Kingdom of Kush
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Kasch K3š Kush |
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The kingdom of Kush was in the north of what is now Sudan . "Kasch" is the Egyptian word for Nubia and is also the name of the realm of Kush. The history of the ancient realm of Kush began at the end of the third interim period with the Napatan phase (around 750 to 300 BC) and still was strongly influenced by Egyptian traditions. The kings were buried in the necropolises around Napata .
From 300 BC The Meroitic phase began with the relocation of the imperial center from Napata to Meroe and the burial of the rulers in Meroe. The country's culture showed more and more similarities with black African customs. From around 150 BC The transition to their own Meroitic language and writing followed .
prehistory
In simple terms, Nubia is the name of northern Sudan. The area borders Egypt to the north, which means that the fortunes of both countries are closely linked. Nubia is rich in raw materials, especially gold, so that early on the Egyptians made efforts to exploit these deposits. Egyptian texts have repeatedly reported raids and expeditions since the early dynastic king Menes (Aha), but Lower Nubia (from the 1st to the 2nd cataract ) was not conquered by Egypt until the Middle Kingdom (approx. 2000–1700 BC ) been. Since Mentuhotep II. Campaigns have witnessed and since I Sesostris , a conquest be detected. In connection with the campaign to Nubia carried out by Sesostris I in his 18th year of reign, the term Kush for Nubia was mentioned for the first time. In the Second Intermediate Period (approx. 1700–1550 BC) the Egyptians lost the province again and for the first time Nubia formed its own state with the Kerma culture . This state was founded around 1550 BC. Destroyed with the renewed conquest of Nubia by the Egyptians.
Nubia in the New Kingdom
In the Egyptian New Kingdom (approx. 1550-1080 BC), Nubia was an Egyptian province until the 4th cataract of the Nile . The north of the country in particular was strongly influenced by Egyptian culture. Nubia was administered by an official, the viceroy of Kush , who had his official residence in Aniba and was only subordinate to the king. The fate of Nubia after the fall of the Egyptian New Kingdom is controversial. There are indications that at least Lower Nubia formally belonged to Ancient Egypt , but research has not yet clarified how it was around 750 BC. BC came to a renewed formation of states.
Exploring the empire of Kush
Three phases of exploration
The exploration of Nubia can be divided into three phases. In the first half of the 19th century, some Europeans toured Sudan, reported on the ruins and also brought some finds to Europe. Above all, Giuseppe Ferlini should be mentioned here , who devastated many pyramids in Meroe in search of treasure and found the treasure of the Amanishakheto . The Lepsius expedition was the first to draw, describe and publish a whole series of sites, temples and pyramids. Many of the documented temples have been destroyed today, so these records are still of great importance.
At the beginning of the 20th century, a second phase of Nubia research began. This was particularly due to the construction of the old Aswan dam in Egypt in 1902, as these sites threatened to disappear forever under water. A number of sites have been systematically excavated , especially in Lower Nubia, but also Meroe (by John Garstang ). During this time the Meroitic script could also be deciphered (by Francis Llewellyn Griffith ), although the language remained incomprehensible. In the 1920s, George Reisner systematically excavated all of the Nubian royal cemeteries and compiled a royal list for the first time.
A renewed interest in Nubia did not resume until the late 1950s and 1960s. Due to the great Aswan Dam , other sites in Lower Nubia threatened to disappear forever under water. A large-scale international archaeological campaign began in Lower Nubia, with many Meroitic sites also being excavated.
The exploration of Nubia has long been a minor in Egyptology . It is only in the last few decades that some institutes have specialized in research into Nubia, above all the seminar for archeology and cultural history of Northeast Africa at the Humboldt University in Berlin , and Paris, where all Meroitic texts are systematically collected.
Uncertainties about dating
Nubian history poses numerous problems for research. Since the first kings partially ruled over Egypt, they are relatively well known. Their order and dating is hardly a problem. The following rulers have so far only been attested in Nubia itself. So far, no Nubian king lists have been received that could provide us with a chronological framework. The order and number of rulers is therefore very uncertain. George Reisner , the excavator of the Nubian pyramids, compiled an initial list of Nubian kings. He examined the location and size of the pyramids and calculated from this the order and the length of the reign of the rulers, assuming that the older rulers chose the best locations in a cemetery for their pyramids, while the later rulers choose less favorable places as a building site had to. He interpreted a large pyramid as a long reign and a small pyramid as a short one. These classifications are very controversial in today's research. The name of the owner of many pyramids has not been passed down, a large pyramid does not necessarily have to indicate a long reign or a small pyramid does not necessarily indicate a short reign. Only a few rulers have annual dates. Relationships between rulers, who in turn secure a sequence of kings, are only rarely attested ( Aspelta describes himself, for example, as the son of Senkamanisk and brother of Anlamani ).
