Oksapmin

Oksapmin
Spoken in	Papua New Guinea
speaker	8000 (native speakers)
Linguistic classification	Papuan languages Trans New Guinea Languages Central & South Guinea Ok-Oksapmin Oksapmin
Official status
Official language in	-
Language codes
ISO 639-3	opm

Area of ​​the Ok-Oksapmin languages ​​in red

Oksapmin ( nuxule meŋ , "our language " ) is a Papuan language and is now part of the Ok-Oksapmin branch of the Trans New Guinea languages . According to an estimate from 1993, the language is spoken by around 8,000 speakers in the highlands in north-west Papua New Guinea . More precisely, Oksapmin is located in the Tekin valley in the Telefomin district of the Sandaun province. In this area Oksapmin is the predominant first language, but is under increasing influence of English and Tok Pisin . The Oksapmin has two main dialects, Upper and Lower Oksapmin. Due to the large overlap of the dialects, the respective speaker groups are able to understand each other. The following article applies to the Lower Oksapmin dialect only. Special features of the Oksapmin are, among other things, the dyadic kinship terms , the grammatical category of evidentiality and the counting system based on body parts (Body Party Counting System).

Body Part Counting System

Like some other Papuan languages, Oksapmin has a body part counting system that was predominant until the 1940s. This number system comprises the numbers 1 to 27. Extensive work on this can be found in Saxe & Esmonde (2005), among others. To count, the body part is pointed and the name of the body part is said at the same time. It is started with the right thumb, which stands for the one. The other numbers go over the other right fingers, up the arm to the head and from there down the left arm to the left little finger, which gives the 27 its meaning. In order to distinguish the body parts that occur twice, such as the fingers, the repeating body parts are provided with the noun / tɘn / "side". The following overview illustrates the counting system.

Oksapmin word	body part	number
tipun / tupun	thumb	1
ləwatipun	index finger	2
bumlip	Middle finger	3
xəlip	Ring finger	4th
xətxət	pinkie finger	5
xadəp	wrist	6th
esp	forearm	7th
amun	Elbow	8th
dot	upper arm	9
cat	shoulder	10
gwel	Neck side	11
nat	ear	12
kin	eye	13
lum	nose	14th
kin tən / tən kin	(other) side eye	15th
nat tən / tən nat	(other) side ear	16
etc.

If a body part noun modifies another noun as a numeral , it occurs together with the possessive marker = xe . In the head position of a noun phrase , the body part noun acquires an ordinal meaning as a numeral :

tɘwɘt jox ko-ŋ li-n-gop = li

up.Arm DEF (to) arrive-PNCT say-PFV-VIS.FP.SG = REP

"On the ninth (night) he arrived" ("Cassowary" by Max Elit)

Phonetics and Phonology

With 22 phonemes , Oksapmin has a relatively manageable phoneme inventory and is similar to other Papuan languages in this regard .

Vowels

Oksapmin has two anterior, central and posterior vowels. The vowel length does not differ in meaning, but the Schwa is often articulated shorter than the other vowels and can move between half-closed and half-open positions.

	front		central		back
	ung.	ger.	ung.	ger.	ung.	ger.
closed	i					u
half closed	e		ə			O
medium
half open
open			a

/ i /, / e /, / a /, / o / and / u / can form the nucleus of a syllable with either onset or coda , but also that of a syllable with both onset and coda. If a schwa is the nucleus of the syllable, an onset is optional, whereas the coda is mandatory. None of the vowels have allophonic variants. The following examples show the six vowels in a possible sound environment:

Vowel phoneme	example
/ i /	/ it / "again"
/ e /	/ em / "mother"
/ a /	/ lat / "wood / tree"
/ o /	/ ol / "death / dead"
/ u /	/ ku / "woman"
/ ə /	/ kən / "cooked"

Consonants

A special feature of the consonant phoneme inventory are the labialized velars and the prenasalized voiced plosives. Most of the consonants have allophonic variants; only the phonemes are listed in the table.

	bilabial		alveolar		palatal		velar		labialized-velar
	stl.	sth.	stl.	sth.	stl.	sth.	stl.	sth.	stl.	sth.
Plosives			t				k		k w
prenasal plosives		n b		n d				ŋ g		ŋ g w
Nasals		m		n
Fricatives	ɸ		s				x			x w
Approximants		w				j
Lateral				l

Syllable structure

The smallest possible syllable in Oksapmin consists of a single vowel. If a syllable has two elements, it must be composed of a vowel (V) and a consonant (K), whereby both a closed VC and an open CV sequence are possible. With three elements, the two-element syllables are preceded by a further consonant, which can result in a CVC as well as a CCV sequence. The longest syllable of Oksapmin is closed and has four constituents, this is set to the sequence CCVC and can be found, for example, in the word / mjan / "dog".

