Mithraism

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Fresco with a bull-killing scene from the Mithraeum in Marino , 2nd or 3rd century

The Mithraism or Mithraism was since the 1st century. AD. Throughout the Roman Empire widespread mystery cult , centered on the figure of Mithras was. It is uncertain whether this figure can be identified with the Iranian god or hero Mithra or derived from it, as was still generally assumed until the middle of the 20th century, because the Roman Mithraic cult shows clear differences in its mythology and religious practice from the Indian- Iranian Mithra worship. So today it is controversial whether the Roman Mithras cult developed from a side stream of Zoroastrianism or is a syncretistic Roman new creation.

While the god figure Mithra in Asia Minor since the 14th century BC Is documented, the Roman Mithraism is first mentioned by the Roman poet Statius († 96). The oldest recorded Mithraea date from the middle of the 2nd century, the latest from the middle of the 5th century. The cult reached its climax at the end of the 2nd century and in the 3rd century after the emperor Commodus (180-192) had joined it. The connection to the sun god Sol became closer and closer over time, until Mithras and Sol often merged. As Sol Invictus Mithras , the god has been worshiped by numerous emperors, especially since Aurelian , including the young Constantine I (306–337). With the establishment of Christianity in the Roman Empire, however, Mithraism disappeared within a few generations and was almost completely forgotten until it was rediscovered in modern times through archaeological finds.

The Mithras cult was widespread in its heyday throughout the Roman Empire and was particularly popular in the border provinces. The Mithras sanctuaries were called Mithraea and were often built underground or carved like a cave in the rock. However, the ceremonies did not take place in public. Like the other mystery cults of the Greco-Roman world, Mithraism revolved around a secret that was only revealed to the initiated . When entering the cult, each new member was bound to the strictest silence. That is why our knowledge of Mithraism is based only on the descriptions of external chroniclers and on the numerous preserved sculptures of the Mithras shrines. Mithraism was particularly popular among the Roman legionaries , but it also included other civil servants, merchants and even slaves . In contrast, women were strictly excluded. The organization of the cult consisted of seven levels of consecration or initiation through which the member went through on his ascent.

The content of the doctrine of Mithraism is largely unclear. Since almost no literary information about the Mithras cult (if there was any) has been preserved, all current considerations about its content and forms are based on pictorial representations that do not have an explanatory caption and inscriptions that mostly consist only of short dedicatory words consist. Therefore, with all today's interpretations and above all with all overly stringent representations, a high degree of speculation must be taken into account.

The bull killing scene

Relief with a bull-killing scene from Heidelberg-Neuenheim , 2nd century
Statue with bull killing scene, Vatican Museums

The main motif on Mithras monuments, reliefs and wall paintings in Mithraea, the so-called tauroctony or bull- killing scene, shows Mithras killing a bull . According to Mithrean mythology, Mithras chased this bull, captured it and carried it on his shoulders into a cave, where he sacrificed it for the renewal of the world. The earth and all life regenerate from the blood and semen of the bull. Mythological links to the celestial bull Mesopotamia and the Gilgamesh epic are possible here .

Mithras is depicted as a youth and is dressed in a Roman tunic and a Phrygian cap . In the bull-killing scene, he kneels with one leg on the bull's back. With the other leg he braces himself off, with his left hand he pulls the bull's head back and with his right hand he kills the animal with a stab in the shoulder. Mithras turns his face away from the bull, similar to Perseus when killing Medusa . The inside of Mithras' cloak is often decorated like a starry sky.

In addition to Mithras and the bull, a number of other figures are depicted on the tauroctony: a snake, a dog, a raven, a scorpion and sometimes a lion and a chalice. The interpretation of these figures is controversial: while the Belgian Mithras researcher Franz Cumont saw figures from ancient Iranian mythology in his publications from 1896 and 1899, other researchers, especially in modern times, interpreted them as constellations . The Taurus corresponds to the constellation Taurus , the snake to the constellation Water Snake , the dog to the constellation Little Dog , the raven to the constellation Raven and the scorpion to the constellation Scorpio . The lion corresponds to the constellation Leo and the chalice either to the constellation cup or Aquarius . In the night sky, the Pleiades in the constellation Taurus indicate the point where the dagger of Mithras penetrates the shoulder of the animal.

The bull- killing scene also almost always shows two torchbearers named Cautes and Caut (e / o) pates , the former holding the torch up and the latter holding the torch down. These symbolize the equinoxes : Cautes with the raised torch symbolizes the spring equinox, Caut (e / o) pates with the lowered torch the autumn equinox. The torchbearers are dressed like mithras and have their legs crossed, possibly symbolizing the intersection of the celestial equator with the ecliptic at the point of spring and autumn.