So far there are only three chronological fixed points for Nubian history, which, however, also leave questions unanswered:
- In 593 BC The ancient Egyptian king Psammetich II undertook an expedition to Nubia. Aspelta may have ruled there at the time.
- King Ergamenes is mentioned in Greek sources as a contemporary of Ptolemy II .
- Teqorideamani ruled in AD 253.
expansion
It is difficult for research today to determine the boundaries of the Kushitic empire. The border in the north to Egypt was probably in the area of the 2nd cataract, whereby it shifted several times over the course of time. When the Ptolemies ruled in Egypt and then especially in the centuries AD, it was also often further north. Qasr Ibrim was the southernmost point of the Roman Empire under Augustus , but later the border shifted to the north. The southern border of the empire is much more difficult to determine. The southernmost find of a Nubian object comes from Kusti on the White Nile . The east and west borders of the empire are even more difficult to determine. In the deserts there lived mainly nomads, who were probably largely independent.
Event history
Napatan phase
Around 750 BC BC (possibly as early as 1000 BC), Nubian princes founded a state in the Karima area that took over the ancient Egyptian name of Kush and expanded rapidly. A king Alara appears as an ancestor in later sources . Shortly after him there was around 700 BC Chr. Aspirations to conquer Egypt. King Kashta , the successor of Alara, seems to have taken the southernmost parts of Upper Egypt. His successor Pije then conquered the whole country in a campaign, but does not seem to have exercised any lasting rule afterwards. These could only be established by his successors. Egypt was divided into various smaller kingdoms at the time, so there was little resistance to it.
The Nubian kings ruled Egypt as the 25th dynasty , although the nature of this rule is disputed in research. Upper Egypt was certainly largely firmly in Nubian hands, but this is not so certain for Lower Egypt. Above all, Taharqa developed extensive building activity in Egypt and appears to us as pharaoh in the sources. The capital, however, was Napata in Nubia, where the Nubian rulers were also buried in pyramids. Around 660 BC With Assyrian help , Egypt gained independence from Nubia. However, the Kushite princely house continued to rule in the south of Egypt. Tanotamun was the last ruling ruler in Egypt.
The order and approximate chronological classification of the following four rulers (Atlanersa, Senkamanisken, Anlamani, Aspelta), who ruled only over Nubia, is certain. They are well documented by various monuments and were related to each other. There are even various long inscriptions from Aspelta (approx. 593-568 BC) that inform us about different events of his reign. The ruler may even have been involved in battles with Egypt. The Nubian culture, at least that of the court, was still purely Egyptian at that time. The Nubian kings appeared as Egyptian kings even though they no longer ruled the country.
Very little is known of the kings after Aspelta. Most of the rulers of the 5th and 6th centuries BC are only attested on a few monuments, often only the Nubian pyramid of these kings, with the name of a ruler, has survived. At that time, Egypt was part of the Achaemenid Empire and it can be assumed that trade with its northern neighbor, which has certainly always played a significant role, largely came to a standstill, which in turn had an impact on the prosperity in Nubia. According to Herodotus, under the Persian King Cambyses there was an attempt to subdue Nubia for the Persian Empire . According to Herodotus, the campaign failed, but archaeological finds indicate that the Persians had some successes, at least in northern Nubia.
Since the end of the 5th century BC, Nubia seems to have regained strength. At least there is an increased building activity of the rulers and there are various long inscriptions (see: Arikamaninote , Nastasen , Harsijotef ), which tell of different events. In the meantime, Meroe has become the capital, even if the rulers were still buried in the north ( Nuri ). Harsijotef had a particularly long reign of at least 35 years. Like the other rulers, he reports of battles against nomads who threatened the empire, but also of his coronation journey, which he had to undertake at the beginning of the reign to visit all the important temples in the country and to obtain the approval of the gods there. The inscriptions of this and the other rulers are written in Egyptian hieroglyphics, but it can be observed more and more that the knowledge of this script and language was lost. The texts of the Aryamani on two steles are barely legible.