Word classes

Loughnane makes up a total of 12 word classes in Oksapmin: Verbs , Koverben , modal proclitics and particles , pronouns , dyadic relatives, demonstratives , nouns , postpositions , phrasal enclitics , interjections , adverbs of manner, as well as conjunctions and complementers . In the following, nouns, pronouns and verbs and their morphological and syntactic functions are described in more detail.

noun

Nouns and adjectives

Oksapmin is a flexible noun / adjective language, with the noun class of words fulfilling the function of these two parts of speech. A noun can either act as a semantic adjective or as a lexical noun; in both cases it can either be modifying or the head of the noun phrase. The table shows the various functions.

Function of the noun	semantic adjective	lexical noun
modifying	jəx xan jox good man DEF " The good man"	maxap lin jox Banana leaf DEF " The banana leaf (s)"
Phrase header status	jəx jox good DEF "the good"	maxap jox Banana DEF " The banana (s)"

Nominal classes

There are three subclasses of nouns in Oksapmin: Nouns of relatives, lexical nouns and proper names . The subclasses enable and require different grammatical markings. Nouns of the kinship designation inflect according to number , are rarely modified within the noun phrase and are sometimes obligatory possessive inflection (in relation to possessor, not referent). Lexical nouns are typically the head of the noun phrase and can be modified by other lexical nouns or relative clauses . This class has a further three subclasses, those of the classifier, location information and quantifier. The class of proper names is made up of person, place and clan names and these can appear with demonstrative or pronominal articles, they are also typically the head of the noun phrase.

Kinship nouns	lexical noun	Proper name
dəsjal = xe balip max = xe xəplu-pati-n PN = POS mother-in-law. 3POSS RECG = FOC die-IPFV.PL-NOMLS " When Dasyal's mother-in-law was dying ..." ("Own Illness" vy Dulum Aleap)	noxe ita ox pitil blel pok pat-n = a 1s.POSS Vater.1POSS 3SM a child only bleiben.IPFV.SG-NOMLS = LINK " When my father only had one child ..." ("Famine" by Dulum ALeap)	anwep ox pok pat-n PN 3sm just stay.IPFV.SG-NOMLS " When only Anwep was there ..." ("Famine" by Dulum ALeap)

Pre- and post-modifying nouns

The position of a modifying noun provides information about the semantic content of the modification. A pre-modifying noun tends to refer to an inherent quality of the head noun while a post-modifying noun describes a quality related to an externality. If a modifying adjective such as “good” precedes a proper name, it is expressed that the relevant person is morally good. If the same modification follows a proper name, the modification relates to appearance and the person referred to is described as handsome.

Noun phrase syntax

The sequence of possible elements of a noun phrase is as follows:

Possessor / clitic demonstrative / question word / non-restrictive relative clause

Modifier

Head noun

Modifier

free or clitical demonstrative

Pronominal article

If all six positions are occupied, noun phrases can have a complex structure, but they are often of limited scope. The first example shows a simple noun phrase in which the noun is only modified by a demonstrative. The second example shows a more complex structure, as well as the option of sequencing modifiers.

tap tit

pig INDF

Noun demonstrative

"A pig"

toxan uŋ gwe bap jox

sweet potato pouch small round round DEF

Modifier noun modifier modifier demonstrative

"The small, round sweet potato bag"

pronoun

Pronouns in Oksapmin differentiate between three people, the 1st, 2nd and 3rd person , and for each person a distinction is made between the numbers singular, dual and plural. First-person pronouns, dual and plural, also differentiate between inclusive and exclusive. The inclusive form includes the 2nd person, while the exclusive form excludes this person. This distinction is unusual in Papuan languages. With the exception of the interrogative pronoun nix “wer” and the relative pronoun ma , all the others have numerous inflections that go along with different functions: regular, reflexive , possessive , possessive-reflexive and a function that Loughnane describes as alone . This inflection is used when referring to only one group of speakers, but there are other possible speakers who could be expected to be relevant as well. Pronouns are mainly used in relation to higher living beings and are particularly relevant for object marking, since, for example, first-degree objects can only be marked on them. On the right edge of noun phrases, pronouns can also appear as pronominal articles. The following table provides an overview of the pronouns.

