Nafir

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Moroccan nafīr made of brass. Length 110 centimeters, before 1978.

Nafīr ( Arabic نَفير, DMG an-nafīr ), also nfīr , plural anfār , Turkish nefir , is a shrill sounding straight natural trumpet with a cylindrical tube and a conical metal bell that produces one or two tones. It was used as a military signaling instrument and as a ceremonial instrument in countries shaped by Islamic culture in North Africa, the Middle East and South Asia. In Ottoman , Persian and Mogul Indian miniatures , the nafīr is depicted in battle scenes .

Signal trumpets used accordingly have been known since ancient Egyptian times . From the Middle Ages to the beginning of the 20th century, the nafīr and the straight or S-shaped curved, conical metal trumpet kārna belonged to the Persian military music bands and representative orchestras naqqāra-khāna , which existed in Iran , India ( naubat ) and as far as the Malay archipelago ( nobat ) were common. The straight type of trumpet, called añafil in Spanish, became known in Europe in the Middle Ages through medieval al-Andalus . In the later Ottoman military bands ( mehterhâne ) the straight nafīr was differentiated from the coiled trumpet boru based on the European model.

The nafīr in Morocco (in the month of Ramadan ) and the silver nafiri in the nobat orchestra in Malaysia (as a representative instrument of the sultanates) have ceremonial functions to this day .

origin

Roman military trumpeter with straight tuba long trumpets on Trajan's Column , 112/113 AD
Cornicines , Roman military musicians with curved cornu on Trajan's Column.

Trumpet instruments, in which the air column in a tube is vibrated by periodically changing the tension of the lips to produce sound, originally consisted either of relatively short animal horns, bones and snail horns or of long, more cylindrical wooden and bamboo tubes. The former and their later replicas made of wood or metal (such as the Northern European Bronze Age luras ) are assigned to the natural horns , while Curt Sachs (1930) suspects the origin of today's trumpets and trombones with the straight natural trumpets made of bamboo or wood. The simple straight trumpets are called tube-shaped, derived from the tuba used in the Roman Empire . Other straight trumpets in antiquity were the Etruscan- Roman lituus and the Greek salpinx .

Tuba-shaped trumpets have been around since the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. Known from illustrations from Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt . According to the written references, they were used as signaling instruments in a military context or as ritual instruments in religious cults. As with the ancient Egyptian scheeb , of which two specimens from the tomb of Tutankhamun (ruled around 1332-1323) were preserved in good condition, the long trumpets only produced one or two notes, which is why they are not suitable for musical play were. The early ritual instruments mentioned in the Old Testament include the curved ram's horn shofar and the straight metal trumpet chazozra ( hasosrah ) made of hammered silver sheet. In the Hebrew Bible qeren also stands for an animal horn that is used in different ways, but only in one place ( Jos 6,5  EU ) for a horn blown to produce sound. Traverse is in the Aramaic Bible translations ( Targumim ) with the etymological derived qarnā played back, the later in the book Daniel (167-164 v. Chr. Written) occurs as a musical instrument (trumpet made of clay or metal). In the Greek Septuagint Bible , qarnā , the original animal horn, is rendered with salpinx and in the Latin Vulgate with tuba and thus reinterpreted as a straight metal trumpet. The word qarnā is in the medieval Arabic texts to Karna (there for more precise origin of the ancient trumpets see) a straight or curved trumpet with conical tube.

In ancient times, war and ritual trumpets were widespread throughout the Mediterranean and Mesopotamia as far as South Asia. Like the Hebrew chazozra, these trumpets were only allowed to be blown by priests or a select group of people. The Romans knew from the Etruscans the circularly curved horn cornu with a cup-shaped mouthpiece made of cast bronze and a stabilizing rod running across the middle. During the Roman Empire (27 BC - 284 AD), the Romans introduced a variant of the cornu with a narrower tube in the shape of a G in the military chapels. This is shown on a relief on the Trajan Column . The length of the tube could be up to 330 centimeters. The straight cylindrical tuba, the length of which is around 120 centimeters in the illustrations, had a greater impact on posterity than this curved wind instrument . In the Loire Valley , which belonged to Roman Gaul , two cultic long trumpets with cylindrical bronze tubes that can be broken down into several parts have been excavated. In late Roman times, a trumpet curved in a circle like the cornu was called bucina . The difference between the two was presumably less in the form than in the use. While cornu and tuba were blown on the battlefield, the bucina presumably served as a signal trumpet in the camp, for example when changing the guard. The Latin bucina , which generally referred to small wind instruments such as shepherd's horns , is derived from albogue for "horn pipes" in Spain , buki in Georgia and bankia in India , a regional name for the S-shaped curved trumpet shringa .

