Naqqara
Naqqara , Arabic نقارة, DMG naqqāra , also naghara, naqara, nakkare, naghāreh , is a group of kettle drums that are played in pairs from the Maghreb to the Middle East and South Asia to Central Asia . The drums, mostly struck with sticks, were an indispensable part of military bands and palace orchestras in the Islamic countries of this region and in the European royal houses. They are still used to this day to accompany dance and in religious ceremonial music.
From the 12th century, the double drum spread through returning crusaders together with long trumpets in the cavalry of Western Europe. During this time, the English drum nakers and the German puke , which became the forerunners of the orchestral kettledrum , developed from it. In Persia, at the northern Indian Mughal courts and in the sultanates on the Malay Peninsula , the naghara (nagārā) belonged to the ceremonial palace orchestra naubat (nobat) and the regalia of the ruler from around the 16th century . In India it is a forerunner of the tabla pair of timpani .
Origin of the boiler drums
The oldest drums were, according to images on walls and on clay pots, frame drums in ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia . Women probably played them in cult rituals. A clay vessel found in the temple area of the Mesopotamian town of Tell Agrab is dated to around 3000 BC. Dated. It shows three naked women holding circular objects in their hands and is probably the earliest known illustration of drums. The picture shows the musician Emhab with a large barrel drum from the 17th Egyptian dynasty . The large standing priests drum lilissu with a bronze body made of old Babylonian period is considered the oldest boiler drum and distant forerunner of today's bass drum . From ancient Egyptian to early Islamic times, the four-edged frame drums ad-duff , derived from the Hebrew women's instrument tof (today's daf are round), and various large, double-skinned barrel drums for use by men in war, were widespread. There were hardly any single-headed kettle drums.
A Turkish historian from the 17th century described that the circle of the Prophet Mohammed included a player of the round frame drum ad-dāʾira and an Indian musician with a large kettle drum ( kūs, Pl. Kūsāt, from Aramaic kāsā ). One of the musical instruments allowed by the Prophet in the 7th century was the larger round frame drum ghirbāl , which probably had snarling strings stretched under the membrane. Even the bandīr (bendaīr) was probably equipped with snare strings at that time, or judging by the holes in the frame, with a bell ring . The leading instrument of the military bands (ṭabl-khāna) was , in addition to trumpets and horns, kettle drums, which are generally called ṭabl in Arabic .
In the Arab countries of the Middle East there were different types of kettledrum around the 10th century: the great al-kūs (in Turkish military music it is called kös ), the even larger Mongolian kūrgā (kūrka), also ṭabl al-markab , the naqqāra dabdāb and the qasa with a flat bottom. Ṭabl šāmī was a flat kettle drum with skin strip tension , which was worn on a slung cord during war dances in southern Arabia. The small kettle drum ṭabelet al-bāz was beaten with leather straps at festivals in Egypt. In the course of time, the simple clay pots with a flat bottom were given a deep, rounded body . In this form, the large Arab kettle drum atabal with a body made of metal under the name variant t'bol has been handed down in the countries of the Maghreb . The small kettledrum played in pairs was called an-naqqāra , its two halves of different sizes produce a lower and a higher tone to this day.
The pair of kettle drums naqqāra was typical of the military music of the Arab countries, Iran and the Central Asian historical region of Khorasan , which now includes Afghanistan . It served together with trumpets in the palace orchestra naqqāra-khāna as a symbol of sovereign power and was ceremonially used in the courts to receive guests, when the Sultan returned from a trip, to announce an event and on holidays. In early Islamic times, only the caliphs had the right to maintain such an orchestra, which called to prayer ( ṣalāt ) five times a day at their place of residence . Later provincial governors were also allowed to maintain a naqqara-khana . The Abbasid caliph at- Tā'iʿ 978/9 gave the Buyid Adud ad-Daula permission to have three orchestras play three times a day. The performance practice with a fixed musical sequence was called nauba .
Under the Safavids , who ruled from 1501 to 1722, and in later times, the loud sounds of naqqara- khana rang out from the two balconies above the entrance to Qeisarieh , the royal bazaar at the north end of Meidān-e Emām, in the capital, Isfahan . According to reports from the 17th century, the orchestra played from an elevated position in all Persian governor cities. According to the doctor and traveler Engelbert Kaempfer, around 1684 there were 40 men in Isfahan.
