and Ištar , which can be recognized by their attributes and symbols. One of the most frequently documented motifs shows the sun god Šamaš, who appears between two mountains when he rises in the morning. Cylinder seals from the Akkadian period have been found in many southern Mesopotamian cities (e.g. Ur , Ešnunna , Tello , Mari and Susa ). The seals are often provided with metal caps.

New Sumerian period (approx. 2150-2000)

Unrolling of the seal of the city prince Ḫašḫamer, Neusumerisch (approx. 2100 BC); British Museum

Seals of the city prince Gudea von Lagaš and his servants represent the largest group of datable seals from the time between the end of the Akkadian dynasty and the original III period . Many other seals are the III. Assigned to the Ur dynasty.

In the Neo-Sumerian era there was a certain simplification of the motifs, with mostly adoration and introductory scenes. The ruler is led by a goddess in front of an enthroned (main) god, sometimes accompanied by another, so-called "intercessory goddess" in the background. The deity sits on a throne and looks to the left. The man who is mostly beardless is shown with a raised right hand. The enthroned deity can be replaced in the introductory scenes by the depiction of the enthroned king, towards whom the worshiper and the introductory goddess are moving. This motif variant is likely to be related to the deification of some kings of this time (from Šulgi ), but is already documented from the reign of the (not deified) Ur-Nammu . In many cases a lying crescent moon is shown as a symbol of the moon god Sin , the city god of Ur , above the hand of the enthroned god or god-king. Animal fighting scenes with and without the six-curly hero can also be found, but overall they are rare.

Overall, it should be noted for this period that regional styles are noticeably decreasing.

During this time the use of cylinder seals as confirmation of a legal act (comparable to today's signature) came into use, so that from this period onwards there were many unrolled seals on clay tablets and tablet covers. It was also common for private individuals to own cylinder seals at this time.

Old Babylonian Period (approx. 2000–1600)

Cylindrical seal of the Old Babylonian period: King as adorant before the warlike Ištar , approx. 2000–1600 BC - Harvard Semitic Museum, Cambridge, MA

With the Old Babylonian seals three themes can be distinguished: The introductory scene, the adoration scene and the animal fight. The former two are very similar, in both the ruler appears before a deity, often accompanied by another deity or a priest. The ruler always has a beard and wears a wide-brimmed cap as traditional headgear, sometimes he wears a knee-length kilt, sometimes a long robe. In the introductory scene the ruler is led by the hand in front of a deity, in adoration scenes he usually carries a kid as an offering on his arm or pours a libation in front of the deity, which is often the sun god. Animal fight scenes aren't particularly numerous. In these typically a lion and a lion griffin attack goats and humans, but often the six-curly hero is shown who fights the predators. In addition to the motifs of rulers, deities, goats, lions and lion griffins, symbols of the gods and fillers are also shown. As far as the figure composition is concerned, the scenes are shown in only one register. The figurative representations are slowly decreasing in relation to the previous seals, while more symbols are used as simplifications. In addition, the inscription becomes noticeably more important as it takes up more and more space. A very linear style is used in the seals in combination with the ball drill and there are usually few details. Style differences were not only regional, but also dependent on the respective ruler. Among other things, the inscriptions under Naram-Sin gained great importance, while the introductory scene under Ibâl-pî-El II and Hammurapi I almost completely disappears. Furthermore, the meaning of the mythology on the seals fluctuated regionally and among the rulers.

In the ancient Babylonian period, cylinder seals were first made from hematite in large numbers . Original seals and scrolls from the Old Babylonian period are among others. a. found in Ur , Sippar , Isin , Larsa , Ešnunna , Mari , Tall Leilan and Tuttul .

Cashier time (approx. 1600–1150)

Modern unwinding of a cinderella cylinder seal, Walters Art Museum, Baltimore

The Kassite period is separated from the Old Babylonian period by a gap in the dating. There are approaches to grasp this gap more precisely using the Venus tables of the Ammi-saduqa . Another approach involves comparing the style of cylinder seals from the Kassite period with those from the Old Babylonian period. This approach rather indicates a short time lag.

