Platform capitalism

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Platform capitalism
author Nick Srnicek
language English
Publishing year 2016
publishing company Polity
scope 120 pages
ISBN 1509504877

Platform Capitalism (German: Platform Capitalism ) is a non-fiction book by Nick Srnicek from 2016, published by Polity-Verlag. From a US perspective, the book addresses the digital transformation of capitalism since the global financial crisis in 2007/2008 and the development of digital platforms as a new business model, driven by monopoly companies .

Summary

The starting point of the book is the observation that the 21st century is an age of massive changes and transformations, which brings about new technologies and economic forms. The book aims to supplement existing perspectives on it with an economic history of capitalism and digital technology. The digital revolution , which is based on information technology , data and the Internet , and companies that are increasingly building on these aspects, are becoming increasingly important. In this context, Srnicek diagnoses the emergence of entrepreneurial platforms and the implementation of platform capitalism. With platforms, Srnicek refers to large monopolistic companies that focus on data, gain, use and control it en masse and thus gain dominance in the economy.

The core thesis of the book is that, as a result of historical events, capitalism can no longer secure its preservation in the traditional way. In the course of developments since the end of the Second World War , capitalism of the 21st century has transformed itself into an economy that is increasingly based on data and uses it to maintain economic growth and thus counteract a sluggish manufacturing sector. This new logic of capitalism leads to the emergence of platforms as a new business model.

content

The Long Downturn (pp. 9–35)

In the first chapter, The Long Downturn, Srnicek describes the historical development and important events of capitalism since the end of the Second World War. From a historical point of view, current trends and developments are less radically new than simple continuities. Today's capitalism is still an economic form characterized by competition and the pursuit of profit. However, it is mostly the result of its own history and long-term trends. Srnicek argues that there have been essentially three events in the recent history of capitalism that are relevant to the current economy:

The economic development after the end of the Second World War up to the 1970s led to a shift towards flexible working relationships and lean business models: The prevailing Fordism and the organization of work processes according to Taylorist principles were replaced by Japanese Toyotism and global production was shaped by sustained international competition, overproduction and downward pressure on prices. Further developments were outsourcing as a popular practice and immense and increasing pressure on the global job market. This has resulted in a secular trend towards forms of employment that are increasingly flexible and are confronted with low wages and increased pressure from management. Another event of particular importance was the internet boom of the 1990s. The decade was marked by high stock valuations, numerous business start-ups and financial speculation, which in turn was fueled by large amounts of risk capital . In addition, the new and huge telecommunications sector became the preferred financial sector. The pursuit of a monopoly characterizes the Internet sector then as it does today. The reaction to another downturn marked the beginning of a simple and adaptable monetary policy, which Srnicek calls "asset-price Keynesianism" . This capitalist growth model stimulates the economy without deficit government spending. This low interest rate policy worked for the time being and made further investments in new dot-com companies easier . Ultimately, however, this speculative approach resulted in the dot-com bubble in 2000. However, confidence in an adaptable monetary policy continued even after the crash and, among other things, benefited. a. the lowering of mortgage rates, which created the conditions for another bubble in the real estate sector. The central achievements of this time are the commercialization of the Internet, the establishment of an infrastructural basis for a digital economy and the conversion to a loose and highly adaptable monetary policy as a reaction to economic problems, which is still practiced today. With the bursting of the real estate bubble in September 2008 and the outbreak of a global financial crisis, a third important development occurred. Governments around the world took on the burden of increasing their deficits to counter the crisis. This resulted in a high level of government debt after the crisis, which put many governments in an even more precarious position after decades of increasing government deficits. As a result, all advanced capitalist nations established austerity policies to eliminate and reduce deficits. The most important measure to combat the financial crisis was an internationally coordinated rate cut by six large central banks. This established a low interest rate policy for the global economy, which is one of the most important conditions and foundations for parts of today's digital economy. Since then, monetary policy, as an economic stimulus measure, has been the first way for many governments to counter deflation. In addition to a loose monetary policy, there has been an increase in tax havens, corporate savings and a growing global trend in tax avoidance strategies in recent years . The result is further constraints on the tax economy and a greater need for unorthodox methods of monetary policy. Tax evasion, frugality by companies and politicians and an unconventional monetary policy reinforce each other.