During marches and skirmishes, large kettle drums ( naqqarya ) were tied to the back of a horse or camel on either side, the higher-sounding drum on the left. Smaller pairs of drums ( naqrazan ) were carried by donkeys. Played individually or in pairs, the naqqara hung on a string around the musician's neck, otherwise the musician would hold the drum with his left hand and hit the stick with his right.
Iran and Central Asia
The great Iranian timpani kōs (kus) also got its name from the Aramaic kāsā in the first centuries AD . Its bulbous body in the shape of a chain line was made of clay, wood or metal. The Sassanid rock reliefs from Taq-e Bostan (late 6th century AD) depict the harp čang , the cone oboe surnāy , a mouth organ similar to the Chinese sheng , trumpets and drums. The same kōs was mentioned in 10th century Iran along with the cup-shaped drum dunbaq , the frame drum dā'ira and the hourglass-shaped drum kōba . The kōs was a war drum that was carried on horses and camels and played in battle together with the Iranian-Central Asian long trumpet karnai .
The name naghara (English translation naghghareh ) has stood for a small pair of drums in Iranian music since Islamic times . Jalal ad-Din ar-Rumi (1207–1273) repeatedly mentioned nagharas , which were an integral part of the ancient courtly ceremonial music naubat . The body is made of clay, the skin membrane is stretched by cross-woven strips of skin that run around under the semicircular floor. Both drums lie separately in front of the player sitting on the floor with their tops inclined to one another and are beaten with short wooden sticks (damka) , the ends of which are slightly bent up. The larger, lower-sounding drum is called nar (stands for male), the smaller (female) bcats . In the lower Indus Valley in Pakistan the larger instrument is called nar or bam, the smaller zed , in northern India also nar the male, but madi the female.
Local variations of the naghara in Iran are named after their region of origin. The clay naghareh-ye shomal ("northern naghara ") is mainly played in popular music in the northern province of Māzandarān , where it is also known as desarkutan . The larger body with a diameter of about 22 centimeters is called bam , the smaller one with 16 centimeters is called zil . The two membranes are made of cowhide and are lashed with strips of the same kind. One or two desarkutan are used together with a bowling oboe (local name serna, from surnai ) at weddings or sporting events. The nagharas in the southern province of Fars and in the Kurdish city of Sanandaj are slightly larger .
In the music of Tajikistan and Uzbekistan , nagharä or nägharä denote the small pairs of kettle drums. There barrel drums have variants of the similarly widespread name dhol . In Uzbekistan, the prefix dul denotes a deep and loud-sounding kettle drum, rez a small high instrument and kosh-naghara a small pair of drums made of clay that is covered with goat skin.
In the western Chinese region of Xinjiang , the Muslim Uighurs gather in front of the grave of one of the many saints on the anniversary of one of the many saints ( mazar , equivalent to the qubba in Arab countries). In the course of such a festival, several naghra sunay bands perform , typical kettle drum oboe orchestras, as they were probably introduced into the region in the course of Islamization with the Qarakhanids in the 10th century. Dancing men in the procession to the shrine also beat the large frame drum dap (similar to the daira ).
In the music of Azerbaijan , the most common percussion instrument is the tambourine däf, usually played by the mugham singer . In addition, naghara (naģara), as an exception, does not denote a beaker drum, but a tubular drum that belongs to the folk music singer aşyg . Its body made of wood or plastic is covered with sheep or goat skins on both sides thanks to a zigzag lacing, nowadays also with plastic membranes. The drum rests obliquely forward on one knee, held by the left forearm. It is mainly played at wedding celebrations, both hands beat on the upper membrane , as in the däf . The small Azerbaijani kettle drum pair made of clay is called goša naģara (gosha naghara), from gosha , “pair” to distinguish it. Both parts have different diameters at the same height and are connected to one another by twisted cords. In Georgia , the same pair of clay drums is called diplipito . Both are played with short wooden sticks.
The Armenian double drum naghara is also made of clay and is used in the orchestra of the traditional epi singers ashugh (corresponds to the Azerbaijani aşyg ) and in sazandar ensembles. In the southern Caucasus region, Sazandar refers to the orchestra and its musicians, which are usually engaged at weddings, who play the kemençe stringed lute , the bowling oboe zurna , the short oboe duduk or the accordion in addition to beaker and frame drums .