So is z. B. to see the cylinder seal BM89853 in direct succession of Old Babylonian seals, which show the king with a scepter in front of a deity who has raised its hands. However, the king wears a different robe and the figures are more elongated. This creates enough space for the long inscription that is next to the scene.

Cassite cylinder seals are characterized by the particularly long inscriptions, which are mostly prayer texts addressed to the gods. Due to the length of the text, there was little space for figurative representations, which is why these were often limited to individual elongated figures. The persons depicted included both gods and adorants , who in some cases could show the owner of the respective seal. A novelty of the Kassite era is the symbolic representation of a framed cross (so-called Kassite cross), which represented the sun or the sun god Šamaš . Other symbols include the winged sun and the sphinx , which suggests an Egyptian influence.

An outstanding cylinder seal of this time is the seal of Kidin-Marduk, an official of Burna-buriaš, found in Thebes in Greece . The seal shows a fertility and water god who rises between two mountains on which flowers and trees grow. He holds two vessels in his hands from which streams of water flow into two other vessels.

Mittani period (approx. 1500-1340)

Modern unwinding of a mid-period cylinder seal made of quartz ceramic, New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art

Numerous cylinder seals and seal rolls on clay tablets and closures are known from the sphere of influence of the Mittani Empire . The most extensive corpus of finds are the unrolled seals on the approx. 5000 clay tablets from the Nuzi archives . When processing the unrolled unrolls from one of the Nuzi archives, Edith Porada differentiated between a mostly relatively fleeting common style and a more carefully crafted elaborate style. More recent studies tend to differentiate between a linear and a plastic style.

The numerically by far predominant seals of the linear style are almost entirely made of quartz ceramic, an artificially produced material that was used for the first time on a large scale for the production of seals. Quartz ceramic seals in the Mittani style have also been produced outside the political sphere of influence of the Mittani empire. B. in Palestine and Cyprus.

The seals of the linear style represent rows of animals or people, as well as groups of people, animals or mythical creatures grouped around a standard or a stylized plant. Side scenes occur frequently, they are usually accompanied by braided tape. Often individual animal or human figures are rotated by 90 ° or 180 °. These cylinder seals are rarely inscribed. Because of their material, they were affordable for broad sections of the population and have been found in large numbers.

The cylinder seals of the plastic style, mainly made of hard stone (often hematite ), show mainly scenes of introduction and worship, but also car fights. A small group of high-quality seals, known only from unrolling, shows an abundance of motifs placed in the seal surface without standing lines, such as animal-conquering heroes, demons and gods as well as lions symmetrically arranged around a winged sun . These seals belonged to members of the political elite. The most famous example is the seal of the Mittani king Sauštatar , which was used as a dynastic seal by various kings of the Mittani dynasty.

Locations of the Mittani glyptic are u. a. Nuzi , Alalach (rollings are mainly known from both sites), Ugarit , Bet Sche'an , Assur , Enkomi and many other sites from Cyprus to Iran and the Gulf region.

Central Assyrian Period (approx. 1390–1000)

Unrolling of a Central Assyrian (13th century BC) cylinder seal: a demon (scorpion man) attacks a horse; Walters Art Museum, Baltimore

Cylindrical seals from the Middle Assyrian period show something new, unlike the examples from the Middle Assyrian period that were still in use: demon-like birds of prey that grab their prey with their hind feet. Such a representation can be seen on the cylinder seal of Eriba-Adad I (1390-1364), under whose leadership Assyria was able to achieve its independence from Mittani in the first half of the 14th century. It became a special feature of cylinder seals from the early Central Assyrian period .

Another motif of this period is an animal, e.g. B. a deer, again, calmly walking towards a tree or bush. In the 13th century the movement of the animal changed. It no longer strides calmly, but stands on its hind legs in front of a tree or bush. The movements are even more pronounced in seals depicting fights between animals. Later copies repeat the themes of the 13th century. A new addition is the motif of a male figure, sometimes with, sometimes without wings, holding an animal by the hind legs with one hand and wielding a weapon in the other hand. The movements of the figures and animals are vividly reproduced. In contrast to the older seals from the Kassite or Mittan times, background areas in Central Assyrian seals are often left free and do not show any filling motifs.

