Rescued by Rover

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Movie
Original title Rescued by Rover
Country of production United Kingdom
Publishing year 1905
length 6 minutes
Rod
Director Lewin Fitzhamon
script Margaret Hepworth
production Cecil Hepworth
occupation
  • Blair: Rover
  • Barbara Hepworth: Baby
  • Cecil Hepworth : Father
  • Margaret Hepworth: mother
  • May Clark : Nanny
  • Sebastian Smith: Soldier
  • Mrs. Sebastian Smith: Beggar

Rescued by Rover is a film by Lewin Fitzhamon from the year 1905 . The film, produced and marketed by Cecil Hepworth , is considered the first high point in British film history ; The story of the Collies Rover, who rescues a kidnapped baby, found numerous imitators and founded the genre of animal films. The film was made with minimal financial outlay, but became an international success with 395 copies sold .

For Rescued by Rover , the basic theme of the Chase film, the filmed car chase , was combined with a dramatic kidnapping story. The story, told over 21 shots , follows a rhythmic pattern of repetitions and variations and is conveyed without additional aids such as subtitles . Thanks to the innovative film editing , the camera work chosen from a narrative point of view and the combination of exterior and artistically illuminated interior shots, Rescued by Rover contributed to the development of narrative cinema and influenced filmmakers such as DW Griffith .

action

The film starts with a close-up of the dog Rover lying on a pillow next to the baby. In the following shot, the nanny is out and about in a park with the baby. The two meet a beggar who is briskly rejected by the nanny. When the nanny is distracted by her friend, a soldier, the beggar takes the opportunity, reaches into the stroller and takes the baby.

In the family home, the nanny desperately tells the landlady about the loss of the child. Rover, who watched the confession, jumps up and goes in search of the kidnapped baby. He runs through the streets, swims through a river and reaches a workers' estate where he goes door to door until he finds the right house. There he discovers the beggar woman who brought the baby to her hiding place in the attic and took his clothes off.

Rover rushes home and moves the child's father to follow him. The father runs after Rover and finally arrives at the hijacker's hiding place. He takes the baby against the weak resistance of the woman and leaves the attic together with Rover. The beggar is satisfied that she has at least left the child's clothes and takes a sip from the liquor bottle with relish.

The family is finally reunited at home. The mother happily takes her child in her arms.

Production history

Cecil Hepworth

The short film Rescued by Rover , published in July 1905, exemplifies the transition from the “primitive years” of film history to the increasingly professionally organized production and marketing of films in a rapidly growing film industry . Cecil Hepworth had already witnessed the birth of the new medium of film while working for the film pioneers Birt Acres and Charles Urban . From 1899 he turned himself Films and sold them in his company Hepworth and Co . His early successes included recordings of Queen Victoria's funeral in February 1901 (Funeral of Queen Victoria) and the 1903 film Alice in Wonderland , which at that time was the longest British film with a running time of around twelve minutes.

In 1904, Cecil Hepworth separated from his previous business partners and founded the Hepworth Manufacturing Company in Walton-on-Thames . Hepworth, who previously acted not only as a producer but also as a director, camera operator and actor, gathered new employees and began to concentrate on running the company. Such was Rescued by Rover , the last film in which he appeared in a major role on camera. Hepworth also largely withdrew as a director and left work on the camera to employees such as Lewin Fitzhamon, who had moved from Robert W. Paul to the Hepworth Manufacturing Company in early 1905 .

Despite Hepworth's efforts to professionalize film production, Rescued by Rover was a “special family matter” . The scenario came from Cecil Hepworth's wife Margaret, and the entire Hepworth family starred in the film. The kidnapped baby was impersonated by eight-month-old Barbara Hepworth when his rescuer Rover kicked the family dog, the collie Blair. Blair had already appeared in a short scene two years earlier in Alice in Wonderland , where he was the focus of a film plot for the first time.