Turkey
The drums in the representative orchestras of the Ottoman Empire were of great importance . Until the dissolution of this institution in 1826 , up to 36 musicians played rhythm instruments in the fully occupied military band, which had been called Mehterhâne since the 15th century , nine of which were the pair of kettle drums nakkare , the large frame drum davul , the pair of cymbals zil (end of the 12th century first mentioned) and the bell tree çağana . In addition, there was the straight trumpet nafīr , the winding natural trumpet boru and the cone oboe zurna . A drawing from the early 19th century shows three janissaries in chamber music interplay with a standing zurna and a daul player ( davul, large tubular drum). In the middle sits a drummer on the floor with the small pair of kettledrons nagarasan (today's spelling nakkare ) in front of him.
The corresponding counterpart to nakkare in military music is the snare drum pair kudüm in Turkish art music and in the religious ritual music of the Mevlevi order . Two roughly semicircular metal cups with a membrane made of goat skin are connected to each other by a cord in the kudüm . In order to achieve a fuller sound, the metal is completely covered with skin. The diameter is up to 30 centimeters, the height about half. Kudüm are played with two mallets, more rarely with both hands. Both drums rest in the playing position on thick leather rings.
From the 13th century, the development of an independent Turkish art music can be seen in the ceremony of the dancing dervishes of the Sufi order. The Mevlevi play the kudüm together with the longitudinal flute ney , the bowed long-necked lute rabāb , the plucked tanbur and cymbals , Turkish zil . Miniature paintings in the surnâme-i Vehbî , an illustrated manuscript by the Ottoman poet Seyyid Vehbi, show celebrations that Sultan Ahmed III. (ruled 1703–1730) 1711 on the occasion of the circumcision of his sons. You can see musicians with cone oboes , bell tambourines ( zilli def ) and kudüm , they accompany dancing boys ( köçek ) who hold castanets (chahār pāra) in both hands .
It is very likely that the kudüm was already in use in Turkish folk music before it became a rhythm instrument for dervishes and court music. Today it is reserved for classical music. A related instrument that accompanies folk dances in Turkey is the small kettle drum made of clay çifte dümbelek, played in pairs ( çifte translates as “in pairs”, dümbelek is derived from the old Iranian consonant spelling dnbk for clay drums).
North africa
In Egyptian folk music, simple naqqārāt (Sg. Naqqāra ) are played, which consist of calabashes covered with camel skin parchment and connected in pairs. The player holds her with one arm against his chest and beats one drum with his flat fingers, the other with a firm strip of camel skin. Alternatively, the player sits cross-legged on the floor and hits the eardrums with short wooden sticks. For processions there is the large naqāryā , which is made of clay or copper and is mounted on both sides of the camel saddle. Slightly smaller drums are called naqrazan and are attached in pairs to a donkey.
Small frame drums and kettle drums were mostly played by women in folk music in the Arab countries. A photograph from the beginning of the 20th century shows four Moroccan women with the spiked fiddle rebāb , the pair of kettle drums naqqāra, the frame drum with bells tār and the rectangular, double-sided frame drum duff (or deff ). In Morocco, the naqqārāt , also tbilat , consist of large and small clay pots covered with skin, which are firmly connected with strips of skin. Here as elsewhere, the non-tensionable drums are warmed up before the game to tighten the skin. Sometimes in the Maghreb , naqqārāt is also understood to mean clay beaker drums with a long neck open at the bottom. An older name for naqqārāt in Tunisia is kurkutū , which is still used today in connection with the ṣtambēlī possession ceremony.
In Tunisia and in the vicinity of the Algerian city of Constantine , but not in Morocco and not in the rest of Algeria, the double boiler drum is also one of the instruments used by classical music ensembles. Naġarāt in the Arabic dialect of Tunisia and nāġarāṭ in Algeria refers to two connected kettle drums with a diameter of about 20 centimeters, the body of which is usually made of brass, sometimes also of clay. Images from the beginning of the 20th century show the two drums lying next to each other on a wooden frame; today they are positioned on a stand in front of the seated player who hits them with two sticks. The tone of the lower drum on the right in front of the player is called Tunisian-Arabic šāyib ( High Arabic šāʾib , "old man"), the higher-sounding drum on the left produces a tone called šbāb (Arabic šabāb , "young man").