The US religious historian David Ulansey interprets the era of bull-killing scenes with the slow movement of the celestial equator, which was still unknown at the time. In the 2nd and 1st millennium BC Chr. The vernal equinox was still in the constellation Taurus (from the 1st century in Aries, now in Pisces). The killing of the bull symbolizes the end of this age.

Possible origins

The Romans themselves believed that the Mithraic cult originated in Persia , and this assumption was shared by most religious historians up to the Second International Mithraic Conference in 1975. It was assumed that the Romans adopted and adapted the Iranian cult of Mithra (similar to the case of the Egyptian Isis ); today people are much more cautious in many ways. Undoubtedly, “Mithras” is the Hellenized form of the name “Mithra”, and many elements of the Mithraic cult are associated with Iranian culture. For example, there is the Mithrean degree of consecration “Persian”, and Mithras himself wears the garb of a Persian in iconography . However, the Roman Mithraic cult is characterized by features that the Iranian cult around Mithra completely lacks: the ordination levels, the secrecy of the doctrine of the faith, the emphasis on astronomy, the cave-like temples and the bull-killing scene. The motif of bull killing does exist in ancient Iranian mythology (as in many other ancient cultures). However, the context is completely different, as in Zoroastrianism , for example, Ahriman's bull killing is an act of evil. In addition, there is no evidence that the Iranian god of light and alliance Mithra had anything to do with a bull killing. According to Plutarch (around 100 AD), the Mithras cult was handed down to the Romans by pirates from Cilicia ; Not a few scholars therefore assume that the Roman mystery cult around Mithras has its roots in Hellenistic Asia Minor, where Iranian and Greek elements were mixed.

David Ulansey, on the other hand, advocated the thesis in 1989 that the Roman god of bulls, Mithras, was not based on the ancient Iranian Mithra, but rather had a connection to the god and constellation Perseus . Possibly the origin of the Mithras cult goes back to the Perseus cult in the Cilician Tarsus : The Greek astronomer Hipparchus had around 128 BC. BC made the important discovery that the coordinate system of the fixed star sphere is not immovably fixed, but rather, as a whole , carries out a slow revolution, the precession . According to today's astronomical view, precession is a long-period tumbling motion of the earth's axis, the cycle of which lasts 25,920 years. The astrologers of the time observed it as a tilting movement of the celestial equator , whose intersection points with the ecliptic (spring and autumn point) slowly shifted to the east. Hipparchus's discovery showed that the vernal equinox - which was then in the constellation Aries and merged into the constellation Pisces in the 1st century - must have been in the constellation Taurus 2,000-3,000 years earlier .

According to Ulansey, it was obvious to symbolize the downfall of the "bull age" by killing a bull. With the Stoics , who traditionally had a keen interest in astrology , astral religion and astronomical cycles, it was customary to view a divine being as the source of all natural forces. Since precession (apparently) moves the entire sphere of fixed stars, the god on which it is based had to be more powerful than the gods of the stars and planets. The emergence of a cult around this “newly discovered God”, who apparently had the greatest power over the entire cosmos, is plausible. According to Ulansey, the god Perseus was particularly suitable to represent the bull-slayer figure, since his constellation is located exactly above the constellation of Taurus. Since Perseus was associated with Persia because of his name, it is conceivable that he was replaced by that of an Iranian deity, Mithra. In addition, King Mithridates VI ruled in Asia Minor at that time . Eupator, whose name means "given by Mithra" and who traced his descent (in a mystical way) to Perseus. Perseus could also have been associated with Mithra through this fact. Ulansey's hypothesis was discussed intensively in research and met with approval and rejection; Critics noted that many of his assumptions were purely speculative. His hypothesis was therefore by no means generally accepted.

Especially in German-language research, however, the hypothesis developed by Reinhold Merkelbach in 1984 that Mithraism was a religion founded under Emperor Vespasian in Rome by an unknown founder, which merely gave itself an oriental touch in order to appear venerable, has numerous followers.

In the end, it should therefore be noted that there is virtually no generally accepted knowledge about the origins of the Roman Mithras cult, although the literature sometimes suggests otherwise.

Mithras as the sun god

Many ancient illustrations show Mithras on a par with the sun god Helios or Sol or as the victor over Sol / Helios, who submitted to him. Mithras later used the surname Sol invictus , d. H. "Undefeated sun god", probably to express that he had taken over the role of the new cosmocrator (ruler of the cosmos), which Helios had previously. However, Mithras is not simply identical to Sol and was not originally a sun deity either.

Centuries before, the Iranian god Mithra was often equated with the sun and worshiped as a sun god.