Well-known places where the Middle Assyrian seals were found include Aššur , Tell Fecheriye , Tell al-Rimah , Tell Billa and Tell Mohammed Arab. The seals of the Central Assyrian period were made of agate , jasper , carnelian or glass.

Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian times (approx. 1000–612)

New Assyrian cylinder seal with battle scene, Harvard Semitic Museum, Cambridge

The Neo-Assyrian glyptic appears in Assyria in the period from around 1000-600 BC . Important sites are Nimrud , Nineveh , Dur Sarrukin (Assyria) and Assur .

The most important seal themes are archers who hunt gazelles or bulls or fight against hybrids and demons; Battles of geniuses against animals or hybrids; Geniuses on the so-called tree of life; Chariots whose occupants are depicted in war or hunting; Ritual and banquet scenes; as well as the worship of various deities. Common individual motifs are geniuses and hybrid beings, the so-called tree of life and symbols of gods, including the winged sun.

There are four main styles:

The linear style, with little interior drawing (from the 9th century), the ball drilling style, in which the figures are composed of holes (9th – 8th centuries), the modeling style, which is particularly detailed and carefully worked (often in animal fighting scenes ) and the kerf style, whose figures are made up of cuts and notches. (9th - 8th century)

Archers on the hunt and battle scenes between genii and animals or hybrid beings are also the dominant themes of the Babylonian glyptic of this time. The Babylonian seals that have survived are on average more carefully and sculptural than the contemporary examples from Assyria.

From the 8th century BC Stamp seals become more and more common, which is related to the increasing spread of the alphabet and papyrus as a medium. Cylinder seals continued to be used for official purposes as well as by private individuals.

Late Babylonian Period (626-539)

Modern unwinding of a late Babylonian lapis lazuli seal, New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art

The seals with battle scenes, which were common in the Neo-Babylonian era, remained in use even after the end of the Assyrian Empire, when Babylon assumed its legacy as the supreme power in the Middle East.

Most of the datable cylinder seals from the time of the Babylonian Empire show a different motif: a single prayer in front of one or two altars adorned with symbols of gods or gods or hybrid beings depicted in anthropomorphic form. Many of the worshipers are shown bareheaded and are therefore usually interpreted as priests. It is possible that these seals also belonged predominantly to priests, while private individuals and other professional groups used stamp seals. Many of the cylinder seals that have been preserved from this period are made of gemstones and thus prove the priority of the amulet function over the seal.

In addition to Babylon , Sippar and Ur are documented as sites of late Babylonian cylinder seals.

Achaemenid period (539-330)

Modern unwinding of an Achaemenid period cylinder seal, Walters Art Museum, Baltimore

In the Achaemenid period, at least in Babylonia and western Iran, cylinder seals continued to be used as a means of notarizing documents. The owners of these seals appear to have been mainly administrative officials, while private individuals have generally used stamp seals. The most common motif of Achaemenid cylinder seals is a fight between a royal hero and one or two animals or hybrid beings. The hero wears the Persian costume and a multi-pointed crown and fights with a short sword. Cattle, lions and a winged hybrid creature with a lion's body and head, bird's claws as hind legs and a bull's horn appear as opponents. The motif of the man in the winged sun also appears on various occasions . Furthermore, hunting scenes are not infrequently documented at this time.

Many cylinder seals from the Achaemenid period are made of relatively hard gemstones such as chalcedony or agate . Most specimens from a known context have been found in Babylonia, western Iran and Anatolia, but there are also finds from other provinces of the empire and beyond.

Manufacturing

Pictorial representations of cylinder seal production have not survived from the ancient Near East. A relief from the Mastaba of Ti in the Egyptian Saqqara (middle of the 3rd millennium BC) shows, according to the inscription, a seal cutter drilling through the seal. At some sites, stone processing tools have been found that may have been used in the production of seals. A whole workshop was found outside Mesopotamia in Malia , Crete . It comes from the Middle Minoan period and provides a coherent picture of the tools that a seal cutter could have used at that time (approx. 1800–1750 BC). In Mesopotamia, finds from Diqdiqqah near Ur are closest to those from Malia. From a group of ceramic and limestone fragments that were found in connection and show drafts for cylinder seal representations, it can be concluded that the workshop of seal cutters was located there and test pieces were made. Most of the information about seal manufacture, however, was obtained from examining original seals for traces of manufacture. Both microscopic images of the seals themselves and those of casts made from silicone were evaluated.