This development of capitalism went hand in hand with difficult conditions on the labor market for employees. Increased by the crisis, the employment situation in the current economic situation is largely characterized by precarious and informal work as well as long-term unemployment. On the other hand, the remaining employees are under increasing pressure. a. in the form of lower wages, falling savings and growing debt. The need to earn a secure income has made workers highly vulnerable to exploitative working conditions.

Platform Capitalism (pp. 36–92)

The second chapter, Platform Capitalism , deals with the question of the extent to which capitalism is subject to change as a result of the financial crisis. The progressive capitalism of the 21st century - this is the core of its transformation according to Srnicek - is centered on the extraction and use of a special raw material: data . These are obtained from the activities of users and can be used in a variety of ways. What is new is that data-based technology and communication has become very cheap and easy in the 21st century. In addition, an unprecedented mass of data is available. Data is used, for example, to optimize production processes or to view customer preferences. This has made them a central resource for companies and capitalism. They gained relevance primarily through the spread of the Internet and the increasing dependence of companies on digital communication. However, traditional business models are not very suitable for extracting and using data. That is why a new and powerful business model emerged: the platform. Platforms enable the monopolization, extraction, analysis, use and sale of data and are, according to Srnicek, a new type of company and the ideal business model for the extraction and control of data. Numerous companies are already integrating platforms into their business models, including Google , Facebook and Amazon .

Platforms act as a digital infrastructure that enables two or more groups to interact. They position themselves as intermediaries who bring different users together: customers, advertisers, service providers, producers, suppliers and physical objects. The only requirement for platforms is digital interaction. The decisive advantage over traditional business models is that a platform positions itself between the users. As a result, it also acts as the reason on which users are active and thus data is generated. This gives platforms privileged access to this data. The tendency for more and more industries to put their services and interactions online promotes the development of platforms.

Platforms are characterized by the production of network effects , their natural tendency to monopolize and the use of cross-subsidization . A platform usually presents itself to its users as a pure interaction surface. Behind this, however, there are numerous rules that are set by the platform owners and that determine the products, services or interaction options of the users according to the interests of the platform owners. Platforms therefore not only have exclusive access to data, but also control and control options over their users and their interactions. Owning a platform essentially means owning software and hardware. For capitalism, this development means above all the concentration of property. Platforms are not only in possession of data or information, but also become the owners of society's infrastructure. This development points to an important shift in how capitalist corporations operate. Digital technology enabled platforms to emerge as a means of guiding and controlling the industry. They have also caused a shift from products to services.

Srnicek presents different platform types and shows how diverse data is used by companies to generate income. However, the collection of immense amounts of data is central to everyone and the platform itself offers the ideal tool for this. A company often combines several types, so distinctions are of an analytical nature.

Advertising Platforms

Advertising platforms concentrate on advertising as a source of income and are currently the most successful type of platform with high revenues and significant profits. They also laid the foundation for the new platform business model. Although data is used to improve services for customers and users, it does not generate any income. Paid services, in turn, risk losing the users who are the basis of every success. In order to be able to offer users free services, thereby binding them and creating network effects, advertising platforms sell targeted advertising space to advertisers and in this way secure their source of income.

The key to financial gains is not just the data collection, but above all the analysis of the data obtained, i. H. processed data. Advertisers are interested in data that gives them insights into what consumers want or brings them together with likely consumers. Advertising platforms therefore do not sell personalized data per se, but rather the promise that the platform's software will bring advertisers together with suitable users if necessary. Accordingly, revenue is generated by obtaining data from online activities of users, analyzing this data and auctioning off advertising space to advertisers.

The largest platforms of this type are currently Google and Facebook, whose largest source of income is advertising. In the first quarter of 2016, Google generated 89% of its income from the sale of advertising space, Facebook even 96.6%.

Critics see this type of platform as a threat to free labor. They complain that the users of an advertising platform are exploited as unpaid workers who produce goods (data and content) that are sold by companies or the platforms to advertisers and other interested parties.

Cloud platforms

Cloud platforms such as Platform as a Service and Infrastructure as a Service are platforms that build a basic infrastructure for the digital economy and e-commerce . This can then be lent to others for profit, while they collect data for their own purposes in parallel. The best-known example of a cloud platform is Amazon . Amazon has won millions of customers through cross-subsidization. These are attracted and bound by fast and cheap delivery, but this service is unprofitable for Amazon itself. Due to the increasing number of users, the internal need to handle the company's increasingly complex logistics grew quickly. This resulted in Amazon Web Services (AWS) in 2006 , an initially internal platform that makes it possible to cope with growing logistics. In addition to using it for its own purposes, AWS now rents its services to other companies via cloud computing . These, in turn, do not have to invest time or money in developing their own software or hardware, but can rent the required IT infrastructure on demand. Cloud platforms are generally used on an as-needed basis and follow the logic of a subscription . For the leasing platform, owning the infrastructure necessary for other industries means an extremely powerful and profitable position. Ultimately, cloud platforms enable many IT departments in a company to be outsourced. This process displaces IT specialists and often enables their work to be automated .