	regular	reflexive	alone	possessive	reflexive-possessive
1s	nox	nonxol	nonxap	noxe	nonxe
1dEX	nuxut	nuxtanut	nuxtalxe	nuxute	nuxtanuxte
1pEX	nuxul	nuxlanul	nuxlalxe	nuxule	nuxtanuxle
1dIN	dit	ditadit	ditalxe	dite	ditadite
1pIN	dil	diladil	dilalxe	dile	diladile
2s	go	golgol	golgap	gwe	gologwe
2d	Well	good good	gutalxe	quality	good good
2p	gul	gulagul	gulalxe	gule	gulagule
3sm	ox	olxol	olxap	oxe	olxe
3sf	ux	ulxol	ulxap	uxe	ulxe
3d	ixit	ixtait / ixtanit / ixtaxit		ixte	ixtaite / ixtanite / ixtaxite
3p	ixil	ixlail / ixlanil / ixlaxil		ixle	ixlaile / ixlanile / ixlaxile
who	nothing	-	-	mermaid	-
REL	ma	-	-	-	-

Verbs

In Oksapmin there are three conjugation classes M, L and S:

	Sequential suffix	Perfect suffix	Simultaneous suffix
M (a)	-m	-ti	-t
M (b)	-m	-di	-n
L (a)	-O	-ti	-t
L (b)	-O	-tu	-t
S.	-s	-si, -xi	N / A

The morphology which agglutinative character has concerning distinguishes between medial and final verbs. Medial verbs are dependent on final ones and cannot stand on their own, but final verbs are independent. The dependency of the medial verb is that it is temporally related to the final verb. The event of the medial verb takes place either at the same time or before that of the final verb. The affixes of the medial verbs are less extensive, as do the final verbs, prefixing them with regard to object congruence and valence , but only suffix with one suffix position, that of simultaneity or sequentiality . Final verbs, on the other hand, have four suffix positions and inflect in tense , aspect , subject number and evidentiality . As can be seen in the table, the Oksapmin has eight tenses, three aspects, two numbers of subject congruence and two types of evidentiality.

Prefixation		verb	Suffocation
Object congruence	valence	final	Tense		imperative	aspect	perfective	Subject number	Singular	Evidentiality	personal-factual
					distant future
					today's future
					immediate future		imperfectively
					present				Plural		visual-sensory
					present past
					yesterday's past		habitual
					distant past
		medial	sequence	sequentially
				simultaneously

Prefixes

The two prefix positions in Oksapmin fulfill the functions of object congruence as well as increasing or decreasing valence. There are two prefix realizations that are used for object congruence.

If an object of the 1st or 2nd person is present, the prefix n- is mandatory:	The prefix m- indicates an approximal object of the 3rd person:
nox ma good = nuŋ aŋ n -xm 1s REL 2d = O find 1 / 2.O -MACHEN-SEQ "I find you and ..." ("Yesterday" by Kila Dasyal)	moŋsup ox m -su-n-gop = li Spirit 3sm PRX.O -fight-PFV-VIS.FP.SG = REP "The ghost fought him." ("Gahan and the Ghost" by Dasyal Gahan)