The trumpet, used as a signal and ritual instrument only by a certain group of people, found its way into the Islamic culture of the Arabs and Persians, which spread from the 7th century onwards. The Arabic name būq , also derived from buccina , denoted in the 7th / 8th. Century no military trumpet , but probably a snail horn blown on the Arabian Peninsula . The Roman trumpets were blown on the representations of foot soldiers. Next to it, in a relief of a sarcophagus lid from the Camposanto Monumentale , a cemetery in Pisa , a tuba player on a galloping horse appears in a battle scene. He wears a helmet and holds the trumpet horizontally with both hands to his mouth.

Illustration by Yahya ibn Mahmud al-Wasiti to the Maqāmāt al-Hariris. 7. Maqāma: equestrian group with flags, standards and musical instruments, including two long trumpets nafīr . Baghdad 1237.
Elephant with musicians. Arab shadow play figure from Egypt, 14th-18th centuries Century. In the litter, a drummer beats the pair of kettle drums naqqāra , two trumpeters to the side blow būq al-nafīr . According to the Arab historian al-Maqrīzī , elephants, which were probably decorated, were used in Cairo in the 14th and 15th centuries. Century the procession before the Sultan.

The story of mounted military musicians begins with the Persian Sassanids (224–651), who struck kettle drums on elephants imported from India. Apart from little reliable evidence for the use of war elephants in the 3rd century, the sources suggest that the Sassanids from the 4th century under Shapur II (r. 309–379) used elephants in the fight against the Roman army and against the Armenians . The Sassanids also used trumpets to signal the beginning of battle and order to bring the troops to order. In the Persian national epic Shāhnāme , a historical-mythical tale completed by Firdausi in 1010, trumpet players and drummers are mentioned who acted on elephant backs in the battles against the Arabs at the beginning of the 7th century. Firdausi may have taken over the situation in his time, for which mounted war musicians are otherwise documented, in the history presentation.

The Fatimids maintained huge representative orchestras with trumpet players and drummers. The Fatimid caliph al-ʿAzīz (r. 975–996) marched into Syria in 978 with 500 musicians blowing signal horns ( abwāg, singular būq ). In 1171 Saladin succeeded the last Fatimid caliph. During his time as Sultan of Egypt (until 1193), the historian Ibn at-Tuwair († 1120) wrote about the parade of a Fatimid representation orchestra at the end of the 11th century, which included trumpeters and 20 drummers on mules. Each drummer played three double-headed cylinder drums ( t'ubūl ) attached to the back of the animals , while the musicians marched in groups of two. The musical instruments of these orchestras are listed by the Persian poet Nāsir-i Chusrau (1004 - after 1072): trumpet būq (according to Henry George Farmer a coiled trumpet, Clairon ), double-reed ball instrument surnā , drum tabl , tubular drum duhul (in India dhol ), large kettle drum kūs and cymbals kāsa . According to the Arab historian Ibn Chaldūn (1332–1406) , the musical instruments mentioned were still unknown in early Islamic times. Instead, the military bands used the square frame drum duff and the reed instrument mizmar ( zamr ). During the Abbasid rule (750–1258), larger military orchestras were introduced which also had ceremonial functions and, in addition to surnā and tabl, the long metal trumpet būq an-nafīr , the kettle drum dabdāb, the flat kettle drum qas'a and the cymbals sunūdsch (singular arej ) contained. Arab authors in the late Abbasid period made a distinction between the winding trumpet būq and the straight nafīr for brass instruments . The woodwind instruments of that time included the reed instrument mizmar , the double reed instrument zummara , the cone oboe surnā , the longitudinal flutes made of reed nay and shabbaba and the core- gap flute qasaba .

A miniature illustrated by Yahya ibn Mahmud al-Wasiti for the maqāmāt by the Arab poet al-Hariri (1054–1122) in a manuscript from 1237 shows an Arab military band with flags and standards in the representation of the 7th maqāma. Typical of similar paintings from the 13th century are the largely cylindrical long trumpets nafīr, blown in pairs, and the pair of kettle drums naqqāra . The size of the military orchestra subordinate to them was based on the ruler's power. A typical large orchestra consisted of around 40 musicians, including kettle drums (small naqqārat , medium-sized kūsāt and large kūrgāt ), cylinder drums ( tabl ), cylindrical trumpets ( nafīr ) and conical trumpets ( būq ), cymbals ( sunūdsch ), gongs ( tusūt ) and bells ( jaladjil ) came.

