Macrobiotics
The term macrobiotics ( ancient Greek : μακρóς, macros "large", and βιοτικóς, biotikos "relating to life") originated in antiquity and describes a way of life that should lead to a healthy, long life.
The modern macrobiotics as the "doctrine of a long life" was essentially shaped in 1797 by the work of Christoph Wilhelm Hufeland .
History and evolution of macrobiotics
The term makróbios (μακρόβιος) was already used by Herodotus and Hippocrates of Kos . They used it to describe people who are healthy and are getting very old. Aristotle and other classical authors described a lifestyle as macrobiotics, which is based on a simple diet and promises health and a long life. In the German-speaking world, the term appears in 1796 in Christoph Wilhelm Hufeland's main work “The Art of Extending Human Life”.
A newer form of macrobiotics was essentially founded by the Japanese Georges Ohsawa . It is a way of eating and living based on Taoist teachings and Asian traditions, which found numerous followers in the Western world as part of the New Age movement after the Second World War . After Ohsawa's death, some of his students modified and developed his teaching.
Say Ishizuka and the Shoku-Yo ("Healing by Eating") movement
Another concept called macrobiotics has its roots in Japan. The Japanese military doctor Sagen Ishizuka ( 石 塚 左 玄 , 1850–1910) developed a theory at the end of the 19th century that was supposed to combine traditional Far Eastern philosophy with the western sciences of biology, chemistry and medicine. Ishizuka published the results in his two main works, "Theory of Longevity" (1897) and "Nutrition for Health" (1898). In 1909, Ishizuka's followers in Japan founded the Shoku-Yō ("Healing through Eating") movement, which wanted to counterbalance the Japanese zeitgeist of the time , which, in their opinion, was too strongly oriented towards European values and natural sciences. Followers of the Shoku-Yo movement criticized the adoption of the modern Western lifestyle, particularly symptom-oriented medicine and dietary habits. Instead, the traditional Japanese diet of whole, unprocessed foods was recommended, without the use of milk or other animal products. The healing art of Doctor Sagen Ishizuka was based on five central assumptions:
- Diet is the basis for happiness and health.
- Sodium and potassium are the most important determinants whose equilibrium or imbalance determines the quality of a food (cf. Yin and Yang ).
- Whole grains are said to be the main food that is appropriate for humanity.
- The food should be eaten whole and natural.
- Only food from the region for the respective season should be used.
Georges Ohsawa
The Japanese Georges Ohsawa (actually Sakurazawa Nyoichi, 桜 沢 如一 , 1893-1966), who suffered from tuberculosis as a teenager and had already lost his mother and several siblings to this disease, heard about Ishizuka's approach to healing and followed his advice. When he felt that he had regained full health based on Ishizuka's recommendations, he joined the Shoku-Yo community and eventually became its president. Ohsawa, who did not know Ishizuka personally, further developed his philosophy and the associated dietary rules. Ohsawa made his apprenticeship known in Japan , Europe and the United States under the old name of "macrobiotics", which he had adopted from Hufeland .
Michio Kushi and other Ohsawa students
After Ohsawa's death, some of his students (including Aveline and Michio Kushi, Cornellia and Herman Aihara) developed modern macrobiotics, supplemented them and adapted them to Western living conditions. Michio Kushi (1926–2014) came to the United States to study in 1949. He noted that many of the foods he recommended were not available there. Together with his wife Aveline, he therefore founded one of the country's first organic food distributors (Erewhon) . His business quickly developed into the leading supplier of natural foods and macrobiotic products. Michio and Aveline Kushi founded the so-called East-West-Foundation and the Kushi-Institute, two institutions for the further dissemination of their teaching and launched the monthly East West Journal , which is distributed worldwide. Kushi's main interest, shaped by his impressions during the Second World War, is the question of whether and how lifestyle and diet have an influence on the peaceful coexistence of peoples. His central book on this question is "One Peaceful World" (1986), his main work on nutrition is "The Kushi Diet" (1984).