Meroitic phase
Ergamenes (Arkamani) (around 280 BC) is the first ruler to be assigned to the Meroitic era. He is one of the very few kings mentioned by a classic author, in this case Diodorus . Diodorus reports that Ergamenes had been taught Greek philosophy and that he refused to accept the priests. According to Diodorus, it was previously the custom that the priests decided when the king was to die. Ergamenes defied this order and is said to have beaten and killed the priests with an army.
Whether this story is true cannot be said, but with Ergamenes a new era does indeed seem to begin. Although Meroe was probably the capital of Kush at an early age, Ergamenes is the first ruler who also built his pyramid there and was buried there.
Not much is known of the following kings and most researchers only know them from their pyramids. Arnekhamani , who may have been around 220 BC. Ruled, built a great temple in al-Musawwarat as-sufra . It is noticeable that culture broke away more and more from Egyptian models; Meroitic art and culture became more and more African, but also incorporated Hellenistic elements. There is also evidence that Kush took military action against Ptolemaic Egypt and even conquered its territories in Lower Nubia. The kings Adikhalamani and Arqamani are attested with temple construction work there, which shows that this area was at least temporarily under Nubian control.
Under the rule of the first recorded, reigning Meroitic queen Shanakdakheto , the earliest datable Meroitic inscriptions are attested. As a result, queens often ruled the empire, such as Amanirenas or Amanishakheto . The Kandake is mentioned several times in ancient texts, with ancient authors apparently taking the queen title for a proper name. In any case, queens like Amanitore were often very influential. The chamberlain of a Kandake (probably Amanitore) is mentioned in the Bible; He was baptized as a Christian according to Acts 8 : 26–40 LUT .
In the years 24/25 BC There was a military conflict with Rome . Emperor Augustus sent troops to Nubia to conquer the country. The old Meroitic capital Napata was badly damaged and plundered during the war with the Romans. The troops also destroyed other villages, but were then defeated by the Nubians. Queen Amanirenas seems to have ruled at this time, and she celebrated her victory on two steles. The texts written in Meroitisch are unfortunately still largely incomprehensible and you only think you can understand key words like 'Rome'. Shortly thereafter, there was a new economic and cultural boom. Queen Amanishakheto is well attested by inscriptions across the country. King Natakamani, who ruled around the birth of Christ, and the Amanitore who ruled with him are known throughout the country for their new temples. The state of Meroe owes its size and power to its outstanding culture and its extensive caravan trade with Egypt , Arabia, etc.
The kings of the first to third centuries AD are usually poorly attested. Often they are only known from their pyramids, which get smaller and smaller during this time. This has often been interpreted as the steady decline of the Meroitic Empire. The lack of royal inscriptions may also have had other reasons, for example that fewer and fewer Egyptian-style temples were built and the pyramids were no longer considered important. However, it was these temples and pyramids that provided the most extensive information about royalty so far. At the same time, Lower Nubia experienced a particular boom. Numerous cemeteries with partly rich burials show a general prosperity. This may be related to extensive trade with the Roman Empire.
The last Meroitic kings can be dated shortly after 300. The fall of the Meroitic Empire is still in the dark for us. There is a report of a Nubian embassy at the court of Emperor Constantine , under which the empire still existed. It is believed that the Aksumite king Ezana conquered Meroe. He even seems to report this in an inscription in which the submission of the Kasu (= Kushites?) Is mentioned. In Meroe, there were also Ethiopian inscriptions (in Greek ) that were interpreted as witnesses to an occupation. Recent research is more cautious in this regard. Ezana may never have seen Meroe and his reports may only have been fabricated, and the identifications of the places and peoples named in his report are very uncertain. After all, the Ethiopian relics in Meroe could also be loot that Nubians brought back from Ethiopia. In any case, it is only certain that the empire disintegrated around 350 AD and three new Nubian kingdoms Alwa , Makuria and Nobatia emerged, some of which were culturally strongly influenced by Meroites. The Meroitic script and language continued to be used for a while, e.g. B. the inscription of King Charamadoye , King of Nobatia (around 410 AD). Shortly afterwards this script was replaced by the Greek script and language in written communication.