Several scenes of Rescued by Rover were filmed in front of the boathouse in Walton-on-Thames

May Clark, who played the nanny in Rescued by Rover , had also appeared as the heroine in Alice in Wonderland . Clark, however, was not a trained actress , but was one of Hepworth's close staff as a film editor . With Mr. and Mrs. Sebastian Smith, who appeared as the nanny's boyfriend and as the kidnapper, Hepworth had employed two professional actors for the first time. They received half a guinea each for their appearances in Rescued by Rover , the fee already including the travel expenses from London to Walton-on-Thames. According to film historian Kemp R. Niver , the engagement of Mr. and Mrs. Smith is said to have been the first employment of paid film actors in British film history.

The interior shots took place in the film studio that Cecil Hepworth had operated in Walton-on-Thames since 1903. According to his own statements, Hepworth personally designed the sets . The exterior shots were taken on the streets of Walton-on-Thames and on a canal on the outskirts. The total film budget came to £ 7 13 s 9 d ; This made Rescued by Rover the cheapest film ever made according to the Guinness Book of Records .

Contemporary marketing and impact of the film

The Hepworth Manufacturing Company logo used until 1908

Rescued by Rover turned out to be Hepworth's greatest commercial success since Funeral of Queen Victoria . Since in 1905, unlike in France or the United States, there was no systematic film distribution in the United Kingdom, copies of the film were sold directly to the projectionists . Hepworth sold a total of 395 copies of the film, which - at a standard price of 6d per foot and a length of 425 feet - sold for £ 10 12s 6d each. The actual number of existing copies is likely to have been even greater, as some film dealers in London made and resold duplicates of the copies they had acquired.

The demand for Rescued by Rover was so great that the original negative quickly wore out and the film had to be re-shot twice. The remakes differed only minimally from the original, but the first version of Rescued by Rover is considered the most effective. Rescued by Rover was sold not only in the UK but also abroad. In the United States , it was marketed by the American Mutoscope and Biograph Company , which had filed for US copyright on the film on August 19, 1905 .

Contemporary newspaper reviews were very impressed with the film. The Leicester Daily Post in November 1905 praised Hepworth's production as "enchanting" and "completely new in concept and execution" . After a demonstration in Greymouth, New Zealand in September 1906, Rescued by Rover was described as a "masterpiece" .

Thanks to the long-running popularity of Rescued by Rover - the film stayed in circulation for at least four or five years - animal on-screen heroes became fashionable. In April 1906, the published in Philadelphia -based film producer Siegmund Lubin with Rescued by Carlo a remake . In 1908 the Briton James Williamson put a dog at the center of a film trilogy, of which only the short film £ 100 Reward has survived. In 1910 Vitagraph started a series of short films with Jean, the Vitagraph Dog , who appeared alongside Florence Turner .

Filmmakers' interest in animal stories wasn't just limited to dogs. In July 1907, the British industry journal Kinematograph Weekly quipped that turtles and hedgehogs could soon be seen as new screen heroes. One of the most avid producers of such films with animal protagonists was the Hepworth Manufacturing Company , who wanted to replicate the success of Rescued by Rover . Lewin Fitzhamon in particular, the director of Rescued by Rover , made numerous films according to the given scheme. In 1906 he created an adaptation of Anna Sewell's Black Beauty with his own horse as the main actor. In 1907, the Collie Blair and Fitzhamons horse appeared together in Dumb sagacity front of the camera, a year later was allowed Blair now three years of Barbara Hepworth in The Dog Outwits the kidnappers again save and out of the hands of a kidnapper while even his driving skills in a car to prove . In addition to dogs and horses, Fitzhamon also turned pigeons ( Dumb Comrades , 1910) and even an elephant ( Snatched from a Terrible Death , 1908) into heroes of dramatic stories.

Kinematograph Weekly had already commented critically on the development in 1907 and highlighted both the special quality and the role model character of Rescued by Rover : “Since the days of Saved by Rover [ sic !], Many films have appeared with animals as the main characters; but we doubt that Hepworth's famous work has yet been achieved, with the possible exception of his Black Beauty . ” Rescued by Rover's fame continued to have an impact in 1914 when the Hepworth Manufacturing Company announced the death of“ Rover ”in a press release and reminded of the importance of the dog as the first animal actor in a feature film.