The teaching of Ohsawa
Ohsawa's life's work consisted in the further development and teaching of macrobiotics, which he considered to be the only way to achieve happiness, health and a long life.
Philosophical basics
Ohsawa bases his teaching on the “great religions of the Far East”, the main concern of which he saw in helping people to be happy and healthy here on earth and not just in the distant future. Here he referred in particular to Zen Buddhism and the macrobiotic diet in Zen monasteries. He cites the health and longevity of the Zen monks as an example of the beneficial effects of macrobiotics.
He regretted the loss of authority of religions in modern times, which, in his opinion, meant that the “principles of life and nature” were no longer given sufficient consideration. He sees the most important religious aspect in the Daoist principle ( chin.道教, dàojiào "teaching of the way") of yin and yang. In Ohsawa's opinion, individual happiness in life could only be achieved by following this teaching:
“For those who understand the practical paradox of yin / yang thinking, life is a permanent education at the greatest of all universities, tuition free and with no fees. For those who don't know anything about yin and yang, life can be hell. "
He described his own teaching as the “only principle”, a treasure and at the same time a valuable gift to the western world.
happiness and health
According to Ohsawa, happiness and health are directly dependent on one another. Based on the "old wise men", he names five characteristics of happiness that show up even in the smallest details of daily life and that he regards as an individual expression of the divinity and order of the universe:
- The ability to enjoy a long and interesting life with great experiences
- Freedom from fear and worry about money
- An instinctive survivability to avoid accidents, illness and premature death
- The ability to love combined with an understanding and acceptance of the infinite order of the universe at all times and on all levels
- An innate selflessness and good manners. This also includes never trying to be the first for fear of being the last.
According to Ohsawa, by following macrobiotic guidelines, a person can attain a state of perfect health. To check one's own state of health, he recommended the following criteria, referring to "Eastern wisdom":
- Freedom from fatigue: Since fatigue is a sign of illness, the really healthy person never gets tired. He also always welcomes unexpected situations and is always ready to overcome unexpected difficulties.
- Bon appetite: A healthy person enjoys simple foods, which they enjoy with deep gratitude for the Creator. Sexual appetite is also a sign of health.
- Deep Sleep: In Ohsawa's view, poor sleep indicates fundamental health deficiencies. A healthy person can fall asleep within a few minutes regardless of where they are, has a dreamless sleep and does not even speak in their sleep. Furthermore, he can awaken at a predetermined time. Four to six hours of sleep are sufficient.
- Good memory: As a "fundamental factor in life", poor memory is also a sign of poor health.
- Good mood: A healthy person spreads a good mood through cheerful mood and friendliness and is never angry. He shows admiration for people and small things and learns from enemies "even if they are cruel and strong".
- Precision in thought and action: Healthy people are instinctive and quick and can make confident judgments. They also stand out for their ability to create beauty.
Sanpaku
Ohsawa uses the Japanese word Sanpaku to describe the general situation of Westerners. This term stands for both a disease of the body and a dangerous state of mind and soul. He sees the Sanpaku man as completely out of whack. In particular, there is a great susceptibility to accidents and illness.
Literally translated, Sanpaku means three (san) white (paku). This means the appearance of an eye in which the iris is surrounded by three white areas when it is relaxed and looking straight ahead and there is a clear white area below the iris. In a newborn, the lower edge of the iris still rests under the lower eyelid, the iris looks like a rising or setting sun. If the person gets old or sick, the eye changes its appearance according to this conception towards the typical Sanpaku state.