Another type of trumpet with a short cylindrical tube can be seen on a Persian miniature in a manuscript from the end of the 14th century. The manuscript contains the cosmography Adscha'ib al-machlūqāt (“miracle of creation”) written by al-Qazwīnī (1203–1283 ). The Muslim angel Isrāfīl , who, like the Christian archangel Gabriel, appears as the herald of the day of the resurrection, blows his trumpet on the Last Judgment . The two spherical bulges on the trumpet are the connection points between the mouthpiece, the pipe and the funnel-shaped bell. They are similar to the thickenings on the tube of the military trumpet busine (French buisine ) introduced in Germany and France in the 13th century . Joachim Braun (2002) mentions the depiction of two short wind instruments with funnel-shaped bells on an Israelite bar Kochba coin minted between AD 132 and 135 as a possible early forerunner of this nafir type . According to Braun, the unclearly designed thickenings at the upper end of these instruments could also refer to reed instruments.

Surname

Mehterhâne , Ottoman miniature around 1568. The musicians play two straight trumpets nefir , two twisted trumpets boru , a cylinder drum davul and a pair of kettle drums nakkare . In 1529 the “Turkish field scream” had reached Vienna for the first time.

The Arabic instrument name an-nafīr was first mentioned in the 11th century. It stands for "(brass) wind instrument", "loud sound", "noise" and "fight" in a warlike context. The original meaning of nafīr was the "call to war" for all troop members to gather together ( nafīr-nāma, also a military term in Persia in the 19th century), which is why the military trumpet was called būq an-nafīr . The word nafīr and the so-called long trumpet spread with Islamic culture in Asia, North Africa and Europe. Even before the first crusade (1096-1099), the Turkish Seljuks brought the nafīr along with other military musical instruments in the course of their conquests to the west as far as Anatolia and the Arab countries. In the Arabic version of the Arabian Nights , the nafīr appears only in one place as a single trumpet, which together with horns ( būqāt ), cymbals ( kāsāt ), reed instruments ( zumūr ) and drums ( tubūl ) at the head of the war pulling army is played.

In the Ottoman Empire , the nefīr was part of the instrumentation of the military band ( mehterhâne ) and its player was called nefīri . The Ottoman Sultan Mustafa III. (r. 1757–1774) had volunteers gathered before the war against Russia (1768–1774) in a general call to arms called nefīr-i ʿāmm in order not to have to rely exclusively on the professional army of the Janissaries . A distinction was made between the nefīr-i chāss , the military mobilization of a selected group of people.

Turkish buffalo horn nefir , 19th century. Mevlânâ Museum , Konya.

In today's Turkish , nefir means "trumpet / horn" and "war signal ". In military music, the straight natural trumpet nefir was distinguished from the general Turkic word for "tube" and "trumpet" boru . Boru refers to the winding military trumpet Clairon , which goes back to European influence , while the derived borazan ("trumpeter") is understood today in Turkish folk music as a spirally wound bark oboe. In the 17th century, when the Ottoman writer Evliya Çelebi (1611 - after 1683) wrote his travelogue Seyahatnâme , the nafīr was a straight trumpet that was played by only 10 musicians in Constantinople and compared to the European boru (also tūrumpata būrūsī ), for whom Çelebi says 77 musicians fell behind. Nefir or nüfür in religious folk music was a simple buffalo horn without a mouthpiece, which was blown by Bektashi during ceremonies and by wandering dervishes to beg until the beginning of the 20th century .