Further examples of cloud platforms are Google , Microsoft , IBM and Adobe Inc.

Industrial Platforms

Since data acquisition, storage and analysis have become increasingly cheaper, platforms have found their way into traditional manufacturing . The idea that every component in the production process can communicate with assembly machines and other components without human supervision is already being pursued and tried to be implemented by the Internet of Things (IoT). In Germany, this process is called Industry 4.0 . The aim is to optimize production, increase efficiency and reduce costs. The implementation of the components of the IoT requires a common communication standard to ensure interoperability . Industrial platforms are used here, which serve as a basic framework for connecting sensors and actuators , factories and suppliers, producers and consumers, software and hardware. Industrial platforms build hardware and software and thus provide the tools to implement the IoT in industry. In contrast to cloud platforms, industrial platforms are less generic and convey expertise in the production area. Positioned as intermediaries between factories, consumers and app developers, industrial platforms are ideally placed to monitor a significant portion of global manufacturing.

Traditional production companies such as General Electric (GE) and Siemens serve as an example. They developed their own industrial platforms Predix and MindSphere and thus provide standards for smart manufacturing and the management of the industrial Internet.

Product Platforms

Product platforms are a new type of on-demand platforms that offer physical or intangible goods as a service. The stagnation of wages and the decline in savings in recent years and decades have contributed to the success of product platforms.

An example of this type of platform is the car sharing company Zipcar , which offers the rental of its own cars as a service. The music industry is now also dominated by on-demand platforms. Numerous music providers such as Spotify or Pandora offer the music product in the form of on-demand streaming and do not generate their income by selling CDs or other physical music carriers like previous providers, but through subscriptions. Now, in the digital music industry, more profits are made from the subscription model than from music downloads.

In addition to software and consumer goods, on-demand platforms also operate manufactured goods and consumer goods. The three large manufacturers of jet engines for aircraft, Rolls-Royce , GE and Pratt & Whitney , for example, are now pursuing the model of goods as a service, since the classic model (building an engine and then selling it to an airline) has low margins and high competition was connected in the market. Today the engines are no longer sold to airlines, but fees are charged for the use and deployment of the engines. In return, the manufacturers guarantee maintenance and the provision of replacement parts.

As with all types of platforms, data is also immensely important for product platforms. For example, engines are equipped with sensors and large amounts of data are collected in this way. In addition to our own product optimization, these are used to secure competitive advantages over competitors and to block those who want to enter the market.

Lean Platforms

In addition to product platforms, Lean Platforms are another type of on-demand platform whose development has been booming since the end of the financial crisis. With this type, too, data becomes important in order to assert oneself against competitors, because it is the primary means of competition. Lean platforms, which Srnicek includes companies like Uber and Airbnb , are trying to establish themselves as the platform on which users, customers and workers can meet. They are slim because, unlike product platforms, they seem to have no goods and therefore no capital: neither Uber owns cars, nor Airbnb owns their own accommodations. However, such companies own the platform of software and data analytics and thus the most important capital. They are also characterized by strong outsourcing, a trend that began in the 1970s. What remains is control over the platform, which in turn enables a monopoly. Lean Platforms employees are less employees than independent contractors or freelancers , which means huge savings in labor costs for companies. Control is still exercised through reputation systems. In this way, Lean Platforms support informal and precarious work and move them online, accompanied by ubiquitous surveillance.

The fact that there are numerous and well-educated employees of Lean Platforms is mainly due to the fact that the phase after the financial crisis did not produce any new jobs and therefore many are dependent on any kind of work. Often this leads to involuntary self-employment, informal work or microtasking . Lean platforms also shift investment, maintenance, insurance and depreciation costs to their employees. Despite outsourcing all costs and low wages, Lean Platforms currently have low profitability and are reliant on investment. Much like the dot-com boom, growth in the lean platform sector is based on expectations of future profits, not actual returns. It is all the more important for these platforms to achieve a monopoly position in order to achieve profitability not only through outsourcing and wage cuts. Due to this and the general difficulty of generating sales, Srnicek diagnoses that Lean Platforms will not be able to last in the long term and are a temporary phenomenon.