For the production of cylinder seals made of stone, the raw material was first brought into a lengthwise cubic and then into a cylindrical shape. As a rule, the through-hole was made before the sealing surface was engraved, since damage to the workpiece was to be expected during this step. The drilling was carried out in the 4th and 3rd millennia with flint bits , from the Akkad period on, metal drills were also used , which could also drill harder stones with the help of abrasives ( corundum sand has been archaeologically proven).

Different tools and methods were used to engrave the seal image. Freehand engraving with a stone or metal burin produced lines of irregular thickness. With a file, straight lines of a defined thickness could be created, but not parallel to the longitudinal axis of the sealing cylinder. With the help of the so-called spherical drill, dome-shaped depressions of different sizes and depths could be drilled. This drill was probably driven by an arc. The use of the grinding wheel, with which lines of any length and orientation could be cut, has been proven at the latest from the ancient Babylonian period. The use of a hollow drill was only proven in the 1st millennium. Various of the techniques listed have typically been used in the manufacture of a seal. By revising the seal pictures, the traces of work on the devices have often been removed or reshaped.

In periods with good records, relatively short-term changes in the production technology of cylinder seals can also be observed. For the ancient Babylonian period al-Gailani Werr z. B. described a change in technology, which presumably coincides with a change of ruler.

use

Cylindrical seals were used to seal transport and storage containers, but also doors. Thus, in addition to the security aspect, they can also provide information about the sender or the content, which is best compared to a label. In addition, they were also used in administration to verify written documents, comparable to today's signature.

In the private sector, the seals are also used as jewelry pendants, which are also assigned a magical effect, usually apotropaic protection. Seals were such a personal possession that after the death of their owner they were usually not passed on, but given to the owner in the grave.

It can be assumed that the cylinder seals are an invention of the administrative system and have developed in parallel to other control elements of the economy, such as the tokens used as counting stones (clay tokens), as well as hollow clay balls (bulls) and numeric boards. The increasing population of the Uruk period and trade with remote areas resulted in an immense increase in goods that had to be managed. In the 3rd millennium, hollow clay bulls and tokens disappear, but cylinder seals are still used.

Since the conventional stamp seals were not big enough to accommodate the growing variety of motifs and larger stamp seals were not practical for use on vaulted vessels or closures, cylinder seals were used, as they can reproduce the compositions in a kind of narrative form and also themselves just have repeating patterns applied.

Egypt

Modern unwinding of an early dynastic Egyptian cylinder seal, approx. 3100-2900 BC Chr., Walters Art Museum, Baltimore

The oldest cylinder seals that have been found in Egypt come from graves from the Naqada II period (approx. 3300 BC) and are imports from southern Mesopotamia. Locally produced cylinder seals are known for the first time from the first two dynasties of the early dynastic period , which were used to seal vessels. The name and title of the official are reproduced in hieroglyphics on these seals .

The sealed area was already so small in the Old Kingdom that the cylinder seals gave way to the stamps towards the end of the Old Kingdom. The most important cylinder seals are the so-called "official seals", the inscription of which shows a connection between official titles and the Horus name of the reigning king. In the event of a change of office, the successor receives the official seal, while in the event of a change of government the official seal loses its validity.

In the Old Kingdom, the cylinder seals with private names that were widespread in the early days were banned by the king. In the Old Kingdom, private individuals only used cylinder seals with figures for sealing, while ring name seals, which are provided with king rings instead of the Horus name, are used as amulets. In the Middle Kingdom , the official seals were replaced by the administrative seals, which were larger stamp seals. At the same time as the scarabs, which became important in the Middle Kingdom, detailed labeling and illustrations were important for cylinder seals. Before the Middle Kingdom, cylinder seals were decorated with simple dividing lines, cross-hatching and cords, but now spirals and braided ribbons are more common. Figures of kings and gods have been depicted at the full height of the seal since the Second Intermediate Period .