The kettle drums found in large parts of Africa are hardly connected to each other and only in the case of some drums in the Sudan region is the origin of the Arab naqqāras recognizable. Large kettle drums played in pairs with a body made of wood or bronze were used for representation at the Muslim rulers of the Hausa . According to older depictions, their tambari were about 50 centimeters high, with a membrane fixed by an iron hoop, which was braced on the underside with another iron ring. The typical Hausa ceremonial orchestra still consists of similar drums, the long trumpet kakaki and / or the double reed instrument algaita . A comparable pair of drums of the Kababish, an ethnic group in Kurdufan , played on horses was called naḥās . In addition to its price, the precious bronze drum was of great value as a tribal symbol. It was a war drum and called the people together at the palace.
Played by Ethiopian military orchestras in the tent camps and palaces of the rulers ( Ras ) , the large barrel drum negarit (nagārit) used to serve as a symbol of imperial power.
South asia
In Indian Mughal painting since the beginning of the 16th century, the pair of kettle drums nagārā and a standard were among the insignia of power, which were often depicted in the center of the picture around the ruler. Kettle drums reached India after the Arab conquest of Sindh in 712. They came in the military bands with oboes and trumpets. The name naqqāra first appears in 1192 in the Muslim sultanate of Delhi . In the Bābur-nāma , the memoirs of the first Mughal emperor Babur (1483-1530), the drums are mentioned. One of his daughters was Princess Gulbadan Begum (around 1523-1603). She wrote the life story Humāyūn-nāma of her brother Humayun (1508-1566), the second Mughal ruler. It contains the story of how Humayun had to cross the Indus on his flight from India to the north , where he asked for the help of a Baluch who camped there with his people. Humayun gave the man his kettle drum, his standard, a horse and a long robe in exchange for boats and grain.
A military band was generally called ṭabl-khāna , and its main task was to intimidate the enemy during battle. During military operations by the Mughal rulers, hundreds of drums ( ṭabl-jang, "war drum") were transported on horses or camels and beaten with sticks in order to create as much noise as possible.
In India too, nauba was a musical group that played at certain times of the day. It existed in the 10th century at the latest - if it had already existed before in Indian musical culture, it was given greater importance by immigrant Muslims around this time. In Islamic times, the name was transferred from the musicians to their music, which they performed five times a day during prayer times. The Persian court orchestra naubat was taken over at the Mogul Indian palaces and there announced to the people the presence and authority of the ruler. Akbar paid the musicians like soldiers who, if the ruler was absent, had to stand by until his return. Nagārās were also used in state processions. One of the most striking examples of the nagārā as a symbol of power is the story of the wrestling match between the child Akbar and Ibrahim, the son of Kamran (brother of Humayun). Both fought over the drum, which Akbar finally won with his strength.
The orchestra was housed in its own building, the naqqāra-khāna ("drum house" and the name of the orchestra, also naubat-khāna ) in a prominent place in the palace courtyard. Naqqāra-khānas and their ensembles existed in northern India, Afghanistan and Iran as far as Central Asia. From the 16th century, the orchestra was given less official tasks in addition to its representative tasks. For courtly entertainment, singers, dancers and storytellers (qawwālān) joined the drummers and winds . The naqqāra-khānas preserved in the tombs of the Itimad-ud-Daula mausoleum in Agra and the Gol Gumbaz in the southern Indian city of Bijapur probably served both purposes.
The official historiography of the rule Akbars (r. 1556-1605), written by his court chronicler Abu 'l-Fazl in the 1590s, bears the Persian title Akbar-nāma . Abu 'l-Fazl meticulously lists the individual instruments of the naubat orchestra:
- 18 pairs of low-pitched drums , called kuwarga , also known as damāma .
- 20 pairs of kettle drums naqqāra
- 4 duhul , large barrel drums
- 9 surnā , the forerunners of today's Indian bowling oboes shehnai , which were always played together
- 3 long trumpets nafīr , one of which is Persian, Indian and European
- 3 pairs of cymbals , Arabic / Persian sanj .
The French doctor and traveler François Bernier (1625–1688) reported enthusiastically about the Aurangzebs orchestra (r. 1658–1707), which played at certain times of the day and night. After an initial period of getting used to it, he found the melodies solemn and pleasant, produced by an orchestra consisting of a dozen long trumpets ( karna ) and various percussion instruments. According to Bernier's observation, 20 pairs of drums ( nagārā ), at least four wind instruments ( surnā ) and three cymbals ( sanj ) played in the ceremonial music at court . According to a description from Akbar's time, the leading drum was placed in the middle of the orchestra. A wide arc can be drawn from their function to today's Tasso ensembles, which play at family celebrations in northern India and the Caribbean and where the large tubular drum tasso is the focus of the action.