Thematic history of the empire of Kush
population
The inhabitants of the Kingdom of Kush were black Africans from various language families that were not clearly defined until now. Some researchers count with Afro-Asian others with Nilo-Saharan language families . A mixture of different tribes and peoples can be assumed, in any case, Nubian sites outside of the big cities often show strong local peculiarities. While Lower Nubia was strongly influenced by Egyptian and Hellenistic influences, especially in the first centuries of our era, there are sites in the south that are based on black African cultures (for example at Mount Muya ). By and large, a comparatively low population density is assumed. It is reckoned with around 60,000 inhabitants in all of Lower Nubia , 20,000 to 25,000 inhabitants have been calculated for Meroe and 6000 to 7000 people for Kawa . The Meroitic-speaking population may only consist of a small percentage of the total population, which in turn makes it understandable that the Meroitic language disappeared completely when this ruling house was deposed. The script seems to have only been used at court during the Napatan period.
State building
Little is known about the state structure. Kush may have had a theocratic constitution, headed by a sacred king who was dependent on the priests of Egyptian origin (who presumably had their seat in the more northern Napata, the religious capital) . According to ancient historians, oracle orders of priests determined the appointment, actions, and even death of the king.
The written sources of the Napatan period in particular are almost exclusively limited to the king and queen. The kingship was known as the ambulatory kingship (wandering kingship). Although there were apparently certain places where the court often stayed, it does seem that there was no capital in the modern sense (the situation can be compared with the royal palaces in the Frankish Empire and at the beginning of the Holy Roman Empire ). The ruler always stayed in the places where it just made sense. Individual tribes and peoples were subject to the ruler, but these were mostly only loose vassal relationships, while only certain places were firmly in the hands of the Cushites.
The situation changed somewhat in the Meroitic era. From this time there are also numerous inscribed monuments of private individuals and officials (especially from Lower Nubia), which may indicate a wider spread of writing and a greater penetration of the Meroitic culture in the provinces. Lower Nubia was ruled by successive governors, several of whom are known by name. Meroe seems to have developed more and more into a real capital during this time, although this picture can be deceptive. The south of the empire in particular has been poorly researched so far.
economy
As in all ancient states, agriculture and livestock were the economic bases. Nubia is dominated by the Nile on one side and the desert on the other. The Nile is the only regular source of water, especially in the north. Until the 4th cataract, the fertile land on both sides of the Nile was very rare. Only in the Kerma area were there larger areas of cultivation and it is therefore no coincidence that here around 1700 BC. The first Nubian state emerged. Only in the south, in the area around Meroe , was there enough rainfall to allow rain-based irrigation. Numerous Hafires indicate a sophisticated water management system, the functioning of which, however, is not yet fully understood. Various types of grain were grown, with wine also being documented in the north. Goats and sheep were kept as farm animals, as they are very frugal.
There is ample evidence of trade, but Nubia mainly exported raw materials (ivory, gold and probably also slaves). Above all, gold was found in abundance in the Meroitic graves, but the exact place of origin of the gold is still unknown. Since Taharqa is iron free because in his grave a gilded spearhead of this material was. Mountains of slag were discovered near Meroe, which led AH Sayce to see a center of the African iron industry in Meroe in 1912 and he described the city as the " Birmingham of ancient Africa" and saw the Nubian culture as a mediator of iron to other African cultures. Iron objects are not very numerous at Nubian sites, however, and in 1976 Hermann Amborn believed in a study to prove that there was hardly any iron smelting in Nubia, i.e. the spoil heaps from other production processes, such as B. non-ferrous metals , gold or faience originate. The researchers currently working on site around Jane Humphris reject Amborn's interpretation, however, as an outsider's opinion and agree with the traditional interpretation. The manufacture of ceramic vessels was an important industry and, especially in the Meroitic period, these were often imaginatively painted.
Nubian finished products were found extremely rarely outside of Nubia. Above all luxury goods were imported. The Meroitic graves in Meroe were usually very richly furnished with objects from Greco-Roman production.
art
The art in the kingdom of Kush was strongly influenced by Egyptian art, but also showed certain peculiarities. In the Napatan phase, the influence of the northern neighbor is very strong. Temples and statues clearly resemble Egyptian models, even if the representations in the round and flat images appear fuller and stronger, in a certain way more African. The rulers and their family members were buried in pyramids.
Taharqa in particular developed a great deal of construction activity in Nubia and erected monumental temples in almost all important places ( Kawa , Sanam , Tabo ), which are very similar in plan. In this phase, almost all examples of sophisticated Cushitic art in the royal circle were created.