After the Muslim conquest of al-Andalus , the Spaniards took over the trumpet under the Spanish name añafil, derived from an-nafīr . Other Arabic instruments that were imported from the Iberian Peninsula or brought with them by the Crusaders have entered Spanish with their names, including from tabl (from late Latin tabornum ) the cylindrical drum tabor , from naqqāra the small kettle drum naker (old French nacaire ) and from sunūdsch (cymbals) the Spanish bells sonajas . Henry George Farmer, who emphasized the influence of Arabic on European music at the beginning of the 20th century , uses the 20 instrument names listed by the Andalusian poet aš-Šaqundī († 1231) from Seville , which are in the Spanish song collection Cantigas de Santa Maria from the second Half of the 13th century and the names mentioned in the verses of the poet Juan Ruiz (around 1283 - around 1350) all of which are of Arabic origin. These include laud (from al-ʿūd ), guitarra morisca (“ Moorish guitar”), tamborete, panderete (related to Arabic tanbūr , cf. panduri ), gaita (from al-ghaita ), exabeba ( axabeba, ajabeba, small flute , from schabbaba ), rebec (from rabāb ), atanbor (drum, from at-tunbūr ), albogon (trumpet, from al-būq ) and añafil . The German word fanfare is probably based on anfār , the plural of nafīr .

After the disappearance of the great naubat orchestras in Persia and northern India at the beginning of the 20th century, nafīr is the name of a long trumpet that still exists in Morocco today. The trumpet was known as nafiri in northern India and as nempiri in China. In Malaysia the nafiri is still used. In India today, nafiri is one of many names for a short bowling oboe.

distribution

Europe

Christ flanked by the archangels Michael , Gabriel and seven tuba angels. Mosaic from 545 from the Church of San Michele, Ravenna, in the Bode Museum , Berlin.
Hornblower with tuba. Utrecht Psalter around 820.

After the end of the Western Roman Empire , as can be seen from the illustrations, there were curved horns in different sizes and shapes from about the 5th to the 10th century, but hardly any straight trumpets. The mosaic from the apse of the Basilica of San Michele in Africisco in Ravenna , consecrated in 545, shows seven tuba angels blowing into long, slightly curved horns whose shape is reminiscent of Byzantine military horns. Similar curved trumpets, light enough for the musician to hold with one hand, but much longer than animal horns, are depicted in the Utrecht Psalter around 820. The numerous depictions of conical curved horns follow from 10/11. Century again conical straight trumpets after the Roman model, which are blown by angels. In the epic heroic poem Beowulf , written at the end of the 10th or the beginning of the 11th century, Hygelac , the uncle of the eponymous hero, calls the soldiers to battle with "horn and whip". The old English bieme , which stands for tuba , could originally have referred to a wooden trumpet .

The straight long trumpet with a bell-shaped bell is depicted together with other wind instruments in a manuscript of the Etymologiae of Isidore of Seville from this period. A little later, at the beginning of the 12th century, the wall painting with a cycle of apocalypses was created in the baptistery of Novara Cathedral . With long, slender trumpets, the seven tuba angels announce the plagues for the sins committed by people. Subsequently, in the course of the 12th century, further frescoes were created in Italian churches on which long trumpets with bells are depicted. The frescoes in the Abbey Church of Sant'Angelo in Formis in Capua are particularly important for the history of musical instruments , because the tuba angels depicted hold straight trumpets with both hands for a long time, which refer to the influence of Arab culture after the Norman conquest of Sicily by the Arabs . Under Arab influence, a trumpet corresponding to the Roman tuba was revived in Europe , which appears for the first time around 1100 in the old French Roland song under the name buisine . In the Roland song, only the nafīr trumpet type is referred to as buisine , while the Franks themselves used the olifant made of ivory ( olifant ) and a smaller horn ( graisle ) and only understood these as “horns” ( corn ).

The special characteristic of the oriental trumpets were several spherical bulges (knobs) on the cylindrical tube. A short trumpet with such thickening is depicted on a relief at one of the Hindu temples of Khajuraho in northern India from the 12th century. In Europe, this type of trumpet with one to three thickenings and a mouthpiece can be found for the first time in the 13th century in a sculpture at the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela and in the Cantigas de Santa Maria from the second half of the 13th century and in other manuscripts. According to Anthony Baines (1976), this is primarily an Indo-Persian and less an Arabic type of trumpet, which was probably spread with the Seljuks before the first crusade (from 1095). The angels in the illustration of the Lincoln College Apocalypse (MS 16, in Oxford) from the beginning of the 14th century blow a very long, closely mensored trumpet with three bulges held horizontally with one hand , and a man in Gorleston plays just such an oversized trumpet Psalter (fol.43v). Jeremy Montagu (1981) highlights the influence of the Moorish armies on the Iberian Peninsula, from where the long trumpet with its Spanish name añafil spread.