Investiture relief of Ardashir II from Taq-e-Bostan from the year 379 AD. Behind the king stands Mithra as the sun god with a crown of rays and a sword. At the feet of the king, who is looking at Ohrmazd , lies a bearded figure in Roman clothing with a diadem who is identified as the Emperor Julian the Apostate .

The lion-headed god

Another god figure is often represented in Mithric art, the name and meaning of which are unclear. It depicts a naked, upright human figure with a lion's head, around whose body a snake is spiraling. This figure may also represent a power subject to Mithras, similar to how Perseus defeated the Gorgon / Medusa. It is believed that the lion-headed god symbolizes the order of the cosmos in its entirety. A similar, also winged and schlangenumwundene figure is from the cult of Dionysus dating Aion or Phanes . In addition, the Zoroastrian embodiment of the negative principle, Ahriman , the adversary of the creator god Ahura Mazda , is depicted with a lion head and a snake around it.

Degrees of initiation

Mithraeum of Santa Maria Capua Vetere near Naples

The seven degrees of initiation or consecration of Mithraism are:

  1. Corax (raven)
  2. Nymphus (groom)
  3. Miles (soldier)
  4. Leo (lion)
  5. Perses (Persians)
  6. Heliodromus (sun runner)
  7. Father (father)

These degrees of consecration were also assigned to the seven changing stars Mercury , Venus , Mars , Jupiter , Moon , Sun and Saturn and, according to Kelsus, were a metaphor for the journey of the soul through the planetary spheres to light, to the fixed stars.

rites

Since the Mithras cult has left no text sources, polemical representations by Christian authors are almost the only source for the ritual acts of Mithras followers. Some information is also given by Porphyrios in De antro nympharum . The reliefs from the Mithraea should be used very carefully in this regard. Archeology also provides clues to rites, for example through finds of animal bones or cult implements.

The similarity between Mithraic and Christian rites (especially related to the “cult meal”) often observed in older research has led to the assumption of a historical connection. The observations are based mainly on the descriptions of Christian writers who very consciously establish such connections in their own interest. Both Justin and (here based on Justin) Tertullian claim that the Mithras mysteries are imitations of Christian sacraments initiated by the devil . Correspondingly, the pagan rites were probably aligned with this thesis; it can also be found in Firmicus Maternus .

initiation

Contrary to older beliefs, almost nothing is known about the initiation rites of the Mithraic cult. A relief from Capua possibly shows a bread rite; Tertullian speaks of an "offering of bread". Porphyry names honey rites at the initiation into the degree of lion. Justin compares the Eucharist and the initiation ceremonies of the Mithraic cult; In this context, he reports that bread and water are served with the use of certain formulas. Tertullian reports that the Mithras devotee was offered a wreath, which he had to refuse with the words "Mithras is my wreath". The initiation reliefs from Capua can partially confirm the view that certain tortures were connected with the initiation.

Bull sacrifice

The view, widespread in older research, that a bull was sacrificed (or the taurobolium performed) in the Mithras cult, could not be confirmed by archeology: the bone finds that have been analyzed so far do not contain any bull bones.

meal

The most common motif of the Mithrean reliefs after the bull killing shows Sol and Mithras eating together. Occasionally it becomes clear that the meat of the bull is being eaten. The Mithras followers apparently understood their communion meal against this background. Reliefs from S. Prisca suggest that the bearers of the highest degrees (Pater and Heliodromus) took the roles of Mithras and Sol on a special bench (which is also archaeologically attested in Capua). However, it is unclear whether the other members of the congregation ate at the same time, i.e. whether each communal meal had this form or whether this was just a one-off rite. The assumption that bread and wine symbolized the flesh and blood of the bull at meal times is obvious. Reliefs also show grapes and fish as the subject of the meal. The remains of a large feast have been found in Tienen (Belgium), which cannot have taken place in the limited circle of visitors to the Mithras grotto. Apparently, at least here, participation was also possible for non-members. It is unclear whether the meal had a cultic meaning.

Dramatizing the myth

If the meal of the Mithras followers was kept as Mithras and Sol did, it can be understood as a "replay" or an "actualization" of the myth in the ritual. Further examples of this can be found on the Mainz Mithras vessel (as interpreted by Roger Beck): The priest repeated the arrow shot with which Mithras let water gush out of a rock. The Heliodromus imitates - according to Beck - the course of the sun (the sun god Sol). So it was not a myth, but a doctrine. In the close relationship between myth and ritual, one can see a commonality between Mithras mysteries and Christianity.