There are four prefixes with different functions in Oksapmin to indicate an increase or decrease in valence:

gos- is reciprocal :	a- is benefactive case and increases the Verbvalenz one position ( benefactive case / Malefaktiv):
gin kis txm la-ti-pja = xejox gos -xn-gopa-li now try MID-MACHEN-SEQ sing.and.dance-PFV-TODF.PL = SBRD RECP -MACHEN-PFV-VIS.FP.PL = REP "They said to each other (as it is said): <Now we will sing and dance>." ("Cassowary" by Max Elit)	em go dup tit n- a -xu-ti-n = a Nut.1POSS 2s loop INDF 1 / 2.O- BEN -turn-PFV-IMP = EMPH "Mom, tie a bow for me!" ("Brother and Sister" by Miriam Bavonan)
p - also increases the verb valence by one place and adds a causative source ( causative ):	t- is valence-reducing and is used when either the agent or the patient are unclear or the agent corresponds to the patient and is therefore reflexive :
suŋlen ux tuxup m-de-m ml-pat mox epe nox amlu-pat = xe nox p -tim-di-p = wa = a PN 3sf in.the.arms.wearing.PRX.O-MACHEN-SEQ come up-IPFV.SG (.PRS) ANPH excuse 1s take-IPFV.SG (.PRS) = SBRD 1s CAUS -sleep-PFV-PER.FP. SG = RESP = EMPH "When Suŋlen brought her up, I took her and put her to sleep in my house." ("Shirley" by Dulum Aleap)	nonxe kak uŋ gon mox = si kin mox t -dpəlkweli-l 1s.REFL.POSS head cord bag whole ANPH = WITH eye ANPH MID -turn around-IPFV.PER.TODP "My eyes were covered with my own hat." ("Own Illness" by Dulum Aleap)

Suffixes

The four categories that can be marked by suffixing on final verbs are not subject to any strict sequence and they are not entirely mandatory. In the first example, aspect (perfective), tense (today's future) and subject number (singular) are marked:

i = ma seŋ sɘgan li-ti-plox

DEM.DST = REL story tumbuna.Geschichte say-PFV-TODF.SG

"I'll tell this myth." ("Rich Girl" by Geno Dipin)

In the second example, next to aspect (perfective), tense (distant past) and subject number (singular), evidentiality (personal-factual) is also marked:

nox natan oxe kol max = a p-ti-p

1s PN 3sm.POSS sister RECG = EMPH tell-PFV-PER.FP.SG

"I told him <I am, you know, Nathan's sister>." ("Tabubil" by Kila Dasyal)

In the case of medial verbs, there is only one suffix position, the occupation of which describes whether an action occurs simultaneously or sequentially. In both cases, this suffix is ​​followed by a connecting element (LINK). If the event expressed by the medial verb precedes that of the final verb, a sequential suffix is ​​used.

ap jox lo-s = a mətit jox ilaile toŋo-ti-pja but jox əw mt pulu-sxə = li

House DEF enter-SEQ = LINK Fern.Varietät DEF 3p.REFL.POSS sit down-PFV-TODF.SG flat.Ort DEF hill MACHEN-SIM

"They go into their house and then make stacks of the Matit sheet where they will be sitting." ("Women's House" by Julie James)

If the event of the medial verb takes place at the same time as that of the final verb, as in the example, this is expressed by a simultaneous suffix.

blel ixil tim-n ptin = a

Kind 3p sleep-SIM remain.IPFV.PL.NOMLS = LINK

"... while the children slept ..." ("Today" by Palis)

syntax

Relations

With the subject , a first-degree and a second-degree object, there are three grammatical relations in the Oksapmin, which are marked in different positions and by different affixes or verb root variants on the verb.

The number of the subject is marked by a suffix on the verb congruent . A singular of the noun is marked as a singular on the verb, plural and dual of the noun are both marked as plural on the verb. In the following example, the verb relating to a subject is marked in the plural.

ixil na = pti = naŋ = a

3p NEG = be.IPFV. PL = CNTRF = LINK

"If they weren't alive ..." ("Relatives" by Dulum Aleap)

A first degree object can be marked as such if it is represented by a pronoun or a pronominal article. If this is the case, the object is marked with the suffix -ja or -nuŋ . This suffix and a prefix of the object marking on the verb establish congruence between the object and the verb in relation to the person. A second degree object is rarely marked because it is usually inanimate. There are no pronouns in Oksapmin for inanimate entities, since the object marking is tied to pronouns, this is rarely possible. Verbs are only congruent with first degree objects. As a rule, a second degree object only occurs together with a first degree. In the following example ixil = noŋ is the first degree object and is marked as such by the suffix -noŋ . This object is congruent with the verb form lapli-pti-n = a in person. melasin is the second degree object and is neither marked nor congruent with the verb.