Great Platform Wars (pp. 93–129)

In the third chapter, Great Platform Wars , Srnicek addresses current trends and challenges of platforms and describes forecasts. He also deals with the role competition plays in an economy that is increasingly dominated by monopolies. Data, network effects and path dependency represent hurdles to overcome a monopoly, but this does not mean the end of capitalist competition. Rather, the form of competition has changed. In essence, competitiveness is no longer determined solely by the criterion of a maximum difference between costs and prices. Data collection and analysis play a key role in how a company's competitiveness is assessed and evaluated. In order to remain competitive, platforms must therefore intensify the extraction, analysis and control of data and invest in their fixed assets.

Current tendencies result from the competitive dynamics that arise from the focus of platforms on data acquisition and the generation of network effects. On the one hand, the expansion of data acquisition and the expansion of the infrastructure required for it can be observed. In this context, the Consumer Internet of Things (CIoT) is becoming more and more important. Examples include a. Devices like Amazon Echo or Smart TVs . This trend towards increasing data collection means that companies are increasingly reaching the limits of what is socially and legally acceptable. Another trend for platforms is to be positioned as gatekeepers; H. filling key positions and thus ensuring competitiveness. Since users primarily interact with platforms via interfaces , they occupy a central mediating position and are of particular interest. For example, Google is gatekeeper because the search engine is used worldwide as the primary interface to get into the rest of the internet. A third dominant trend is the establishment of locked systems, which grants exclusive data access for platforms and outperforms competitors. By including users and their data through various measures, a dependency is created in this way. Apple is a leading example because it designs all of its services and devices to be highly interdependent, thereby blocking alternatives. Facebook, Amazon and Co. are also striving to set up a self-contained system that users do not have to leave at any time. As a result, a shift from the open network to increasingly closed apps can be observed. With the spread of the smartphone, users are increasingly interacting with the Internet through apps and no longer through websites. Srnicek thinks it is conceivable that this development of capitalist competition will lead to a fragmentation of the Internet.

Despite many changes, there are still current challenges for the economy and companies, which are still integrated into a system of competition and profitability: The production sector in particular is still struggling with the global problem of overcapacity . Lean platforms, on the other hand, have to create a sustainable source of dynamism and are not very steadfast in economic crises. Just like advertising platforms, which are in a precarious situation due to their strong dependence on advertising income. The challenge for these platforms is to replace declining revenues due to the decreasing importance of advertising with alternative sources of income and the development of new means. For example, a massive expansion of micropayments or a return to core business combined with the abandonment of cross-subsidies are conceivable .

Insofar as these tendencies continue to advance, Srnicek predicts that platforms will continue to expand, consolidate their monopoly power and accumulate immense wealth. Platforms extend further and further into the digital infrastructure and create a dependency of society on itself. In this future scenario, existing inequalities in terms of income and wealth are reproduced in inequalities of access. To counteract the monopolistic tendencies, the establishment of cooperative platforms would be conceivable. However, like the control of platforms by the state, this measure remains unimaginable and minimal. Rather than just planning to regulate platforms, public platforms could be created that are people-owned and controlled and that serve as public utilities. Ultimately, however, all efforts must take into account the existence of platforms.

Reception of the book

Platform Capitalism has received more attention since its publication and is largely received positively. On the one hand, the book is rated positively because of its neutrality. According to Steven Craig Hickman, Srnicek is neither polemical, highly critical, nor judgmental. On the other hand, despite the brevity of the book, the author manages to explain all the relevant economic trends and their backgrounds and thus provides the reader with basic knowledge about the digital economy and new technologies. However, the book is more of a general summary of which platforms work how and focuses on individual companies. The book does not offer a detailed examination of the current economic situation and lacks deeper criticism. It does not contain any tension or surprises, but offers an informed view of the historical and contemporary economic situation as well as digital actors and companies.