Film analysis

Themes and motifs

Paintings like Edwin Landseer's Saved from 1856 shaped the image of the dog as a self-sacrificing helper

With the collie “Rover”, an animal was the focus of a narrative film for the first time. In earlier films, animals were only shown as exhibits, such as the boxing kangaroo in one of the first films by Berlin film pioneer Max Skladanowsky or the lions filmed by Alexandre Promio for the Lumière brothers in the London Zoo ( Lions, Jardin zoologique, Londres , 1896). In Rescued by Rover , on the other hand, the animal was no longer an object, but an actor in a film. The portrayal of Rover as a faithful companion and self-sacrificing helper was in the tradition of literature and painting of the 19th century. Anecdotes about dogs rescuing children and convicting criminals formed a popular genre in the UK during the Victorian Age .

The film scholar Charles Musser sees in the film a representative of a genre of kidnapping films founded in 1904 by Gaumont's The Child Stealers , which have in common that a “ gypsy or some other outcast ” (German: “Gypsy or some other pariah”) is a young one child of a respectable ( " respectable steals") family of upper middle class and abused. At the same time as Fitzhamon's Rescued by Rover , Edison produced Stolen by Gypsies under the direction of Edwin S. Porter . Some dictionaries also refer to the figure of the beggar in Rescued by Rover as “gypsy”, others only as a beggar. The film scholar Ian Christie explicitly does not classify the character as “gypsy” because of their place of residence, but this does not prevent them from being associated with alleged behavior by “gypsies”. The image of the child-kidnapping "gypsies" was common in Victorian literature (see also the history of antiziganism ) . The Encyclopedia of British Film names Rescued by Rover as representative of a demonization of “gypsies” in the early film as “ drunks, thieves and child-abusers ” (German: “ Drunks, thieves and child abusers ”), who “support the stability of the bourgeois family Edwardian Age ” endangered.

In addition to the genre-typical motifs of the kidnapping film, Rescued by Rover corresponds to the conventions of the Chase film for large parts of the plot . The chase film, one above usually several settings filmed chase, applies, according to the film historian Tom Gunning as the first truly narrative genre of early film history and marks the transition from pointing cinema of attractions for narrative film. The genre emerged in 1903 with the British crime films A Daring Daylight Burglary and Desperate Poaching Affray and contributed to the development of longer and narrative more complex films. It was precisely the British film pioneers' preference for outdoor shots that made the Chase film possible.

In Rescued by Rover , the chase motif dominates most of the film's exterior shots. Rover first follows the trail of the kidnapped child, then rushes back home and finally leads the father to the child. Both cross the picture and thus enable a quick change of scene . The successive sequence of locations from Rover's bourgeois home to the kidnapper's home and back symbolizes a social decline and ascent. The authentic portrayal of these locations has a certain documentary value for the modern viewer . For the film scholar Thomas Elsaesser , the views of the working-class districts of Walton-on-Thames “have their own charm” . Richard Armstrong even sees this as a forerunner of social realism . On the other hand, the representation of the various social classes corresponds to the moral concepts of Victorianism.

Staging

Opening shot of
Rescued by Rover
Director: Lewin Fitzhamon, 1905
Link to the picture
(Please note copyrights )

Even if the basic “grammar” of the film language was already developed at the time Rescued by Rover was produced, the complexity of its staging means that the film can be regarded as the completion of this development phase in early film history. The assembly of the exterior shots in particular turned out to be particularly innovative.

The interior shots, on the other hand, were still shaped by the popular tableau style of the early years, in which an immobile camera captures a complete section of the action from a long shot without the scene being divided into individual shots. Tableaus are particularly recognizable in the first and last shot of Rescued by Rover . The film starts with a close-up of Rover and the baby. This setting was detached from the rest of the plot, but served to bring the main characters closer to the viewer. The film historian Noël Burch coined the term “ emblematic setting” for this. The final scene of Rescued by Rover , which shows the united family, can also be seen as an emblem that marks the happy outcome of the plot.

While the space captured by the camera is very limited in the indoor shots, the outdoor shots have a perspective depth that is reinforced by the diagonal movement of the figures. The movement continues over several shots, on the one hand a spatial discontinuity is overcome, on the other hand, according to Elsaesser, the invisible cut creates the illusion of a continuously advancing time. As a result, the individual shots lose their independence, which was common in earlier films that were composed of individual tableaus. In 1903, Hepworth had sold the individual scenes from Alice in Wonderland separately and cataloged them under consecutive numbers.