As shown on miniatures, in Akbar's time there was not only the nagārā but also the double-headed cylinder drum with the Persian name duhul , which corresponds to today's Indian dhol . Up to the present day some naubat orchestras have survived with a smaller cast , which play especially at the tombs of Muslim saints (Persian dargah, Arabic qubba ). The drum pairs consist of two metal bowls that are slightly hunched on the floor. The smaller, high-sounding drum on the right is called jil or jhil (from Arabic-Persian zir, cf. zil ), the large one on the left is called dhāma . The skin membranes are fastened by zigzag string tension. The drums can be tuned by heating or with water that can be poured into a hole. On the bass drum, a resinous voice paste is glued to the underside of the head. The pitch is a fourth or fifth .
Sometimes today raga compositions are performed chamber music with a pair of nagārā drums and two cone oboes, shehnai , with one shehnai producing a drone ( shruti ). The small drum rests on a fabric ring at an angle in front of the player, while the large drum is placed close to it, almost vertically. Both are beaten with sticks. A large naubat orchestra can only be heard on very rare occasions. It consists of several nagārās and several large and small cone oboes (the small ones are called piri , cf. piri in Korea). A basin is hit at the opening, followed by hits on a large barrel drum ( tavil ).
The nagārās , played individually or in pairs with sticks or with the hands in Indian folk music, are ancient drums and have the regional names damau (in Uttarakhand ), dukkar or dukar-tikar (in Punjab and in Rajasthan ), duggi (in Uttar Pradesh and in) the Baul in West Bengal ) and khurdak . A duggi or dukar-tikar often accompanies the shehnai bowling oboe in classical North Indian music . The khurdak (corresponds to the duggi ) is a small pair of timpani that the shehnai player Bismillah Khan (1916–2006) preferred as a rhythm accompaniment. In Rajasthan, when nagara is played in pairs, a loud and deep-sounding “male” nagara , which is covered with buffalo or camel skin, is differentiated from a smaller and higher-sounding, “female” nagari , which has a membrane made of goat skin.
In a certain South Indian folk music ensemble, the bowling oboe mukhavina and a pair of dhanki with a wooden body play together. The dukkar is similar to the tabla because its membrane is also coated with voice paste ( syahi ) . The two drums of the dukkar are tied around the waist and played while standing. In the area of Gilgit-Baltistan including the Hunzatals in northern Pakistan, the boiler drum pair comes Damal ago.
A separately played kettle drum in Bihar with a diameter of about 45 centimeters is called nāgara , its 60 centimeter larger counterpart in West Bengal is the dhāmsā . Both accompany the regional variants of the Chhau dance theater. Nagārās announce performances of the swang tradition folk entertainment theater Nautanki throughout northern India and form the essential instrument of the accompanying orchestra. A large sacred kettle drum made of clay among the Garo in the northeast Indian state of Meghalaya is called nāgrā , it is similar to the nāgārā in neighboring Assam .
In Nepal , the nagarā is a kettle drum used in pairs with a diameter between approximately 35 and 42 centimeters, which is struck with two mallets. In daily sacrificial ceremonies in front of Shiva shrines in Nepalese villages, a single nagarā plays ghanta with or without the accompaniment of a stemmed handbell . In the central part of the country, a loud "kettle drum ensemble" ( nagarā bānā ) with nagarā , a cone oboe ( rāsa ) and a straight natural trumpet karnāl ( karna ) occurs during ceremonies , which can be enlarged with additional wind instruments. Many musical instruments in Nepal are reserved for individual castes and are only played by them. Nagarā bānā musicians belong exclusively to the Damai, a music- making caste of tailors with very little social standing, whose name is derived from the copper kettle drum damaha . The Nepalese nagarā is usually made of copper. An alloy of gold, silver, copper, iron and zinc ( Sanskrit pancha dhatu , “five metals”) is used to make the nagarās played at the old royal palace Gorkha Durbar , where ceremonies are still taking place . A nagarā is the only indispensable musical instrument for temple music and is accordingly cherished .
The tabla is the leading rhythm instrument in North Indian music today . The history of this pair of timpani only goes back to the 18th century; the first tabla Gharanas (music schools and styles and) in which the instrument was used in a wider stylistic range, there was the late 19th century. Apart from two legends about its possible origin - Amir Chosrau (1253-1325) cut the watch glass drum awaj into two parts, or later someone else would have cut the clumsy barrel drum pakhawaj for use in easier khyal singing - the ancestry of the tabla is in the to look for Persian nagārā and their folk music descendants.