In an online article by the taz , Fabian Ebeling describes the book as “demanding, sober, a good inventory.” The red thread and the high information density on a few pages are positively evoked, but this also requires increased attention from the reader and affects some Make the argumentation clear and understandable. Also McKenzie Wark emphasizes positive that the book offers a compelling picture of the current economic situation and praises its detail. Bruce Robinson, on the other hand, criticizes Srnicek for not addressing the technology itself and its social consequences enough and that the book therefore contributes little to the discussion about the implications for work. It lacks an important dimension that can have a significant impact on the future of platform capitalism. Robinson Srnicek's typology of platforms that u. a. enables a distinction between the application of the business model and the use of data. All in all, the book therefore offers a good introduction to contemporary capitalism and its dynamics and shines with an extensive and up-to-date bibliography. However, it is too short to fulfill its own goal of giving an economic history of capitalism and digital technology.

Claude Forthomme writes: "Soberly titled“ Platform Capitalism ”, it is pleasingly short (120 pages) and to the point. In a straightforward, non academic style, it provides a sedate, well thought-out analysis."

Controversies and criticism on platform capitalism

With his book, Srnicek is contributing to a subject that is currently much discussed but still poorly defined. Because even if there are currently no uniform definitions of content, the terms platform capitalism and platform are increasingly used. There is currently a real boom in platforms and more and more companies want to reinvent themselves as such. Some prominent critics see platform capitalism as a profound change in many areas of the economy and in how goods and services are produced, shared, and delivered. Instead of the conventional model in which individual companies compete for customers, there is a new model that is apparently flat and participatory for the consumer: what previously required a number of institutions is now possible for the individual with their smartphone. Above all, criticism is leveled at the fact that companies abuse their status as a platform that enables them, for example, to circumvent laws, avoid taxes or reject lawsuits. They cross more and more borders and reach into private spheres. In addition, the large, well-known platforms are monopolies that are growing inexorably due to network effects and leave little room for alternatives and are therefore gaining more and more power and influence. Proponents, however, argue that only a pronounced monopoly position enables massive investments in innovations and further development.

Platforms are often seen as a manifestation of far-reaching capitalist transformations that are becoming a permanent feature of the global economy. This emerging business model is a type of socio-technical intermediary and capitalist business organization. Platforms are often perceived primarily in their role in the worsening of working conditions and the increase in precarious employment. However, there are also doubts about the sustainability of the platform business model in general and its ability to generate revenue and income. In addition, there is a danger that destructive competition will develop among the platforms that are striving for monopoly.

Sascha Lobo describes platform capitalism as a current trend, which is more often discussed in current discussions under the collective term sharing economy . However, the sharing economy is only one aspect of a new digital economic order that is associated with offensive disruption . Lobo criticizes the euphemistic use and handling of this. Companies that act as platforms in a sharing economy and see themselves as part of it, aggressively pursue the goal of power alone, which they disguise under the term of the sharing economy. In fact, this strategy has little to do with sharing and more to do with having sole control of the market, which is about not just being better than your competitors, but taking them off. Platforms disguise themselves in their function as meta-dealers who determine the rules and control access and do much more than simply shift the market into the digital area: “The decisive further development, however, is: the conventional marketplace usually carries supply and demand between customers and entrepreneurs. A platform, on the other hand, brings customers and X together. And because platforms define every detail of their business processes, make them technically manageable and control them, X can be anything and everyone, from private individuals to billions of companies. […] By definition, platform capitalism dissolves the boundary between professional offerings and amateurish offerings of opportunity. ” According to Lobo, this transformation should not be assessed negatively per se, but the lack of political and social preparation appears to be problematic in this context this development: a lack of regulation by monopolies and the change in the definition of work, which can sometimes lead to the undermining of labor rights and dumping wages .

Legal situation of Uber worldwide

In these and other critical contexts, the Uber and AirBnb platforms are mentioned again and again. As a prime example of a new economy, a number of criticisms are directed at these companies, as they restrict equal access to mobility and living space, pose security risks and circumvent taxes and labor rights. For these reasons, Uber in particular is facing legal problems in many countries.

Differentiation from the Industry 4.0 platform

Platforms, as described by Srnicek, are to be differentiated in terms of content from the Industry 4.0 platform operating in Germany . While Srnicek's platforms are companies that pursue a data-based business model in order to generate financial profits, the Industry 4.0 platform is a joint project, which is represented by representatives from business, science, associations, trade unions and politics Federal Minister for Economic Affairs and Energy Brigitte Zypries and Federal Minister for Education and Research Johanna Wanka . In contrast to corporate platforms, this project does not aim at profitability or data collection, but researches in the context of Industry 4.0 , its implementation in Germany and in the world of work. In addition, the Industrie 4.0 platform provides recommendations for action for actors and users and initiates suitable standards in the industry. The aim is to “secure and expand Germany's leading international position in the manufacturing industry. It wants to drive the upcoming digital structural change and create the necessary uniform and reliable framework conditions ” .