Follow the settings in Rescued by Rover :
in the park: A: 1st camera position; B: 2nd camera position
Family home: C: Close-up, living room; D: long shot, living room; E: father's study; F: outside shot, window
on the move: G: street; H: street corner; I: At the river,
the beggar's house: J: Exterior shot; K: Interior shot
The length of the bars corresponds to the length of the individual settings

Rescued by Rover consists of a total of 21 settings that were recorded in eleven different camera positions (setups) (see diagram above). The dramaturgy follows a rhythmic pattern of symmetrical repetitions and variations, whereby form and content fit together perfectly according to the film scholar Charles Barr. The pattern of attitudes corresponds to the classic structure of a drama: balance, disturbance of balance and restoration of balance. The two plot points that initiate the next act of the plot are marked in Rescued by Rover by the kidnapping of the baby at the end of the third shot and by the father's decision to follow Rover (15th shot).

According to the film historians Mast and Kawin, the systematic compilation of the individual scenes as well as the repetitions of locations result in a coherence of content that can be fully understood by the viewer even without subtitles or film explanations . While Rover keeps moving towards the camera in search of the kidnapped baby, he reverses his direction of movement when he walks back home for help. The viewer's understanding of the film montage reveals that the rover is running back; the individual shots are thus indexical . The director Lewin Fitzhamon dispenses with a complete repetition of the sequence of scenes. Due to the shortening of the action and the time, a so-called ellipse , no information is lost for the viewer, since the actions that are not shown result from what is shown. This increase in tempo creates more tension in the film as the plot progresses faster.

Camera work and lighting

Tension is also created by the choice of the location of the camera. The scene in the park was filmed from two different angles, which enabled the camera to better capture the baby robbery. In some shots the camera follows the protagonists with the help of a pan . The main purpose of the movement of the camera was to keep the action within the frame (with the consequence that the viewer sees the father board a boat to cross the river, although a bridge appears on the right edge of the picture). With the pan, Fitzhamon also achieved the effect that the audience felt even more connected to what was happening, as the camera took the position of the curious spectator who followed. So that the viewer could be at eye level with the protagonist in the street scenes in which Rover appeared, these shots were recorded from a deeper camera perspective , the view from below.

The interior shots, on the other hand, were all taken in normal view. In the scenes that took place in the beggar's house, imaginative lighting was tried out. Two side-mounted arc lamps simulated the sunlight falling through the attic windows, whereby the bright light and the cast shadows created a threatening atmosphere. The film historian Michael Chanan, on the other hand, sees a naturalistic staging in the lighting .

Film historical classification

Many film historians consider Rescued by Rover a prominent place in early film history. The historian Dan L. LeMahieu described it as the most important British film of its time. Compared to the films produced at the beginning of the decade, Rescued by Rover illustrates the progress in the development of cinematic language. Instead of the effect, the focus was on the plot. According to the English scholar Jörg Helbig , Rescued by Rover anticipated the development of the later popular narrative cinema.

With Rescued by Rover and the numerous follow-up films from the Hepworth Manufacturing Company , Cecil Hepworth created the basis for later animal feature films that followed the dramaturgy of the first film. For the film journalist Jonathan Burt, Rover was the prototype of the “omniscient animal” that helps his human family out of need. The film series with the German shepherd Rin Tin Tin , made in the early 1920s , but above all the stories about the Collie dog Lassie , who had made numerous appearances in film and television since 1943, were influenced by Rescued by Rover .

Porter, Hepworth and Griffith

Edwin S. Porter (left) and DW Griffith

Rescued by Rover occupies an important position between the films of the American filmmakers Edwin S. Porter and DW Griffith in the history of the development of narrative cinema . Porter's Life of an American Fireman and especially his international success The Great Train Robbery (both from 1903) influenced Hepworth in the development of the narrative structure. According to James Monaco, Hepworth exploited the possibilities of the cut better than the more famous American models. The importance of Rescued by Rover for British films is comparable to that of Porter's The Great Train Robbery for American films.