Miniature with two Spanish añafiles in the Cantigas de Santa Maria , second half of the 13th century.
Three-part añafil . Replica from 1950 in the Museu de la Música de Barcelona .

Añafil was the name of a trumpet in Spanish from the 13th to the 15th century, which was known as “trompeta de los moros ” because of its origin . The ballad La pérdida de Alhama, which has survived in several versions from the 16th century, is about the conquest of the Muslim city of Alhama by the Catholic Kings in 1482, told like a lament from the perspective of the Muslim Emir of Granada . This event marks the beginning of the last military actions against al-Andalus during the Reconquista , which ended with the conquest of the city of Granada in 1492 . When the emir reaches the conquered city in the ballad, he sounds his ceremonial trumpets made of silver ( añafiles ). The aforementioned expensive metal from which the trumpets are made is said to refer to the luxurious life of the Muslim rulers in al-Andalus and to identify the trumpets as royal instruments. Silver añafiles are also a symbol of the luxurious life of Muslims in other poems about the Spanish reconquest of Granada (genre: romances fronterizos). A ballad called La Conquista de Antequera reads: “añafiles, trompetas de plata fina” (“Trumpets made of fine silver”).

Some military musical instruments, including trumpets, mentioned by their common Latin names, took participants in the Crusades to the Middle East, where they encountered the military bands there. The eyewitness Fulcher of Chartres was impressed when he reported how the Egyptians jumped ashore from their ships in 1123 with loud screams and the blowing of brass trumpets ( aereae tubae ). In 1250 the Christian army tried the Sixth Crusade under the leadership of the French King Louis IX. Conquer Egypt. When the Christians were successfully repulsed by the Mamluks , the Sultan's military music orchestra played a major role in the victory. At that time it consisted of 20 trumpets, 4 cone oboes, 40 kettle drums and 4 cylinder drums.

Curt Sachs (1930) takes the view that the oriental trumpet adopted by the Muslims was seen by the Christians as a "pompous weapon, equal to the standard" and as a "precious trophy in the religious struggle (..) snatched from the enemy" and as Because of its princely origin, it remained a “noble instrument” in Europe. Alfons M. Dauer (1985) contradicts this when he suspects that the combination of trumpets and drums has been adopted as a whole and has served in Europe with the same purposes as the representation and deterrence of the war opponent. The trumpet representations of the Last Judgment refer to the terrifying ideas that continued to be associated with this instrument.

Until the 14th century, apart from hunting horns (Latin: bucullus , "little ox"), there were only straight trumpets in Europe , not sinuous ones . The straight trumpets are divided into two sizes: trompe and the smaller trompette in France, trompa and añafil in Spain. Accordingly, in the Orient, the nafīr was often a high-pitched, high-pitched instrument in contrast to the other, deep and muffled sounding trumpets. An orchestra often consisted of several large trumpets and only one or a few small trumpets. This is evident from the written sources in Spain, France and England; Trumpets of different sizes can hardly be seen in an ensemble on images. The French musicologist Guillaume André Villoteau (1759–1839), who belonged to the group of scholars who took part in Napoleon's Egyptian campaign (1798–1801), found that the nafīr was the only trumpet of the Egyptians that over the loud, wild overall sound of the Conical oboes, drums and cymbals emitted single piercing high tones.

The tradition of the long trumpet añafil is maintained in Andalusia to this day in processions in Holy Week during the religious supplications ( saetas ). Short trumpet bumps are produced at a very rapid pace at a height of up to d 3 above the vocal parts. The saeta -Gesang is the medieval Portuguese cantiga ( "Song") and the song forms abūdhiyya in Iraq and nubah in the Arab-Andalusian music in the Maghreb stylistically connected, which as a result of the eight centuries of cultural encounter (to 1492) between al-Andalus and Christian Spain applies.

Persia

In Persia , the Arab military orchestra tabl-chāna , consisting of kettle drums, cylinder drums, cymbals, straight and curved trumpets and cone oboes , which initially belonged to the privileges of the caliphs and emirs, was soon allowed by the Buyid dynasty (ruled 930-1062) Military commanders and ministers have their own army. The size of the orchestra was graded according to the rank of those in power. The orchestras, named naqqāra as naqqāra-khāna or naubat after the name of the boiler drum , were given representative functions in addition to the military ones.