According to Roland Berger (company) , a consulting firm commissioned by the Federal Minister for Economic Affairs and Energy , it is said that many companies would not survive without Industry 4.0, but that the conversion will increase profitability. This raises the question of whether this state intervention through Platform Industry 4.0 is not in the continuity of platform capitalism, and thus also in the continuity of restructuring through platforms to remain profitable.

History of the book

Platform Capitalism was created in 2016 following a collaborative work with Alex Williams ( Inventing the Future: Postcapitalism and a World Without Work ) in 2015. The idea for the book arose from Srnicek's interest and research in the field of the emerging digital economy. With the book he aims to create a broader understanding of the novelty of companies like Google and of the impact digital platforms (can) have on the economy.

Srnicek saw a deficiency in the current literature on this topic: economic aspects relating to property and profitability are neglected and the economic context and the imperatives of a capitalist system are neglected. Other works, on the other hand, investigate precisely these emerging economic trends, but present them as sui generis and separate from their own history. Srnicek wanted to counter this deficiency and offer a different approach that takes the history of capitalism as an explanatory factor into account. In the book he writes: "The present book aims to supplement these other perspectives by giving an economic history of capitalism and digital technology, while recognizing the diversity of economic forms and the competitive tensions inherent in the contemporary economy." In a lecture at Goldsmiths In 2017, Srnicek went on to say that with the book he wanted to contribute to the current discussion about platforms and, within and for himself, gain clarity about what platforms are and how they are to be classified in the economic system. Because in addition to their perception as political or cultural actors, they are rarely recognized as economic actors.

Following on from Platform Capitalism , Srnicek is currently continuing his research in the field of the digital economy and expanding it by examining the political economy of artificial intelligence and its influence on the power dynamics of capitalism.

About the author

Nick Srnicek has been a lecturer in digital economics at King's College in London since 2017 and teaches there in particular in the field of digital humanities . His education included the subjects of psychology, philosophy and international politics. In 2013 he completed his PhD in International Relations at the London School of Economics and Political Science . Among other things, he has already taught at the University of Westminster , University of London and University College London and worked as an editor for a specialist journal for international relations. His research interests are in the topics of platform economics, the political economy of artificial intelligence, anti-labor politics and Marxist economics. Some of his previous work has been translated into numerous languages ​​and discussed in prestigious media such as the New York Times and The Guardian .

expenditure

further reading

  • Arno Rolf, Arno Sagawe: The core of Google and other spider webs: the architecture of the digital society . UVK Verlagsgesellschaft, Konstanz 2015.
  • Daniel Schallmo et al. (Ed.): Digital Transformation of Business Models: Basics, Instruments and Best Practices . Springer Gabler, Wiesbaden 2017.
  • Erik Brynjolfsson, Andrew McAfee: The second machine age: how the next digital revolution will change our lives . Plassen, Kulmbach 2014.
  • Jeremy Rifkin: The Zero Marginal Cost Society. The Internet of Things, the collaborative commons and the retreat of capitalism . Fischer paperback, Frankfurt am Main 2016.
  • Jürgen Kocka: History of Capitalism . CHBeck, Munich 2017.
  • Manfred Bruhn, Karsten Hadwich (Ed.): Services 4.0: Business Models - Value Creation - Transformation. Springer Gabler, Wiesbaden 2017.
  • Nick Srnicek, Alex Williams: Inventing the Future: Postcapitalism and a World Without Work . Verso, London 2015.
  • Paul Mason: Post-capitalism: Outlines of a Coming Economy . Suhrkamp, ​​Berlin 2016.
  • Stefan Kirchner, Jürgen Beyer: The platform logic as digital market organization. How digitization loosens links between companies and transforms markets . Journal of Sociology 2016.
  • Ulrich Dolata , Jan-Felix Schrape : Collectivity and Power on the Internet . Springer VS, Wiesbaden 2018 (published 2017). ISBN 978-3-658-17909-0 .