The end of Mithraism

Unlike Christianity, the Mithras cult was not initially persecuted in the Roman Empire. Emperor Aurelian (Roman emperor from 270 to 275) even made the cult of Sol Invictus, which was in harmony with Mithraism, the state religion for a short time . Mithraism, however, was never a public cult of the Roman Empire and, despite its widespread use, received no state support. It was not until 391, when Christianity became the state religion through Emperor Theodosius I , that the practice of other religions was forbidden with the penalty of death. As a result, Mithraism apparently disappeared within a very short time. Reinhold Merkelbach's thesis is appealing, namely that Mithraism, as a religion of loyalty to the emperor, simply lost its subject when he turned to Christianity.

Mithras altar from Gimmeldingen , in the Palatinate History Museum, Speyer

The majority of the excavated mithraea were simply abandoned, the cult images found mostly show no signs of arbitrary destruction. Where Christian churches were built over mithraea (e.g. Rome , Sa. Prisca and S. Clemente), this is most likely due to the ownership structure and the abandoned mithraea have only been damaged by the construction work.

The Mithras sanctuary , discovered in Gimmeldingen near Neustadt an der Weinstrasse in 1926, dates from 325 according to the dedication inscription. Its remains are exhibited today in the Historical Museum of the Palatinate in Speyer and, according to the inscription there, belong to the youngest Mithras cult site known so far in the Roman Empire.

Mithraism and Christianity

Some religious scholars point out parallels between Mithraism and Christianity , and especially between the figure of Mithras and Jesus Christ .

Source editions

  • Maarten J. Vermaseren (Ed.): Corpus inscriptionum et monumentorum religionis Mithriacae. The Hague 1956-1960

literature

Lexicon article
Overall presentations and investigations
  • Olympia Panagiotidou, Roger Beck: The Roman Mithras Cult: A Cognitive Approach. Scientific studies of religion: inquiry and explanation. Bloomsbury, London / New York 2017, ISBN 978-1-4725-6738-3 .
  • Attilio Mastrocinque: The Mysteries of Mithras: A Different Account. Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen 2017, ISBN 978-3-16-155112-3 .
  • Manfred Clauss : Mithras. Cult and Mystery . Philipp von Zabern, Darmstadt 2012, ISBN 978-3-8053-4581-1 .
  • Ines Klenner: Breaking news! Messages from the world of Mithras . In: Utere felix vivas. Festschrift for Jürgen Oldenstein (= university research on prehistoric archeology 208). Bonn 2012, pp. 113–127.
  • Thorsten Fleck: Isis, Sarapis, Mithras and the spread of Christianity in the 3rd century . In: K.-P. Johne, Th. Gerhardt, U. Hartmann (eds.): Deleto paene imperio Romano. Transformation processes of the Roman Empire in the 3rd century and their reception in modern times. Stuttgart 2006, pp. 289-314.
  • Roger Beck: The Religion of the Mithras Cult in the Roman Empire. Mysteries of the Unconquered Sun . Oxford University Press, Oxford 2006.
  • Roger Beck: Ritual, Myth, Doctrine, and Initiation in the Mysteries of Mithras: New Evidence from a Cult Vessel. In: Journal of Roman Studies 90 (2000), pp. 145–180.
  • David Ulansey: The Origins of the Mithraic Cult. Cosmology and Redemption in Antiquity . Stuttgart 1998, ISBN 3-8062-1310-0 .
  • Reinhold Merkelbach : Mithras. An Iranian-Roman mystery cult . Weinheim 1994², ISBN 3-89547-045-7 .
  • Gerd Gropp (ed.). Zarathustra and the Mithras Mysteries. Catalog of the special exhibition of the Iran Museum in the Museum Rade. Reinbek near Hamburg (March 31 - June 27, 1993) . Edition Temmen . Bremen 1993, ISBN 3-86108-500-3 .
  • Roger Beck: Mithraism since Franz Cumont. In: Rise and Fall of the Roman World, Vol. II 17, 4 Berlin 1984, pp. 2002–2115
  • RA Turcan: Mithra et le mithriacisme , 1981.
  • Elmar Schwertheim : Mithras. Its monuments and its cult . Feldmeilen 1979. (Ancient World, special issue 10)
  • JP Kane: The Mithraic cult meal in its Greek and Roman environment . In: John R. Hinnells (Ed.): Mithraic Studies. Proceedings of the First International Congress of Mithraic Studies. 2 volumes. Manchester 1975, Vol. 2, pp. 313-351.
  • Maarten J. Vermaseren: Mithras. Story of a cult . Stuttgart 1965.
  • David Walsh: The Cult of Mithras in Late Antiquity: Development, Decline and Demise. Leiden 2019.

Web links

Commons : Mithraism  - collection of images, videos and audio files