The historical work Tuzūkāt-i Tīmūrī became known in Persian in the Mughal Empire at the time of Shah Jahan (r. 1627-1658). It deals with Timur's rule over the Iranian highlands in the second half of the 14th century and was apparently originally written in a Turkic language . The Tuzūkāt contains information on the insignia of the military leaders consisting of banners ( ʿalam ), drums and trumpets according to their rank. Each of the twelve emirs received a banner and a kettle drum ( naqqāra ). The commander in chief ( amīr al-umarāʾ ) also received the exclusive tümentug banner ( tümen stands for a military unit of 10,000 men) and the tschartug banner . The colonel ( minbaschi ) received the banner tug (with a ponytail) and a trumpet nafīr , the four provincial governors ( beglerbegi , in the Ottoman Empire beylerbey ) received two banners ( ʿalam and tschartug ), a naqqāra and the trumpet burghu (horn).

The nafīr in Persia had a long cylindrical tube and a conical bell. A drawing with Turkmen and Chinese influences , probably made in Herat in the 15th century, shows huris making music in paradise , playing a round frame drum with a bell ring, a buckled lute ( barbat ) and a long cylindrical trumpet. What is unusual about this nafīr is the large bell-shaped bell.

After the detailed description of the Persian musical instruments in Abd al-Qadir Maraghis (around 1350-1435) music theoretical works Dschame 'al-Alhān ("collection of melodies") and Maqasid al-Alhān ("meaning of melodies") was at the beginning of the 15th century the straight trumpet nafīr is distinguished from the S-shaped curved trumpet karnā and the further trumpet burgwāʾ ( burghu, related to boru for the winding Turkish trumpet). The Arabic name būq for "(brass) wind instrument" apparently did not designate a trumpet, but rather a reed instrument made of metal with the composition būq zamrī . A single- reed instrument was called zamr siyāh nāy (Arabic mizmar ), a double-reed instrument was called surnāy or surnā, and another was nāʾiha balabān . In Abd al-Qadir's first place is the flute nāy , of which there were different sizes.

A regulation of privileges like in Persia was also in the Ottoman Empire. There belonged in the second half of the 18th century to the representative orchestra of the Sultan around 60 members, of which 12 were nefīr players ( nefīrī ). Such orchestras, who belonged to the high-ranking dignitaries, went on trips with them and otherwise played every day before three times of prayer ( salāt ) and on the occasion of special secular events.

India

With the Muslim conquerors, Arab-Persian military music came to northern India from the 8th century. The name naqqāra for kettle drums (as nagārā and similar) became common when the Sultanate of Delhi came to power in 1206. The naqqāra-khāna or naubat developed into splendid representational orchestras in the ruling houses in addition to their military role. The naqqāra-khāna of the Mughal Mughal Akbar (r. 1556-1605) consisted of 63 instruments, two thirds of which were different drums , according to the court chronicle Ain-i-Akbari written by Abu 'l-Fazl around 1590 . The following wind instruments were added: 4 straight long trumpets karnā made of “gold, silver, brass or some other metal”, 3 smaller straight metal trumpets nafīr , 2 curved brass horns sings in the shape of cow horns and 9 cone oboes surnā ( known today as shehnai in northern India ).

An early evidence of the wind instrument designation nafīr in India is the historical work Tajul-Ma'asir by the 12th and 13th century historian and poet Hasan Nizami, in which nafīr and surnā are mentioned. The Persian poet Nezāmi (around 1141–1209) mentions the wind instruments nafīr, shehnai and surana . The folk epic Katamaraju , which is about the hero of the same name and a caste of cowherds in the 12th century, was written either by the Telugu poet Srinatha, who lived at the beginning of the 15th century, or only after 1632. It contains the word nafiri for a wind instrument. With nafiri or naferi , however, outside the context of the Persian representation orchestra, cone oboes are meant, which are derived only by name from the Persian trumpet and are related to the shehnai imported from Central or West Asia . The nafiri is a somewhat smaller bowling oboe that occurs regionally in northern India in folk music. Numerous other regional names for double reed instruments in India include mukhavina , sundri, sundari, mohori , pipahi and kuzhal .

The representative orchestras of the Mughal era have disappeared in India since the beginning of the 20th century. What remains are simple naubat ensembles with the pair of kettle drums nagara and a cone oboe ( shehnai or nafiri ) at a few Muslim shrines in Rajasthan, including the tomb of the Sufi saint Muinuddin Chishti in Ajmer , where they - following tradition - perform at the entrances.