Similar to how Hepworth was influenced by Porter, Rescued by Rover inspired DW Griffith in his first directorial work. The early short films that Griffith made for Biograph from 1908 and that were to revolutionize the film world were similar in structure to Hepworth's production; especially The Adventures of Dollie , Griffith's first directorial work, was thematically and stylistically influenced by Rescued by Rover . Griffith adopted the principles of repetition and variation of individual settings and developed them further. With the parallel montage, Griffith also perfected a narrative device that the film scholar Charles Barr still misses at Rescued by Rover .

To what extent Hepworth had already recognized the possibilities for the representation of parallel actions is controversial in film studies. For the film editor and film lecturer Don Fairservice, Hepworth and Porter failed in this task. The film historians Geoffrey Macnab and Thomas Elsaesser, on the other hand, recognize a first attempt at parallel montage in the first long scene in the attic, which is clearly visible to the viewer at the same time as Rover's search.

Significance for British film history

When discussing Cecil Hepworth's contribution to the development of narrative film, however, Don Fairservice asked himself to what extent he was responsible for the assembly of Rescued by Rover . Hepworth said he had no knowledge of the technique of film editing. It is unclear whether Lewin Fitzhamon, May Clark or Hepworth created the final version of Rescued by Rover with the groundbreaking scene transitions. It is obvious, however, that despite the success of the film, Hepworth had made no effort to further develop the film techniques used.

Instead, Hepworth focused on marketing his leading actor. According to Rachael Low, “Rover” can be considered the first by name of the British film star . The British film press ignored "Rovers" human players, the dog was according to Geoffrey Macnab the main attraction of Hepworth's films. In 1905, however, actors usually appeared unnamed, and it wasn't until 1910 that a film actress became a celebrity in the United States with the former "biograph girl" Florence Lawrence . At the same time, Hepworth became the first British filmmaker to recognize the attraction of movie stars to audiences and put Alma Taylor and Chrissie White at the center of his productions.

Hepworth, however, was unable to continue the success of Rescued by Rover . Neither he nor the members of the " School of Brighton ", who had made important contributions to the technical development of the film medium from 1896 to 1905, could keep up with the artistic development; the British film industry lost ground internationally from 1906. After the First World War , Cecil Hepworth was the last British film pioneer still active in the film business, but his productions looked hopelessly out of date.

Since the beginning of the 1910s, the British film industry had to face the supremacy of its US competitors in the domestic market. This has led to periodic crises in the film industry to this day. In this respect, Rescued by Rover is not only a “milestone in British film” , but according to Geoffrey Macnab marks “possibly the only point in film history when British cinema was undisputedly leading the world” .

literature

  • Charles Barr: Before Blackmail: Silent British Cinema . In: Robert Murphy (Ed.): The British Cinema Book . British Film Institute, London 2001, ISBN 0-85170-852-8 , pp. 11-19.
  • Ian Christie: Rescued by Rover (1905) . In: Sarah Barrow, John White (Eds.): Fifty Key British Films . Routledge , 2008, ISBN 978-0-415-43329-7 , pp. 3–7 ( google.de ).
  • Jörg Helbig: History of British Film . JB Metzler, Stuttgart 1999, ISBN 3-476-01510-6 .
  • Cecil M. Hepworth: Came the Dawn: Memories of a Film Pioneer . Phoenix House, London 1951.
  • Rachael Low: The History of British Film. Volume I: The History of the British Film 1896-1906 . Routledge, London 1997, ISBN 0-415-15451-0 .