The number of cylinder seals tends to decrease after the 18th dynasty , but they rarely appear until the 26th dynasty . Egyptian cylinder seals are made of wood, bone, ivory, clay, faience, frit, stone such as serpentine or steatite and metal. A string adorned with pearls can be pulled through the drill hole of the cylinder seal in order to wear it as a chain. Not the cylinder seals, but the stamp seals were the dominant seals in ancient Egypt. The scarab in particular - a three-dimensional representation of the Scarabaeus sacer , the lower surface of which had engraved representations or inscriptions - was mainly used as a stamp seal in the Middle Kingdom and the Second Intermediate Period.

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  • Gudrun Selz: The banquet scene. Development of a "timeless" motif in Mesopotamia from the early dynastic to the Akkad period (= Freiburg ancient oriental studies. Volume 11). Steiner, Wiesbaden 1983.
  • Diana L. Stein: The Archives of the Šilwa-Teššup. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1993, ISBN 3-447-03200-6 , Issue 8/9: The Seal Impressions.
  • Ralf-Bernhard Wartke : Materials of the seals and their manufacturing techniques. In: Evelyn Klengel-Brandt (Hrsg.): Provided with seven seals. The seal in the economy and art of the ancient Orient. von Zabern, Mainz 1997, pp. 41-61.
  • Irene J. Winter: The 'Hasanlu Gold Bowl': Thirty Years Later. In: Expedition. Volume 31 / 2-3, 1989, pp. 87-106.
  • Leonard Woolley : Ur Excavations VII: The Old Babylonian Period. British Museum Publications, London / Philadelphia 1976, ISBN 0-7141-1087-6 .