Ohsawa reports that the people of the Far East have searched each other's eyes for this dangerous sign for millennia. He caused a sensation in the United States , which for him was a "Sanpaku country", in which he believed to recognize Sanpaku eyes in many Westerners, through his prediction that various public figures with Sanpaku eyes would get into great trouble would advise. He specifically mentioned Marilyn Monroe , Brigitte Bardot , Karim Qasim , President Diem, and President Kennedy . After Kennedy's death, his prediction generated a corresponding public response, which he commented on:
“Thousands of Americans read my prediction of Kennedy's death, but no one came to me early to learn how early to change their fate [...] What is the reason for this low level of understanding? In the east everyone has known the meaning of sanpaku since time immemorial. Only the why has been forgotten [...] All are more or less Sanpaku [...] They [the people] have to heal themselves before they take care of anything else. "
illness
According to Ohsawa, there is only one real illness:
"[...] the original sin, a mockery of the laws of nature, a denial of the truth through nothing but ignorance or nothing but stubbornness, a rebellion of one's own self against the immutable, primeval order of the universe."
For him, "every illness is caused by an imbalance of yin and yang".
Consequently, Ohsawa considered incurable diseases to be an arrogant human invention because it substitutes divine guilt for human responsibility. He was certain that there is no disease in the world, including paralysis , diabetes , leprosy , epilepsy , cancer , asthma , that cannot be eradicated by the right medical philosophy coupled with the right lifestyle:
“If we cannot heal ourselves through prayer and fasting, it means that our idea of fasting has been tainted. Jesus healed every sickness through faith. Faith is nothing more than incessant prayer. But prayer in this sense should not be confused with begging or pleading for personal gain. It is rather deep and ceaseless meditation - constant immersion in the infinite justice and divine order of the universe. "
Ohsawa also represented this principle for heart conditions and infectious diseases as well as for psychiatric illnesses such as schizophrenia and paranoia . As a recipe for all diseases, he also recommends strict adherence to diet number 7 (see below). He gives specific nutritional advice for various diseases. Only in an “extreme emergency” did he consider a “dubious rescue” through “drastic surgery” to be indicated.
Relationship to medicine
Like Ishizuka, Ohsawa held beliefs that contradicted scientific paradigms and still stand today. Both did not acknowledge that diseases are caused by pathogenic microorganisms ( bacteria ) or viruses . On the other hand, he emphasized the role of the immune system , the weakening of which offers a target in the first place. Accordingly, the macrobiotic healing approach pursued the strengthening of the immune system and less the fight against bacteria or individual symptoms. The virus concept was both rejected as hypothetical and called heresy.
Ohsawa criticized Western medicine for its lack of morality and spirituality, as it was only out to eliminate the patient's symptoms at all costs. In doing so, she should proceed “brutally, egocentrically and immorally”. In Ohsawa's view, the “miracle drugs” do not really cure patients, but lead to the development of even more serious diseases in later generations. In his opinion, the approach of science-based medicine is merely a "blind wandering around" without guidelines. Medicines and surgical interventions should only serve to blind people to “the gateway to true health”. He thinks that a disease cured this way will come back, possibly in a different form.
way of life
The macrobiotic worldview, to which especially the special diet belongs, should become an integral part of life in Ohsawa's view. If a person leads a poor, humble and hard life, he is said to be given inexpressible wealth. True health can then be preserved even under deplorable conditions, even under violence or when faced with blows of fate. The prerequisite is the recognition of the principle of the unity of the universe and the way in which humans establish a relationship with it. Learning to love and sharing the gift of life with others should be equally important. True give and take is an important measure of individual health, according to Ohsawa. He also advises against pampering or pampering yourself. Physically hard work, up to the point of exhaustion, is very important.
Health through nutrition
The core of the macrobiotic lifestyle is Ohsawa's diet. A balanced ratio in food leads to a balanced state of qi in the body. According to the Yin and Yang principles, all foods are divided into Yin (expanding), Yang (contracting) or completely balanced according to their energetic properties. The most important food source for macrobiotics is generally the whole grain of various types of grain, especially rice . According to the macrobiotic view, a yang-stressed diet leads to internal tension, a yin-stressed diet, on the other hand, leads to a lack of concentration and poor memory.