Instead of the short, straight trumpet nafir , longer trumpets are used today in India on ceremonial occasions (temple service or family celebrations), the tradition of which could date back to pre-Islamic times, including the bhankora in the northern Indian state of Uttarakhand and the tirucinnam in Tamil Nadu in southern India. The most widespread is the semicircular or S-curved conical trumpet kombu (in South India, in the North shringa, also turahi ).

Maghreb

Three-part brass trumpet nafīr , which was blown in Morocco during Ramadan. Total length 176 centimeters, before 1955.

After the conquest of the Muslim Arabs in the 7th century through all of North Africa to the Maghreb , most of the empires on the southern edge of the Sahara were at least partially Islamized by the 14th century . With the establishment of Islamic sultanates, the African rulers adopted kettle drums, long trumpets and double reed instruments from the Arab-Persian tradition in their representative orchestras and as insignia of their power. The instruments were adopted in musical styles that were still mainly based on the African tradition. Typical are the closely mensored metal trumpets, known by the Hausa in northern Nigeria and southern Niger as kakaki and with similar names in the western Sudan region . The kakaki is an extremely long thin trumpet related to the Central Asian karnai .

The kakaki trumpet type differs from the shorter nafīr , which is mainly found in Morocco today , and was probably spread in other ways. When the Arabic name nafīr referred to a metal trumpet in the 11th century , būq was no longer understood to mean a trumpet, but an animal horn. From this time on, the metal trumpet nafīr could have arrived on its way along the African Mediterranean coast to al-Andalus in the Maghreb. The kakaki, on the other hand, could have been introduced from the north through the Sahara, up the Nile via Sudan or from the African east coast. The Muslim traveler Ibn Battūta (1304-1368 or 1377) first visited Mogadishu on the east coast of Africa at the beginning of the 14th century, coming from Aden . He reports that he saw a procession of the sultan there, led by a military band with drums ( tabl ), horns ( būq ) and trumpets ( nafīr ). At the Sultan's palace, this military band ( tabl-chāna ) played with the same instruments, but reinforced with kegel oboes ( surnāy ), based on the Egyptian model, while the audience remained silent. Anyway oriental trumpets were spread south of the Sahara, they met many in sub-Saharan Africa spread horns and trumpets, which also served representative purposes, including cross horns as the phalaphala or long longitudinal trumpets as the waza . The kakaki may have replaced a long wooden ceremonial trumpet that the Hausa still use today in a short version called the farai .

Today the old military signal trumpet nafīr is still occasionally used in Morocco to call out during prayer times in Ramadan , if it has not been replaced by a loudspeaker on the minaret . According to tradition, in the fasting month of Ramadan in the old town ( medina ) of the big cities, a nafīr blower goes through the alleys at nightfall and gives the signal to break the fast ( iftār ), and it also announces the last meal ( sahūr ) early in the morning before sunrise . In the 17th century there was a European single-wind trumpet in the Maghreb in addition to the nafīr named tarunbata , which probably corresponded to the Clairon . The Moroccan nafīr , with which only one sound is produced, consists of an average 150 centimeter long brass or copper tube, the outer diameter of which is 16 millimeters. The one to three-part cylindrical tube widens at the lower end to form a funnel-shaped bell with a diameter of 8 centimeters or more. The funnel-shaped mouthpiece is soldered to the tube.

Theodore C. Graeme (1970) heard among the regularly on the Djemaa el Fna in Marrakech occurring musicians, a group of esoteric Sufisekte Aissaoua that operate in the square snake charming music partly as a public spectacle, partly as a religious exercise. They consider snakes and scorpions to be protective powers. On one occasion, five Aissaoua musicians performed with three frame drums banādir (singular bandīr ), a cone oboe ghaita and a trumpet nafīr, which is superior in volume . Bandīr, ghaita and nafīr can also be played as processional music at weddings, as well as circumcisions and other family celebrations.

Malay Archipelago

Balai Nobat in Alor Setar . The ceremonial orchestra of the Sultan of Kedah is kept in the tower .

In contrast to the large number of African trumpet types, traditional trumpets are almost unknown in Southeast Asia. In some places animal horns or snail horns were used as signaling instruments. The name tarompet , taken from Dutch, does not refer to a trumpet in Indonesia, but a rare double-reed instrument .