Malay Islands
The Persian court orchestra naubat reached the Malay Archipelago with the spread of Islam via India . The first small Muslim empires with a nobat orchestra ( Malay spelling) were probably Pasai on the northern tip of Sumatra and the island of Bintan in the Riau archipelago in the 13th century . A legend describes how the first king of Temasek, today's Singapore , was enthroned. On the crossing to the island he lost his crown in a storm, whereupon he was introduced to his office to drum beats. The word for "enthronement" was changed from mahkotakan ( mahkota, "crown", "king") to tabalkan . Tabal refers to the ruler's ceremonial drum, apparently derived from the Arabic ṭabl .
When the third regent Mohammed Shah (r. 1424–1444) converted to Islam in the Kingdom of Melaka , he institutionalized the nobat orchestra as part of the traditional "customs and ceremonies" ( adat istiadat) belonging to the rule of the Sultan . The drum orchestra retained the ceremonial function taken over from Persia and India, but the word daulat for royal authority and sovereignty still contains a religious component that was intended to increase the status of the king and give him additional divine legitimacy. Logically, the musicians belong to an old traditional Malay family whose mythical roots lead to the sultan's sex. The musicians are called Orang Kalau, Orang Kalur ( kalur possibly derived from susur galur, "family tree") or orang muntah lembu , which means "people vomited out of the ox's stomach" to describe their particular origin. Their game was imperative when the ruler was enthroned, during audiences to honor the guests, as well as at weddings, circumcisions and funerals of his family. Today nobat ensembles are maintained in the sultan's palaces in the Malaysian states of Kedah , Perak , Kelantan , Selangor , Terengganu and in the Sultanate of Brunei . The instruments are also housed in special buildings (Balai Nobat) or in a room in the palace.
In Malaysia the kettle drum is only played individually, it is called nengkara or nehara, derived from the word naqqāra . Its body is made of hardwood (kayu teras jerun) . The membrane made of deer or goat skin with a diameter of 40 centimeters is stretched by parallel rattan cords up to a cord ring on the floor. The other instruments of the nobat ensemble are a serunai (cone oboe), a nafiri (straight silver trumpet ) and two gendang (double-headed barrel drums, Malay origin).
Western Europe
The Moors should probably in the 8th century on the Iberian Peninsula in addition to the sounds Barbat and Arab lyres also naqqāras introduced. But there is no evidence that kettle drums were used in Western Europe before the time of the Crusaders (around 1095–1291), although trade relations with the Byzantine Empire existed and there were Normans who met Arab Saracens in Sicily in the 10th century . From the 12th century on, kettle drums are mentioned in written documents together with long straight trumpets (old French buisine , derived from the Roman bucina ). Aligned with the local language, the drums were called French nacaires, Italian naccheroni , Spanish nácar, nacara and English nakers . In German-language literature, large and small kettle drums were indiscriminately referred to as puke , from which today's word timpani is derived. In his work Il Milione from 1298, Marco Polo called the large kettle drum "il grand nacar", the French king Louis IX. heard during his crusade against the Egyptian port city of Damiette in 1249 on his ship loud "nacaires" and "cors Sarrazinois" ("Saracen horns ") rushing over from the shore. Such instruments also became popular with the European military in the 13th century. Edward III. , 1307–1327 King of England and Wales, led an orchestra of "trompes, tabours, nacaires, chalemies et muses", ie "trumpets, drums, kettle drums, shawms and bagpipes " with him when he conquered Calais in 1347 . In the 14th century, a general distinction was made between large cylinder drums ( tabours ) and small kettle drums ( nacaires ).
The European kettle drums were smaller than their Arabic models, their diameter was 15 to 20 centimeters. Nevertheless, the terrible noise is mentioned that the instruments produced in large numbers in pairs with small sticks during campaigns. In the 14th century boiler drum players were also employed at European courts for entertainment and ceremonies. The combination of drums and trumpets was typical again.
.png)
There are numerous illustrations of the small kettle drums up to the 17th century. Most of the drummers were male, in contrast, in Christian art, nacaires were played in combination with viols by women and angels, in this case both instruments of subtle chamber music. Painters and sculptors usually show the small kettle drums as a pair that the player has tied around his waist. In the Luttrell Psalter , an illustrated manuscript from 1325 to 1335, there is a picture of a drummer acting in this way as well as a second picture of a large drum standing on the floor and being struck with bent sticks.