To explain the causal relationship of macrobiotic nutrition, Ohsawa offers a simple organic functional scheme: The body is sustained by the blood stream in both healthy and sick people. The blood is "broken down and renewed every day at a ratio of 300 million globules per second - that is, at a tenth of the total amount per day". Following this idea, Ohsawa believes that the blood is completely transformed within ten days if you eat and drink organically and eco-organically. He concludes: "Therefore, according to the constitution of the universe and as understood and represented by the time-honored philosophy of Eastern medicine, logically every disease should be brought to a standstill within ten days, if not cured."
Ohsawa distinguished ten levels of nutrition, which he rated from −3 to 7. From level 1 to 7 an increasing higher value is seen, since the levels should contain an increasing balance of yin and yang. He was also of the opinion that you can safely continue all diet prescriptions above No. 3 as long as you want.
Ohsawa attaches particular importance to level 7, which consists exclusively of grain and gomasio (sesame salt), because level 7 is recommended as a diet change for some time at the beginning of the diet change or in the event of illness. When restoring health, you can then move on to levels 1 to 6. In his view, level 7 is “the easiest, simplest, smartest and fastest way back to health”, which one should take “for a few weeks or months” if the other levels are not yet in optimal health, measured using Ohsawa's six criteria (see above), was achieved.
In everything, Ohsawa emphasizes repeatedly, people have a high level of personal responsibility for nutrition and health. Through self-observation, he should develop an increasing body awareness and awareness and decide for himself what is best for his own health.
The levels −1 to −3 are classified by Ohsawa as slightly below absolute harmlessness. However, an otherwise healthy person can also eat according to these levels for a change. However, they are not explicitly recommended.
| No. | Grain | vegetables | Soup | Animal | Fruit salad | dessert | Drinks / liquid |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 7th | 100% | economical | |||||
| 6th | 90% | 10% | " | ||||
| 5 | 80% | 20% | " | ||||
| 4th | 70% | 20% | 10% | " | |||
| 3 | 60% | 30% | 10% | " | |||
| 2 | 50% | 30% | 10% | 10% | " | ||
| 1 | 40% | 30% | 10% | 20% | " | ||
| -1 | 30% | 30% | 10% | 20% | 10% | " | |
| -2 | 20% | 30% | 10% | 25% | 10% | 5% | " |
| -3 | 10% | 30% | 10% | 30% | 15% | 5% | " |
The macrobiotic diet is largely vegetarian and consists mainly of unprocessed grain, algae, some vegetables and small amounts of fish. Ohsawa continued to advocate the theory that the human body is capable of producing vitamin C by itself if it is not supplied with any in the diet.
“His radical nutritional concept primarily included buckwheat, some cooked vegetables and legumes, seaweed, plenty of table salt and only a minimum of fluids. Fruits, herbs, coffee, sugar and dairy products were excluded. ” Especially in the case of illness, the diet should consist exclusively of cereals (rice); in any case, it should make up at least 60 percent.
According to macrobiotic doctrine, a balanced ratio of minerals (especially the two opponents potassium and sodium) is of crucial importance for maintaining health.
Meat is considered difficult to digest in macrobiotics and allegedly forms toxins in the body during the digestive process , which leads to overacidification of the organism. The nutritional concept therefore generally does without meat. Even milk and dairy products are considered harmful and are rejected. They are "foreign bodies" for people (except breast milk ), which, due to the casein content, supposedly form mucus in the intestines and in the airways and cause various diseases. Even sugar is rejected and is considered a major cause of diseases of civilization ; he is considered extremely yin. Salt, on the other hand, is extremely yang.
Nightshade plants such as potatoes , tomatoes and peppers are also considered strong yin and should therefore be avoided. Raw food has a cooling effect on the organism and should only be eaten in small quantities. Most luxury foods such as coffee , black tea, hot spices, alcohol, highly processed foods, canned foods and frozen foods are generally rejected .