tixe-pti xanɘp ixil = noŋ melasin lapli-pti-n = a

to be ill-IPFV.PL (.PRS) person 3p = O medicine (3.O.) give-IPFV.PL-NOMLS = LINK

"We gave the sick people medicine and then ..." ("Today" by Henna Kashat)

Declarative and interrogative clauses

Oksapmin shows a tendency towards the SOV position , whereby the predicate must always be in the final sentence. Loughnane names four positions that the respective elements in a sentence can take. The first position is occupied by elements that fulfill a discursive function. This can be, for example, interjections, adverbials or family names as salutations; verb-dependent phrases cannot appear in this position. A multiple occupation of the position is possible. Both arguments and adjuncts can be in the second position . If the sentence has a phonologically realized subject , this is in first place within this position. This is followed by the third position, which is occupied by constituents that have no subject status. If several constituents appear at this point , there is no strict order of these. The predicate is in fourth and therefore last position.

The same sequence of words is used for w-questions as for declarative sentences, the question word remains in situ .

a [go nix = yes aŋ de-pat = o] m-pl = w = a

HES [2s who = O find MACHEN-IPFV.SG (.PRS) = QUOT] PRX.O-say-SEQ = RESP = EMPH

"<Who are you looking for?> Someone said to him." ("Rich Girl" by Geno Dipin)

A sentence in Oksapmin does not necessarily require a verb, sentences without verbs are a frequent sentence type. In them, the topic is usually followed by a comment.

amnɘp ol bok

Uncle.3POSS dead body skin

"The uncle (was) (a) corpse." ("Five Brothers" by Dasyal Gahan)

Evidentiality

Evidentiality in the Oksapmin is noteworthy for several reasons. It is marked grammatically and not lexically, is partly mandatory, as in only 25% of the world's languages, and has unusual sub-categories of evidentiality. Oksapmin's system of evidentiality distinguishes between two evidentialities: factual-personal and visual-sensory evidence. Factual-personal evidence exists when the speaker is either personally involved in an event or when it is a matter of events classified as facts. Visual-sensory evidence refers to events that are visually or otherwise sensory evidence, but can also fulfill pragmatic functions. Usually visual evidence is the strongest evidence available, but in oksapmin it is surpassed by factual personal evidence. Marking by inflection is mandatory on final verb forms of the past and present, in some cases marking by clitics is also possible.

The marking of the personal-factual evidence is used in three situations:

• firstly in declarative clauses with a subject in the 1st person regarding an action or an event that the speaker consciously and willingly carries out or has carried out
• second, in interrogative clauses with a subject in the 2nd person regarding an action or an event which the speaker assumes that the listener is consciously and willingly doing or has done
• thirdly, for facts that are classified as factual on the basis of world knowledge on the part of the speaker

In the following example, the verb relating to personal-factual evidence is marked, since it is assumed that the process of paying the bride price is part of the general knowledge of the reference group.

aw = xenil ixile dik j = olxol nuxul kukumi jox moxe-sxe

Grandparents.1PO-PL 3p.POSS Time DEM.DST = 3sm.REFL 1pEX Bride.Price DEF buy-HAB.PER.FP.P L

"In the days of our grandparents we paid a bride price." ("Bride Price" by Kila Dasyal)

Visual-sensory evidence is also highlighted in three contexts:

• firstly in statements regarding events that are / were visually witnessed by the speaking person
• second, in statements regarding events that are / were witnessed by the speaker on the basis of other sense organs
• Thirdly, the marking of this evidence can also fulfill a pragmatic function, whereby in statements and questions from the first person the speaking person has doubts about the credibility of the information and leaves the hearing to decide on the reliability.

In the following example, the speaker visually testifies to a situation and accordingly selects the marking of visual-sensory evidentiality:

jɘxe ita ox xto-n-gop

then father.1 / 2POSS 3sm see-PFV-VIS.FP.SG

"Then I saw that my father was looking at it." ("Small Mammal" by Kila Dasyal)

With regard to past tense, the marking of evidentiality implicates the subject and the person of the subject is not otherwise marked. This implication is as follows:

	declarative utterance	Interrogative
personal-factual	1st person	2nd person
visual-sensory	3rd person (2nd person)	3rd person (1st person)

literature

Oksapmin:

• Loughnane, Robyn: A Grammar of Oksapmin: Doctoral dissertation. University of Melbourne 2009.
• Lawrence, Marshall (1993): Oksapmin Dictionary. Summer Institute of Linguistics, Ukarumpa, Papua New Guinea.