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Mark A. Brandes: Unrolled seals from the archaic building layers in Uruk-Warka. Wiesbaden 1979, pp. 27-39.
  2. ^ D. Collon: First Impressions: Cylinder Seals in the Ancient Near East. London 1987, p. 15.
  3. ^ U. Moortgat-Correns: Glyptik. In: Reallexikon der Assyriologe and Vorderasiatischen Aräologie. Volume 3, Berlin / New York 1957–1971, p. 457.
  4. ^ D. Collon: First Impressions: Cylinder Seals in the Ancient Near East. London 1987, pp. 20-23.
  5. ↑ G. Selz: The banquet scene. Development of a "timeless" motif in Mesopotamia from the early dynastic to the Akkad period. Wiesbaden 1983.
  6. ↑ K. Rohn: Inscribed Mesopotamian seals of the early dynastic and the Akkad period. Göttingen 2011, pp. 53–54.
  7. ^ D. Collon: First Impressions: Cylinder Seals in the Ancient Near East. London 1987, p. 35.
  8. ↑ RM Boehmer: The development of the glyptic during the Akkad period. Berlin 1965, p. 194 → illustration.
  9. ^ D. Collon: First Impressions: Cylinder Seals in the Ancient Near East. London 1987, p. 32.
  10. ↑ RM Boehmer: The development of the glyptic during the Akkad period. Berlin 1965, p. 8.
  11. ^ M. Haussperger: The introductory scene. Development of a Mesopotamian motif from the Old Akkadian to the end of the Old Babylonian period. Munich 1991.
  12. ↑ RM Boehmer: The development of the glyptic during the Akkad period. Berlin 1965, p. 49.
  13. ^ D. Collon: First Impressions: Cylinder Seals in the Ancient Near East. London 1987, pp. 35-40.
  14. ^ D. Collon: First Impressions: Cylinder Seals in the Ancient Near East. London 1987, pp. 113-116.
  15. ^ D. Collon: First Impressions: Cylinder Seals in the Ancient Near East. London 1987, p. 44.
  16. ^ A b D. Collon: First Impressions: Cylinder Seals in the Ancient Near East. London 1987, p. 58.
  17. ↑ BM89853. Retrieved July 1, 2017 .
  18. ^ Kassite cylinder seal with a framed cross. Retrieved September 1, 2018 .
  19. ↑ Figure see under Minoans International Trade. Retrieved July 1, 2017 .
  20. ^ V. Aravantinos: The Archaeological Museum of Thebes. Athens 2010, p. 82.
  21. ^ D. Collon: Near Eastern Seals. London 1990, p. 34.
  22. ↑ E. Porada: Seal Impressions of Nuzi. New Haven 1947.
  23. ^ Diana L. Stein: The archive of the Šilwa-Teššup. Issue 8/9: The Seal Impressions. Wiesbaden 1993, pp. 80-81; B. Salje: The 'common style' of the Mitanni glyptic and the glyptic of the Levant and Cyprus in the Late Bronze Age. Mainz 1990, pp. 163-164.
  24. ↑ B. Salje: The 'Common Style' of the Mitanni Glyptic and the Glyptic of the Levant and Cyprus in the Late Bronze Age. Mainz 1990, pp. 92-94.
  25. ↑ Irene J. Winter: The 'Hasanlu Gold Bowl': Thirty Years Later. 1989, Figure 18 [1]
  26. ^ D. Collon: First Impressions: Cylinder Seals in the Ancient Near East. London 1987, pp. 65-69.
  27. ↑ S. Herbordt: Neo-Assyrian Glyptik des 8.-7. Century BC BC, with special consideration of the seals on tablets and clay closures Helsinki 1992, pp. 6–32.
  28. ↑ S. Herbordt: Neo-Assyrian Glyptik des 8.-7. Century BC Chr., With special consideration of the seals on tablets and clay closures Helsinki 1992, pp. 71–96; D. Collon: Catalog of the Western Asiatic Seals in the British Museum 5. Cylinder Seals, Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian Periods. London 2001, pp. 39-153.
  29. ^ D. Collon: Catalog of the Western Asiatic Seals in the British Museum 5. Cylinder Seals, Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian Periods. London 2001, pp. 6-18.
  30. ^ D. Collon: First Impressions: Cylinder Seals in the Ancient Near East. London 1987, pp. 80-83.
  31. ^ D. Collon: First Impressions: Cylinder Seals in the Ancient Near East. London 1987, p. 77.
  32. ^ D. Collon: First Impressions: Cylinder Seals in the Ancient Near East. London 1987, p. 83.
  33. ^ D. Collon: First Impressions: Cylinder Seals in the Ancient Near East. London 1987, p. 90.
  34. ^ D. Collon: First Impressions: Cylinder Seals in the Ancient Near East. London 1987, p. 93.
  35. ↑ a b R. Moorey: Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: The Archaeological Evidence. Winona Lake 1999, p. 104.
  36. ↑ A. dessenne: Mallia. Research in the quartiers d'habitation. 1957.
  37. ↑ Jean-Claude Poursat: Fouilles exécutées à Mallia: Le quartier Mu. Artisans minoens: les maisons-ateliers du Quartier Mu. Paris 1996, pp. 103–110, plates 41–49.
  38. ^ L. Woolley: Ur Excavations VII: The Old Babylonian Period. London / Philadelphia 1976, p. 86.
  39. ↑ L. Gorelick, AJGwinnet: Minoan vs. Mesopotamian Seals: Comparative Methods of Manufacture. 1992.
  40. ↑ Ralf-Bernhard Wartke: Materials of the seals and their manufacturing techniques. Mainz 1997, p. 51.
  41. ↑ Ralf-Bernhard Wartke: Materials of the seals and their manufacturing techniques. Mainz 1997, p. 52.
  42. ↑ For the methods used s. Ralf-Bernhard Wartke: Materials of the seals and their manufacturing techniques. Mainz 1997, pp. 54-58 and D. Collon: First Impressions: Cylinder Seals in the Ancient Near East. London 1987, pp. 100-104.
  43. ^ L. al-Gailani Werr: Studies in the Chronology and Regional Style of Old Babylonian Cylinder Seals. 1988.
  44. ^ A b H. Pittman: Cylinder Seals and Scarabs in the Ancient Near East. Peabody Mass. 2000, p. 1601.
  45. ^ P. Kaplony: cylinder seal. Wiesbaden 1984, columns 294f.
  46. ^ P. Kaplony: cylinder seal. Wiesbaden 1984, columns 295.