In the 16th century, kettle drums were popular with ruling houses across Europe. German and Hungarian drummers enjoyed such a good reputation for their style of playing that King Henry VIII (r. 1502–1547) ordered drums and musicians in Vienna in 1544, which they could play on horseback. A common court orchestra in the 16th century consisted of twelve trumpets and a pair of kettle drums. There were also a few fowl , cornets and small drums .
Larger boiler drums were mounted on artillery carts during the battle. In the cavalry, only selected units were allowed to carry drums and trumpets. As the troops' most precious possession, the military drum had a ceremonial meaning similar to that passed down throughout the history of the Arabic naqqāra kettle drum. Only officer drummers privileged enough to wear ostrich feathers on their hats were allowed to play them. Special features of the way of playing have been passed down orally as secrets over generations.
literature
- James Blades: Percussion Instruments and their History . Kahn & Averill, London 2005, ISBN 978-0933224612 (first edition 1970)
- James Blades, Edmund A. Bowles: Nakers. In: Stanley Sadie (Ed.): The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians , Volume 17. Macmillan Publishers, London 2001, pp. 596-598
- William J. Connor, Milfie Howell: Naqqāra. In: Stanley Sadie (Ed.): The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, Volume 17. Macmillan Publishers, London 2001, pp. 635f
- Alastair Dick: Nagārā. In: Stanley Sadie (Ed.): The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, Volume 17. Macmillan Publishers, London 2001, pp. 591f
- Henry George Farmer : Ṭabl-Khāna . In: The Encyclopaedia of Islam. New Edition , Volume 10, 2000, pp. 35b-38a
- Robert S. Gottlieb: Solo Tabla Drumming of North India. It's repertoire, styles, and performance practices. Volume 1: Text and Commentary. Motilal Banarsiddas, Delhi 1998
- Ann Katharine Swynford Lambton: Naķķāra Khāna. In: The Encyclopaedia of Islam. New Edition , Volume 7, Brill, Leiden 1993, pp. 927b-930a
- Bonnie C. Wade: Imaging Sound. An Ethnomusicological Study of Music, Art, and Culture in Mughal India. University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1998
Individual evidence
- ^ Wilhelm Stauder: The music of the Sumer, Babylonier and Assyrer. In: Bertold Spuler (Hrsg.): Handbuch der Orientalistik. 1. Dept. The Near and Middle East. Supplementary Volume IV. Oriental Music. EJ Brill, Leiden / Cologne 1970, p. 200, 207f
- ^ Hans Hickmann: The music of the Arabic-Islamic area. In: Bertold Spuler (Hrsg.): Handbuch der Orientalistik. 1. Dept. The Near and Middle East. Supplementary Volume IV. Oriental Music. EJ Brill, Leiden / Cologne 1970, p. 62, Blades, p. 184-186
- ↑ Lambton, EI (2), p. 928
- ↑ Habib Hassan Touma: The Music of the Arabs in the 19th Century. In: Robert Günther (Hrsg.): Musical cultures of Asia, Africa and Oceania in the 19th century. Gustav Bosse, Regensburg 1973, p. 67. The conceptual distinction according to the size naqqarya - naqrazan - naqqara goes back to Curt Sachs : The History of Musical Instruments. WW Norton & Company, New York 1940, p. 251, back.
- ↑ With shomal ("north") colloquially the area on the Caspian Sea is meant.