Further development of macrobiotics
Diet according to Kushi / Acuff
Michio Kushi completely gave up the grading of the diet as Ohsawa had made. Based on his modified version of macrobiotic nutrition, the daily food for Central Europeans should consist of 50% grain (including rice, wheat, barley, millet, oats, maize in a wide variety of preparation methods), 25% vegetables (leaf, tuber and root vegetables, predominantly boiled, fried, steamed, but also to a small extent raw), 13% vegetable protein (beans, chickpeas, lentils, seitan, tofu and algae), 6% soup / drinks and, if necessary, 6% fish and desserts. Depending on the author, there are slightly different information. This dietary recommendation corresponds to the lower levels at Ohsawa.
Almost exclusively the whole grain is used as grain (not polished, peeled or sieved), with vegetables emphasis is placed on organic cultivation without the use of chemicals. It is seasoned with various soy sauces , miso , vinegar , unrefined sea salt, ginger , garlic and various garden herbs. Oil (vegetable and unhardened) and seeds (sesame, pumpkin seeds) are needed.
According to Kushi, three meals are common in macrobiotics. Breakfast usually consists of miso soup and cereal porridge with vegetables fermented with lactic acid. Desserts are usually only consumed after dinner. The food should be chewed well and only enough should be eaten until the feeling of fullness just barely occurs. Mainly different types of tea, grain coffee and water are drunk. Stimulating and alcoholic drinks are more likely to be drunk on special occasions (celebrations); The same applies to the consumption of cakes, tarts and other snacks, which in general should be enjoyed occasionally.
Deviations from the standard diet are permitted. The selection, composition and preparation of the food should be adapted to the individual state of health, gender, age, activity, season, climate and geographical location. Acuff is considered to be a macrobiotic representative who allows most deviations from the “standard diet” and speaks of “nutritional recommendations”. He also recommends eggs and high-fat fish for nutrient supply.
Vitamin B12 Controversy
In the recent past, a dispute has arisen within the macrobiotic community over whether the traditional macrobiotic diet based on Ishizuka and Ohsawa will provide enough vitamin B12 to the body . This controversy was triggered by some Dutch studies at the beginning of the 1990s that found a significant vitamin B12 deficiency in the macrobiots examined. While Kushi continued to adhere to the fact that fish and fermented soy products (miso and tempeh) could adequately cover the vitamin B12 requirement, Kushi student Steven Acuff (* 1945 in Idaho, USA) added regular consumption of chicken eggs to his dietary recommendations .
Studies
The National Consumption Study from 2007 indicates that the proportion of people living macrobiotically in Germany is likely to be less than 0.1%. There are therefore only a few clinical or empirical studies on macrobiotic humans. Some studies from the Netherlands give reason to believe that a restrictive macrobiotic diet that is not tailored to individual needs leads to nutrient deficiencies. This is especially true for children. There were significantly lower vitamin B12, calcium and magnesium concentrations in breast milk. The macrobiotic diet resulted in slower growth in children up to the age of ten. Macrobiotically nourished children are smaller than the average of all children up to the age of 16 and reach sexual maturity a little later. The authors therefore recommend supplementing the standard macrobiotic diet with moderate amounts of dairy products.
In studies of families living macrobiotically, it was found that about a third of the children were very emaciated and malnourished, and there were disorders in gross motor skills and delayed language development. 28% of children had symptoms of rickets in summer and 55% in winter . According to Claus Leitzmann , macrobiotic nutrition according to Kushi and Acuff can only be recommended for adults to a limited extent, as deficiencies can arise.
A 1977 paper by Margaret Shull compared macrobiotic-fed children with vegetarian and mixed-diet children in the United States. The results showed that vegetarian-fed children were lighter and smaller than normal-fed children. Furthermore, it was shown that in macrobiotically fed children under 2 years of age the growth in length and weight did not differ from non-macrobiotically fed children and that at an age of over two years the average weight gain of the macrobiotically fed children was significantly greater than that of the non-macrobiotic nourished children. In addition, children with a vegetarian and macrobiotic diet were found to have a higher IQ. According to a 2007 study by Gale, vegetarians have a higher IQ than the average population, are better educated, and are more likely to be women.