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Nick Srnicek: capitalism Platform . Cambridge, UK 2016, ISBN 978-1-5095-0487-9 , pp. 1-8 .
  2. ↑ Nick Srnicek: capitalism Platform . Cambridge, UK 2016, ISBN 978-1-5095-0487-9 , pp. 6 .
  3. ↑ Nick Srnicek: capitalism Platform . Cambridge, UK 2016, ISBN 978-1-5095-0487-9 , pp. 24 .
  4. ↑ Vogel Communications Group GmbH & Co. KG: Industry 4.0 and the Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) - a classification . ( industry-of-things.de [accessed on November 21, 2018]).
  5. ^ Book Review: Platform Capitalism by Nick Srnicek . In: LSE Review of Books . June 5, 2017 ( lse.ac.uk [accessed November 21, 2018]).
  6. ↑ Nick Srnicek: A Review of Platform Capitalism . In: Southern Nights . January 7, 2017 ( wordpress.com [accessed November 21, 2018]).
  7. ^ Delete Your Account: On the Theory of Platform Capitalism - Los Angeles Review of Books . In: Los Angeles Review of Books . ( lareviewofbooks.org [accessed November 21, 2018]).
  8. ^ Book Review - Platform Capitalism by Nick Srnicek . In: Information Matters . December 29, 2017 ( informationmatters.net [accessed November 21, 2018]).
  9. ↑ Nick Srnicek: A Review of Platform Capitalism . In: Techno Occulture . January 7, 2017 ( wordpress.com [accessed September 25, 2017]).
  10. ^ Fabian Ebeling: Book about digital economy: All on the platform . In: The daily newspaper: taz . March 3, 2017, ISSN  0931-9085 ( taz.de [accessed November 21, 2018]).
  11. ^ Fabian Ebeling: Book about digital economy: All on the platform . In: The daily newspaper: taz . March 3, 2017, ISSN  0931-9085 ( taz.de [accessed September 25, 2017]).
  12. ^ Wiley: Platform Capitalism - Nick Srnicek. Retrieved October 13, 2017 .
  13. ^ Platform Capitalism - Review by Bruce Robinson - Marx & Philosophy Review of Books. Retrieved September 25, 2017 (English).
  14. ^ Platform Capitalism: The Economy of the Future? - Impactor . In: Impakter . April 25, 2017 ( impakter.com [accessed September 25, 2017]).
  15. ^ Evgeny Morozov: Where Uber and Amazon rule: welcome to the world of the platform . In: The Observer . June 6, 2015, ISSN  0029-7712 ( theguardian.com [accessed September 20, 2017]).
  16. ^ Paul Langley, Andrew Leyshon: Platform capitalism: the intermediation and capitalization of digital economic circulation. Ed .: Finance and Society 2016. S. 15-17 .
  17. ↑ a b c Sascha Lobo: SPON - The man-machine: On the way to the dumping hell . In: Spiegel Online . September 3, 2014 ( spiegel.de [accessed September 20, 2017]).
  18. ↑ NDR: "Silicon Valley has an asshole problem". Retrieved September 25, 2017 .
  19. ↑ Stefan Schultz: Ethics of the Share Economy: Instructions for the Uber-People . In: Spiegel Online . September 2, 2014 ( spiegel.de [accessed September 25, 2017]).
  20. ↑ Srnicek, Nick ,: Platform capitalism . Cambridge, UK 2016, ISBN 978-1-5095-0487-9 , pp. 6 and 48 .
  21. ↑ Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy: Background. Retrieved September 19, 2017 .
  22. ↑ Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy: What is Industry 4.0? Retrieved September 19, 2017 .
  23. ↑ Forwarding notice. Retrieved April 6, 2019 .
  24. ↑ Copyright Haufe-Lexware GmbH & Co KG - all rights reserved: Four factors why Industry 4.0 doubles profitability. Retrieved April 6, 2019 .
  25. ↑ Roland Berger GmbH: COO Insights 2016: Industry 4.0 Industry 4.0? It's this way! In: Thomas Rinn Roland Berger GmbH (Ed.): Think: act . Munich December 13, 2016.
  26. ^ A b c King's College London - Dr Nick Srnicek. Retrieved November 3, 2017 (UK English).
  27. ↑ Srnicek, Nick ,: Platform capitalism . Cambridge, UK 2016, ISBN 978-1-5095-0487-9 , pp. 2 .
  28. ↑ Srnicek, Nick ,: Platform capitalism . Cambridge, UK 2016, ISBN 978-1-5095-0487-9 , pp. 2 f .
  29. ↑ Goldsmiths Art: Nick Srnicek • Platform Capitalism. April 4, 2017. Retrieved November 3, 2017 .