General:

• Foley, William A. (1986): The Papuan Languages ​​of New Guinea. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-28621-2 .

Individual evidence

1. ^ Robyn Loughnane: A Grammar of Oksapmin: Doctoral dissertation . University of Melbourne, 2009, pp. 2 f .
2. ^ GB Saxe, I. Esmonde: Studying cognition in f lux: A historical treatment of Fu in the shifting structure of Oksapmin mathematics . In: Mind, Culture, and Activity, Special Issue: Combining longitudinal, cross-historical, and cross-cultural methods to study culture and cognition . No. 12 , 2005, p. 171-225 .
3. ↑ Geoffrey B. Saxe, Indigo Esmonde: Making Change in Oksapmin Tradestores: A Study of Shifting Practices of Quantification Under Conditions of Rapid Shift towards a Cash Economy . In: South Pacific Journal of Psychology . Volume 15 (1), 2004, pp. 12 f .
4. ^ Robyn Loughnane: A Grammar of Oksapmin: Doctoral dissertation . University of Melbourne, 2009, pp. 16 .
5. ^ Robyn Loughnane: A Grammar of Oksapmin: Doctoral dissertation . University of Melbourne, 2009, pp. 15th ff .
6. ^ Robyn Loughnane: A Grammar of Oksapmin: Doctoral dissertation . University of Melbourne, 2009, pp. 31 ff .
7. ^ Robyn Loughnane: A Grammar of Oksapmin: Doctoral dissertation . University of Melbourne, 2009, pp. 53 ff .
8. ^ Robyn Loughnane: A Grammar of Oksapmin: Doctoral dissertation . University of Melbourne, 2009, pp. 32 ff .
9. ^ ^{A b} Robyn Loughnane: A Grammar of Oksapmin: Doctoral dissertation . University of Melbourne, 2009, pp. 63 .
10. ^ Robyn Loughnane: A Grammar of Oksapmin: Doctoral dissertation . University of Melbourne, 2009, pp. 87 ff .
11. ^ Robyn Loughnane: A Grammar of Oksapmin: Doctoral dissertation . University of Melbourne, 2009, pp. 131 ff .
12. ^ Robyn Loughnane: A Grammar of Oksapmin: Doctoral dissertation . University of Melbourne, 2009, pp. 145 .
13. ^ Marshall Lawrence: Oksapmin Dictionary . Summer Institute of Linguistics, Ukarumpa, Papua New Guinea 1993, p. 234 .
14. ^ Robyn Loughnane: A Grammar of Oksapmin: Doctoral dissertation . University of Melbourne, 2009, pp. 175 .
15. ^ William A. Foley: The Languages ​​of New Guinea . In: Annual Review of Anthropology . 2000, p. 376 .
16. ^ Robyn Loughnane: A Grammar of Oksapmin: Doctoral dissertation . University of Melbourne, 2009, pp. 91 .
17. ^ Robyn Loughnane: A Grammar of Oksapmin: Doctoral dissertation . University of Melbourne, 2009, pp. 225 ff .
18. ^ Robyn Loughnane: A Grammar of Oksapmin: Doctoral dissertation . University of Melbourne, 2009, pp. 266 .
19. ^ Robyn Loughnane: A Grammar of Oksapmin: Doctoral dissertation . University of Melbourne, 2009, pp. 349 ff .
20. ^ Robyn Loughnane: A Grammar of Oksapmin: Doctoral dissertation . University of Melbourne, 2009, pp. 352 ff .
21. ^ Robyn Loughnane: A Grammar of Oksapmin: Doctoral dissertation . University of Melbourne, 2009, pp. 365 ff .
22. ^ Robyn Loughnane: A Grammar of Oksapmin: Doctoral dissertation . University of Melbourne, 2009, pp. 248 ff .
23. ↑ Alexandra Y. Aikhenval: Evidentiality . Oxford University Press, Oxford 2004, pp. 1 .