- ↑ Peyman Nasehpour: Kettle drums of Persia (Iran) and Other Related Countries. nasehpour.com, 2002
- ↑ Rachel Harris, Rahilä Dawut: Mazar festivals of the Uyghurs: Music, Islam and the Chinese State. In: British Journal of Ethnomusicology, Vol. 11, No. 1, Red Ritual: Ritual Music and Communism, 2002, pp. 101–118, here p. 106
- ↑ Peyman Nasehpour: Naghara, the Azerbaijani Cylindrical Drum. nasehpour.com
- ^ Galliano Ciliberti: Azerbaijan. In: Ludwig Finscher (Hrsg.): The music in past and present. 1994, col. 928
- ↑ Naghara, Gosha Naghara (double drums) and Garmon played by Kamil Vazirov. azer.com (photo)
- ^ Henry George Farmer : Janissary Music . In: Friedrich Blume (Ed.): The music in past and present . Vol. 6, Bärenreiter, Kassel 1957, Fig. 2
- ↑ Ursula Reinhard, Ralf Martin Jäger: Turkey. In: Ludwig Finscher (Hrsg.): The music in past and present . Vol. 9, Bärenreiter, Kassel 1998, Sp. 1065
- ^ Kurt Reinhard : Music of Turkey . Vol. 1. The art music. Heinrichshofen's Verlag, Wilhelmshaven 1984, p. 78
- ↑ Laurence Picken : Folk Musical Instruments of Turkey. Oxford University Press, London 1975, p. 499
- ↑ Laurence Picken, pp. 62, 65
- ^ Charles Villiers Stanford: Music History Super Review. Research & Education Association, 2002, p. 23
- ↑ The Naqqarat. ( Memento from March 13, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) taqasim music school
- ↑ Richard C. Jankowsky: Stambeli: Music, Trance, and Alterity in Tunisia. University of Chicago Press, London 2010, p. 165
- ^ Paul Collaer, Jürgen Elsner: North Africa. Music history in pictures. Volume 1: Ethnic Music. Delivery 8. VEB Deutscher Verlag für Musik, Leipzig 1983, p. 94
- ^ Roger Blench: The Morphology and Distribution of Sub-Saharan Musical Instruments of North-African, Middle Eastern, and Asian, Origin. (PDF; 463 kB) In: Laurence Picken (Ed.): Musica Asiatica. Vol. 4. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1984, p. 161, ISBN 0-521-27837-6
- ^ Bonnie C. Wade, p. 129
- ↑ Bonnie C. Wade, p. 32
- ^ John Baily , A Description of the Naqqarakhana of Herat. In: Asian Music, 11 (2) 1980, pp. 1-10
- ↑ Bigamudre Chaitanya Deva: Musical Instruments. National Book Trust, New Delhi 1977, p. 46; Bonnie C. Wade, pp. 5f
- ^ François Bernier : Travels in the Mogul Empire AD 1656-1669. Ed. By Archibald Constable, Westminster 1891, p. 260
- ^ Gregory D. Booth: Brass Bands: Tradition, Change, and the Mass Media in Indian Wedding Music. In: Ethnomusicology , Vol. 34, No. 2, spring – summer 1990, pp. 245–262, here p. 252
- ^ Alastair Dick, p. 592
- ↑ John Levy: Supplement to the LP Classical Music of India (page 2, title 3: Sumar Jumani and Abdullah Ramatulla, shehnai , and Suleiman Jumma, naqqara : Naubat Shanā'ī , Raga Todi) Explorer Series, Nonesuch Records (H-72014) , 1968 ( illustration of the musicians )
- ↑ Kathleen Toomey: Study of Nagara Drum in Pushkar, Rajasthan. Independent Study Project (ISP) Collection (Paper 1816), 2014, p. 7
- ↑ Darius L. Swann: Nautanki . In: Farley P. Richmond, Darius L. Swann, Phillip B. Zarrilli (Eds.): Indian Theater. Traditions of Performance. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu 1990, pp. 253f
- ^ Felix Hoerburger: Studies on Music in Nepal . (Regensburg Contributions to Musical Folklore and Ethnology, Volume 2) Gustav Bosse, Regensburg 1975, p. 19
- ^ Carol Tingey: Musical Instrument or Ritual Object? The Status of the Kettledrum in the Temples of Central Nepal. In: British Journal of Ethnomusicology, Vol. 1, 1992, pp. 103-109, here pp. 103f
- ↑ Robert S. Gottlieb, p. 4
- ↑ Margaret J. Kartomi: The Royal Nobat Ensemble of Indragiri in Riau, Sumatra, in Colonial and Post-Colonial Times. Galpin Society Journal, 1997, pp. 3-15; Margaret J. Kartomi: Nobat ensemble. Monash University (photo of a nobat ensemble from Riau)
- ↑ Patricia Ann Matusky, Tan Sooi Beng: The Music of Malaysia: The Classical, Folk, and Syncretic Traditions. (SOAS musicology series) Ashgate Publishing, Aldershot 2004, pp. 240-243, ISBN 978-0754608318
- ↑ Nobat. ( Memento from April 20, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Pejabat DYMM Sultan Perak Darul Ridzuan
- ↑ James Blades, Edmund A. Bowles, pp. 596-598; James Blades, pp. 223-229