In a study published in the Netherlands in 2000, children between the ages of nine and 15 who were given a macrobiotic diet in early childhood performed worse on intelligence tests than children in a comparison group who only differed from them by their non-vegetarian diet differed, the social background was identical. The researchers found a significant association with the ascertained cobalamin status of the macrobiotic children; the children with clear cobalamin deficiency achieved the weakest results. The main source of cobalamin is food of animal origin.
criticism
The nutritionist Claus Leitzmann rates macrobiotic nutrition as follows: “Due to the very limited choice of foods, macrobiotics according to Ohsawa is the most controversial alternative form of nutrition. It is nutritionally problematic and can u. a. lead to serious health problems due to the small amount of drinking. With a pure grain diet, as recommended especially for the sick, serious deficiency symptoms are to be expected. (...) With a macrobiotic diet according to Kushi, problems arise especially for children, since the intake of fat, calcium , iron and vitamins D , B2 and B12 is too low (...). "
In a statement by the German Nutrition Society it says: "The main thing to be rejected is the claim to cure all diseases, including cancer."
Severe forms of malnutrition have become known from the United States in children who were strictly macrobiotic fed. The authors McBean and Speckmann consider the strictly followed macrobiotic diet to be the most potentially dangerous form of vegetarian diet.
The German pediatrician Lentze pointed out in 2001 that strict adherence to raw food and macrobiotic diets in the past resulted in severe deficiency symptoms such as rickets , osteoporosis , anemia and failure to thrive in children, and considers this form of nutrition to be unsuitable for infants and toddlers .
Ohsawa's claim that the human body can produce vitamin C itself is scientifically completely untenable.
The Zen master Philip Kapleau , who studied Zen for several years in Japan in the middle of the 20th century and then taught in the United States until his death in 2004, denies Ohsawa's statements about the importance of macrobiotics in Zen monasteries. In none of the various monasteries in which Kapleau lived during his stay in Japan, the food was prepared according to the principles of yin and yang. Ordinary Zen monks are in his experience neither particularly healthy nor do they reach an unusual age. Even famous Zen masters of the past such as Dogen zenji or Bassui zenji died prematurely of tuberculosis . Ishizuka was also no older than 60 years old, Ohsawa only 72 years old.
Kapleau reports on an unusual crisis for a Japanese monastery that he himself witnessed. When an abbot tried to introduce brown rice instead of white, the by no means abundantly fed monks went on hunger strike . Ultimately, the monastery management had to give in and allow the familiar white rice again.
literature
- Steve Acuff: The Macrobiotic Health Book. 9th edition. Goldmann, Munich 1994, ISBN 3-442-39081-8 .
- Roland Bettschart among others: Bitter natural medicine. Effect and evaluation of the alternative treatment methods, diagnostic methods and drugs. Kiepenheuer and Witsch, Cologne 1995, ISBN 3-462-02458-2 .
- Alex Jack (Ed.): Let your food be your medicine. 188 scientific studies and medical reports on the benefits of complete nutrition for the body, mind, society and the environment. Ost-West-Bund, Völklingen 1992, ISBN 3-924724-43-1 .
- Michio Kushi: The book of macrobiotics. 5th edition, Bruno Martin, Rehlingen 1984, ISBN 3-921786-17-7 .
- Michio & Aveline Kushi: The great book of macrobiotic nutrition and lifestyle ISBN 3-924724-25-3 .
- Michio Kushi: The macrobiotic medicine cabinet. Medicinal foods. Ost-West-Bund, Völklingen 1999, ISBN 3-924724-32-6 .
- Aveline Kushi, Michio Kushi, Monika Seidl: Child and family health through macrobiotics. Ost-West-Bund, Völklingen 1990, ISBN 3-924724-37-7 .
- Claus Leitzmann among others: Alternative forms of nutrition. Hippokrates, Stuttgart 1999, ISBN 3-7773-1311-4 .