During the Meroitic period, a gradual departure from Egyptian models can be observed. From this time on there were also more examples of private works of art, which may indicate a strengthening of the bourgeoisie. The new temples outside the capital are now often small and consist of only one or two rooms. There are systems, such as the Roman kiosk in Naqa , that wear Hellenistic architectural jewelry, and freer forms are also chosen for sculpture. Notable examples of private sculpture are the Ba statues found in Lower Nubia. They show the dead as a bird with a human head. During this time, painted ceramics also experienced a special heyday.
See also
literature
- William Y. Adams: Nubia. Corridor to Africa. Allen Lane, London 1977, ISBN 0-7139-0579-4 .
- Dows Dunham , MF Laming Macadam: Names and Relationships of the Royal Family of Napata . In: The Journal of Egyptian Archeology . tape 35 , 1949, ISSN 0307-5133 , pp. 139-149 .
- David N. Edwards: Meroe and the Sudanic Kingdoms. In: The Journal of African History. Volume 39, No. 2, 1998, pp. 175-193.
- Tormod Eide (Ed.): Fontes Historiae Nubiorum . Volume 1: From the eighth to the mid-fifth century BC . Institutt for Klassisk Filologi, Russisk og Religionsvitenskap, Bergen 1994, ISBN 82-991411-6-8 (all historical Nubian texts collected and with English translation).
- Tormod Eide (Ed.): Fontes Historiae Nubiorum . Volume 2: From the mid-fifth to the first century BC . Institutt for Klassisk Filologi, Russisk og Religionsvitenskap, Bergen 1996, ISBN 82-91626-01-4 (all historical Nubian texts collected and with English translation).
- Rudolf Fischer: The black pharaohs of Kusch and Meroe. A thousand years of history and art from the first Sudanese civilization . 2nd supplemented and revised edition. Edition Piscator, Feldbrunnen 2010, ISBN 978-3-906090-31-3 .
- Jean Leclant : Kushites. In: Kathryn A. Bard (Ed.): Encyclopedia of the Archeology of Ancient Egypt. Routledge, London 1999, ISBN 0-415-18589-0 , pp. 423-28.
- Karl-Heinz Priese : The Meroitic language material in the Egyptian inscriptions of the kingdom of Kush. Berlin 1965 [machine-written dissertation].
- Claude Rilly: Le méroïtique et sa famille linguistique. Peeters, Louvain 2010, ISBN 978-90-429-2237-2 .
- Piotr O. Scholz: Nubia. Mysterious gold country of the Egyptians . Theiss, Stuttgart 2006, ISBN 3-8062-1885-4 .
- László Török : The Kingdom of Kush. Handbook of the Napatan-Meroitic Civilization (= Handbuch der Orientalistik . 1. Dept .: The Near and Middle East. Volume 31). Brill, Leiden 1997, ISBN 90-04-10448-8 .
- László Török: Meroitic culture. In: Kathryn A. Bard (Ed.): Encyclopedia of the Archeology of Ancient Egypt. Routledge, London 1999, ISBN 0-415-18589-0 , pp. 518-522.
- Derek A. Welsby : The Kingdom of Kush. The Napatan and Meroitic Empires . British Museum Press, London 1996, ISBN 0-7141-0986-X .
Web links
- Zambia B. Dafa'alla: Art and Industry. The Achievements of Meroe. In: Expedition. Volume 35, No. 2, 1993. (PDF file; 3.01 MB)
Individual evidence
- ↑ DA Welsby: The Kingdom of Kush. London 1996, p. 65.
- ↑ DA Welsby: The Kingdom of Kush. London 1996, p. 194.
- ↑ DA Welsby: The Kingdom of Kush. London 1996, p. 200.
- ^ Pierre Briant : From Cyrus to Alexander: a history of the Persian Empire. Eisenbraun, Winona Lake (IN) 2002, ISBN 1-57506-031-0 , pp. 54f.
- ↑ Kirsty Rowan: Meroitic - an Afroasiatic language? In: Linguistics. No. 14, 2006, pp. 169-206. ( SOAS Working Paper, PDF )
- ↑ C. Rilly: Le méroïtique et sa famille linguistique. Louvain 2010, p. 198.
- ↑ Overview of the research history in J. Humphris & T. Rehren: Iron Production and the Kingdom of Kush: An Introduction to UCL Qatar's Research in Sudan Sonderheft MittSAG, Berlin 2014, p. 180. The team has also published a documentation on the topic .
Coordinates: 17 ° 11 ′ N , 33 ° 50 ′ E