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Denis Gifford: The British Film Catalog 1895-1970 . David & Charles, Newton Abbot 1973, ISBN 0-7153-5572-4 , No. 01107.
  2. ↑ a b c d Charles Barr: Before Blackmail: Silent British Cinema , p. 14.
  3. ↑ Cecil M. Hepworth: Came the Dawn , p. 66.
  4. ↑ Simon Brown: Alice in Wonderland (1903) . BFI Screenonline, accessed September 26, 2010.
  5. ↑ a b Cecil M. Hepworth: Came the Dawn . P. 67.
  6. ^ Kemp R. Niver: The First Twenty Years: A Segment of Film History . Locare Research Group, Los Angeles 1968, p. 94.
  7. ^ RW Paul, CM Hepworth, WG Barker: Before 1910: Kinematograph Experiences . In: Proceedings of the British Kinematograph Society . No. 38, 1936, pp. 1-16.
  8. ^ A b Rachael Low: The History of British Film. Volume I , p. 108.
  9. ^ Alan Russell, Norris D. McWhirter: The Guinness Book of Records 1988 . Guinness Publishing, Enfield 1987, ISBN 0-85112-868-8 , p. 100.
  10. ^ Rachael Low: The History of the British Film. Volume II: 1906-1914 . Routledge, London 1997, ISBN 0-415-15451-0 , p. 41.
  11. ↑ Cecil M. Hepworth: Came the Dawn , p. 69.
  12. ^ John Hawkridge: British Cinema from Hepworth to Hitchcock . In: Geoffrey Nowell-Smith (Ed.): The Oxford History of World Cinema . Oxford University Press, Oxford 1996. ISBN 0-19-874242-8 , p. 131.
  13. ↑ Kemp R. Niver : Motion Pictures From The Library of Congress Paper Print Collection 1894-1912 . University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles 1967, p. 212.
  14. ^ Leicester Daily Post , Nov. 28, 1905; quoted in David R. Williams: Early Film Criticism in Leicester . In: Cine Studies: The Journal of the Society for Film History Research . Vol. 1, No. 1, March 1906, p. 69.
  15. ^ The Montgomery Company . In: The Gray River Argus , September 27, 1906. Retrieved September 27, 2010.
  16. ^ Rachael Low: The History of the British Film. Volume II: 1906-1914 . Routledge, London 1997, ISBN 0-415-15451-0 , p. 42.
  17. ↑ Kinematograph Weekly , July 4, 1907; quoted in Geoffrey Macnab: Searching for Stars: Stardom and Screen Acting in British Cinema . Cassell, London 2000, ISBN 0-304-33351-4 , p. 3.
  18. ^ A b Rachael Low: The History of the British Film. Volume II: 1906-1914 . Routledge, London 1997, ISBN 0-415-15451-0 , p. 223.
  19. ↑ Kinematograph Weekly , September 26, 1907; quoted in Geoffrey Macnab: Searching for Stars: Stardom and Screen Acting in British Cinema . Cassell, London 2000, ISBN 0-304-33351-4 , p. 3.
  20. ^ Bioscope , August 26, 1914; quoted in Geoffrey Macnab: Searching for Stars: Stardom and Screen Acting in British Cinema . Cassell, London 2000, ISBN 0-304-33351-4 , p. 3.
  21. ^ Scott Curtis: animal pictures . In: Richard Abel (Ed.): Encyclopedia of Early Cinema . Routledge, Abington 2005, ISBN 0-415-23440-9 , pp. 35-37.
  22. ↑ Katharine Rogers: First Friend: A History of Dogs and Humans . St. Martin's Press, New York 2005, ISBN 0-312-33188-6 , p. 115.
  23. ^ Charles Musser: Before the Nickelodeon: Edwin S. Porter and the Edison Manufacturing Company . University of California Press, Berkeley 1991, ISBN 0-520-06986-2 , pp. 314-316.
  24. ↑ Christie, p. 7.
  25. ^ Deborah Epstein Nord: Gypsies and the British Imagination, 1807-1930 . Columbia University Press, New York 2006, ISBN 0-231-13704-4 , pp. 12-13.
  26. ^ Brian McFarlane: The Encyclopedia of British Film . Methuen, London 2003, ISBN 0-413-77301-9 , p. 277.