- Gabriel G. Marn: A way - a way out? Macrobiotics. Diet and Lifestyle, a hands-on experience by Gabriel G. Marn. 5th edition. Ost-West-Bund, Völklingen 1990, ISBN 3-924724-31-8 .
- Jiro Nakamura, Marie Arnoldi (ed.): Macrobiotic nutrition according to Oshawa. 2nd Edition. Mahajiva, Holthausen 2003, ISBN 3-924845-36-0 .
- Ronald E. Koetzsch: Macrobiotics: Yesterday and Today. Japan Publications Trading, 1986.
Individual evidence
- ↑ Josef N. Neumann: Macrobiotics. In: Werner E. Gerabek , Bernhard D. Haage, Gundolf Keil , Wolfgang Wegner (eds.): Enzyklopädie Medizingeschichte. De Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2005, ISBN 3-11-015714-4 , p. 885 f.
- ↑ Herodotus Histories 3:23,114; Corpus Hippocraticum De aeribus 4.7, Epidemics 2,6,1, De diaeta 32
- ↑ Ohsawa: Practical Guide to Macrobiotic Medicine of the Far East , 1990, pp. 11-12
- ↑ ZEN macrobiotics 1978, p. 6
- ↑ ZEN macrobiotics 1978, p. 61
- ↑ a b c d e f g Claus Leitzmann and others: Alternative forms of nutrition. 1999, pp. 81-91
- ↑ Cooked vegetables. Vegetables in other diet plans are not cooked to preserve the nutrients they contain.
- ↑ Claus Leitzmann among others: Alternative forms of nutrition. 1999, p. 85
- ↑ Ohsawa: Practical Guide to Macrobiotic Medicine of the Far East. 1990, p. 23 ff.
- ↑ Kushi, Jack: Aveline Kushi's great book of macrobiotic cuisine. 1987, p. 41
- ^ Dagnelie, van Staveren: Macrobiotic nutrition and child health. In: American Journal of Clinical Nutrion. 59, 1994, pp. 1187-1196
- ↑ Van Dusseldorp et al: Catch-up growth in children fed a macrobiotic diet in early childhood. In: Journal of Nutrion. 126, 1996, pp. 2977-2983
- ↑ Margaret W. Shull: Velocities of Growth in Vegetarian Preschool Children. In: Pediatrics. Volume 60, No. 4, October 4, 1977, pages 410-417
- ↑ C. Gale: IQ in childhood and vegetarianism in adulthood: 1970 British cohort study. In: British Medical Journal. 334, 2007, p. 245
- ↑ Marieke Louwmann include: Signs of impaired cognitive function in adolescents with marginal cobalamin status. In: American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. Volume 72, No. 3, September 2000, pp. 762-769
- ↑ Claus Leitzmann among others: Alternative forms of nutrition. 1999, p. 89
- ^ IF Roberts: Malnutrition in infants receiving cult diets: a form of child abuse. In: British Medical Journal. 1, 1979, p. 296
- ↑ JRK Robson: Zen macrobiotic dietary problems in infancy. In: Pediatric Clinics of North America. 24, 1977, p. 189
- ↑ JE Berkelhamer, FK Thorp, S. Cobbs in: American Journal of Diseases of Children. 129, 1975, p. 1240
- ↑ P. Salmon: Hypocalcaemia in a mother and rickets in an infant associated with a Zen macrobiotic diet. In: Irish Journal of Medical Sciences. 150, 1981, p. 192
- ↑ McBean Speckmann: Food faddism: a challenge to nutrition ists and dietitians. In: American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 27, 1974, pp. 1071-1078
- ^ MJ Lentze: Vegetarian nutrition and outsider diets in childhood . In: Monthly Pediatrics. Issue 149, January 2001. doi : 10.1007 / s001120050718
- ↑ Kapleau: The fourth pillar of Zen. 1997, pp. 151-158
- Ohsawa, Georges, You too are Sanpaku , Mahajiva 1990, ISBN 978-3-924845-20-9
Web links
- http://www.macrobiotics.nl/ the kushi-institute of europe