The Persian Representation Orchestra naubat reached the Malay Islands with the spread of Indo-Islamic culture to the east . The first Muslim empires with a naubat ( Malay gendang nobat ) were probably the Sultanate Pasai on the northern tip of Sumatra and the island of Bintan in the Riau archipelago in the 13th century . The nobat was brought from Bintan to Temasek, today's Singapore , on the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula . According to the Sejarah Melayu ("Malay Annals"), a historical work probably first written in the 17th century, the nobat orchestra was introduced in the Kingdom of Melaka after the third ruler Mohammed Shah (r. 1424-1444) converted to Islam. A little later, most of the sultanates in North Sumatra and Malaysia had adopted such a nobat . While in Indonesia after the colonial period with independence in 1945 the sultanates of Sumatra lost their independence, in Malaysia the king remained head of state and a palace orchestra is still used in his presence today. Corresponding orchestras are also used in individual Malaysian states to this day on courtly ceremonial occasions and on Muslim holidays.

The orchestras usually consist of one or two kettle drums nengkara ( nehara or nekara , derived from naqqāra , skin diameter 40 centimeters), which are not played in pairs here, two double-headed drums gendang nobat , a cone oboe serunai (derived from surnāy ), a trumpet nafiri as well in Kedah and Brunei a hanging hump gong , while in Terengganu the cymbals kopak-kopak are added. The nafiri has a conical tube about 70 centimeters long that is made of silver. In the states of Kedah and Perak , the musical instruments are kept in a separate building Balai Nobat (corresponding to the naqqāra-khāna , "drum house" of the Mughal Indian palaces), otherwise in a separate room in the palace. The nobat of the palace of Kedah, which is shown in the state museum of Kedah ( Muzium Negeri Kedah ) in Alor Setar , consists of seven instruments: a kettle drum nohara , a large tubular drum gendang ibu , a small tubular drum gendang anak ("mother- drum "or" child-drum "), a trumpet nafiri a Kegeloboe serunai , a brass gong and a 1.8-meter-long ceremonial staff ( Semambu ) from rattan . The trumpet is 89 centimeters long and is made of pure silver.

Musical instruments of the nobat , with which Sultan Abdul Rahman II (r. 1885–1911) of Terengganu was introduced to his office. Photo from 1885. Background: two cylinder drums gendang , center: kettle drum nohara , front left: nafiri , front center: two humpback gongs, front right: cone oboe serunai .

The instruments of the nobat , especially the drums, had a magical meaning, which is why they were associated with some rituals and regulations that go back to pre-Islamic times. According to tradition, the ceremonial instruments of Kedah are said to be older than those of Melaka and to have been brought directly from Persia. The loudest possible sound of drums, trumpets and cone oboes should be reminiscent of thunder ; only through the sound of thunder could a ruler with the necessary legitimacy be introduced into his office when power changed. The rulers trace their lineage through a son of the last sultan of Melaka to the kings of ancient Singapore and further to the mythical founder of the Malay empires, who once appeared at the sacred site of Bukit Seguntang (near Palembang ) in Sumatra.

The word daulat (from Arabic ad-dawla, "state", "state power") has a religious component in the Malay language beyond the secular power of the king, which refers to the idea of ​​a god-king introduced by the Indians in the 1st millennium ( devaraja, from Sanskrit deva , “god”; rājā , “king”) and ascribes a divine power over his people to the sultan. According to popular belief , this daulat should also be included in the sultan's insignia , which includes the musical instruments of the nobat . In the Riau- Lingga Sultanate of the 19th century, for example, there was the law that every person had to stand still as soon as a nafiri was heard, because the nafiri as a daulat instrument deserved respect.

The court musicians of the nobat of Perak, Kedah and Selangor are called orang kalur (also orang kalau ). They have an inheritable status and a lineage that is lost in ancient times and mythical tales. Walter William Skeat (1900) and Richard James Wilkinson (1932) comment on the sacred importance of musical instruments that the tubular drums and the silver trumpet may only be played when the king is present, i.e. these instruments are highly valued. The two kettle drums were therefore of the second highest importance at the beginning of the 20th century, they could be sent to a guest of honor on behalf of the king or accompany him. Only the orang kalur were allowed to touch the instruments; if someone else blew the trumpet, it should mean the immediate death of that person by the powerful spirit inherent in the trumpet. When the king dies, it was said, thick droplets of sweat would settle on the trumpet. In order to maintain this power of the instruments, it was the king's job to hold a magical renewal ceremony every two to three years.

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