  27. ↑ Tom Gunning: The Cinema of Attraction: Early Films, Its Spectator and the Avant-Garde . In: Wanda Strauven (Ed.): The Cinema of Attractions Reloaded . Amsterdam University Press, Amsterdam 2006, ISBN 90-5356-944-8 , p. 386.
  28. ↑ Jonathan Auerbach: chase film . In: Richard Abel (Ed.): Encyclopedia of Early Cinema . Routledge, Abington 2005, ISBN 0-415-23440-9 , pp. 158-160.
  29. ^ Rachael Low: The History of British Film . Volume I, p. 47.
  30. ↑ a b c Thomas Elsaesser: Film history and early cinema: Archeology of a media change . edition text + kritik, Munich 2002, ISBN 3-88377-696-3 , pp. 83–84.
  31. ^ Richard Armstrong: Social Realism . BFI Screenonline, accessed September 26, 2010.
  32. ^ A b c Sarah Street: British National Cinema . Routledge, London 1997, ISBN 0-415-06735-9 , p. 35.
  33. ^ Charles Barr: Before Blackmail: Silent British Cinema , p. 12.
  34. ↑ Pam Cook: The Cinema Book . Pantheon Books, New York 1986, ISBN 0-394-74986-3 , p. 209.
  35. ^ Noël Burch: Life to those Shadows . University of California Press, Berkeley 1990, ISBN 0-520-07143-3 , pp. 193-196.
  36. ↑ a b Michael Chanan: The Dream that Kicks: The Prehistory and Early Years of Cinema in Britain . Routledge, London 1996, ISBN 0-415-11750-X , p. 255.
  37. ↑ Cecil M. Hepworth: Came the Dawn , p. 63.
  38. ^ A b Charles Barr: Before Blackmail: Silent British Cinema , p. 13.
  39. ^ Don Fairservice: Film Editing: History, Theory and Practice . Manchester University Press, Manchester 2001, ISBN 0-7190-5776-0 , p. 52.
  40. ↑ Gerald Mast, Bruce F. Kawin: A Short History of the Movies . Allyn and Bacon, Boston 2000, ISBN 0-205-29685-8 , p. 44.
  41. ^ Noël Burch: Life to those Shadows . University of California Press, Berkeley 1990, ISBN 0-520-07143-3 , p. 151.
  42. ^ Richard Howells: Visual Culture . Polity Press, Oxford 2003, ISBN 0-7456-2411-1 , p. 181.
  43. ^ A b c Don Fairservice: Film Editing: History, Theory and Practice . Manchester University Press, Manchester 2001, ISBN 0-7190-5776-0 , p. 53.
  44. ^ Richard Howells: Visual Culture . Polity Press, Oxford 2003, ISBN 0-7456-2411-1 , pp. 182-183.
  45. ↑ a b Jörg Helbig: History of British Film , p. 7.
  46. ↑ a b D. L. LEMAHIEU: A Culture for Democracy: Mass Communication and the Cultivated Mind in Britain Between the Wars . Clarendon Press, Oxford 1988, ISBN 0-19-820137-0 , p. 62.
  47. ^ Richard Howells: Visual Culture . Polity Press, Oxford 2003, ISBN 0-7456-2411-1 , pp. 179-180.
  48. ↑ Jonathan Burt: Animals in Film . Reaction Books, London 2002, ISBN 1-86189-131-8 , p. 115.
  49. ↑ James Monaco: Understanding Film: Art, Technology, Language, History and Theory of Film and the Media . Rowohlt, Reinbek bei Hamburg 2001, ISBN 3-499-60657-7 , p. 287.
  50. ↑ a b c Robert Shail: British Film Directors: A Critical Guide . Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh 2007, ISBN 978-0-7486-2230-6 , p. 95.
  51. ^ A b Geoffrey Macnab: Searching for Stars: Stardom and Screen Acting in British Cinema . Cassell, London 2000, ISBN 0-304-33351-4 , p. 2.
  52. ↑ Thomas Elsaesser: Early Cinema: Space, Frame, Narrative . BFI Publishing, London 1990, ISBN 0-85170-244-9 , p. 28.
  53. ↑ Cecil M. Hepworth: Came the Dawn , p. 136.
  54. ↑ Jörg Helbig: History of British Film , p. 8.
  55. ↑ Jörg Helbig: History of British Film , pp. 10–11.
  56. ^ Geoffrey Macnab: Films that make you feel good . In: The Independent , January 16, 2009. Retrieved September 26, 2010.
This article was added to the list of excellent articles on November 11, 2010 in this version .